Word Studies in the New Testament Volume 3 (M Vincent)
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL

LIST OF AUTHORS AND EDITIONS
IN ADDITION TO THOSE CITED IN VOLUMES I. AND II.
The names of a few works cited in the former volumes are repeated, because of their special bearing upon the writings of Paul.

Allen, Alexander V. G.: The Continuity of Christian Thought. Boston, 1884.

Abbott, Lyman: The Epistle of Paul to the Romans. New York, 1888.

Alexander, J. A.: The Psalms. Translated and Explained. New York, 1869.

Aeschylus: Ed. Paley: 4th edition. London, 1879.

Beet, Joseph Agar: A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. London, 1877.

Bingham, Joseph: Origines Ecclesiasticae. The Antiquities of the Christian Church. 2 vols. London, 1878.

Bruder, Carolus Hermann: Coneordantiae Omnium Vocum Novi Testamenti Graeci. 4th edition. Leipsic, 1888.

Brown, David: Commentary on First Corinthians. Schaff's Popular Commentary. New York, 1882.

Bushnell, Horace: The Vicarious Sacrifice. New York, 1866.

Bruce, Alexander B.: The Humiliation of Christ. Edinburgh, 1876.

Cook, F. C.: Speaker's Commentary on Exodus. New York, 1872.

Conder, F. R. and C. R.: A Handbook to the Bible. New York.

Chambers, Talbot W.: Notes on American edition of Meyer's Commentary on First and Second Corinthians.

Cox, Samuel: The Resurrection. London, 1881.

Dickson, William P.: St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit. Baird Lecture for 1883. Glasgow, 1883.

Dorner, J. A.: Christliche Glaubenslehre. 3 vols. Berlin, 1879.

Dwight, Timothy: Notes on American edition of Meyer's Commentary on Romans, Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians and Philemon.

Ducange, Carolus D.: Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. Ed. G. A. Henschel. Paris, 1842.

Edwards, Thomas Charles: A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians. London, 1885.

Euripides: Ed. Paley. 4th edition. London, 1872.

Ellicott, Charles J.: Commentary on the Epistles of Paul. 2 vols. Andover, 1872.

Ellicott, Charles J.: St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. London, 1887.

Eadie, John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. 3rd edition. Edinburgh, 1883.

Eadie, John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. 2nd edition. Edinburgh, 1884.

Eadie, John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Colossians. 2nd edition. Edinburgh, 1884.

Forsyth, William: Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero. London, 1869.

Farrar, Frederick W.: The Gospel according to Luke. Cambridge Bible. Cambridge, 1884.

Farrar, Frederick W.: Lives of the Fathers. 2 vols. London, 1889.

Farrar, Frederick W.: The Life and Work of St. Paul. 2 vols. London, 1879.

Fritzsche, D. Car. Frid. August: Pauli ad Romanos Epistola. 2 vols. Halle, 1836.

Freeman, Edward A.: Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. London, 1881.

Ferrazzi, Jacopo: Manuale Dantesco. s vols. Basssno, 1866.

Froude, James
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Godet, F.: Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated by A. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1880.
Freeman, Edward A.: Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. London, 1881.

Ferrazzi, Jacopo: Manuale Dantesco. s vols. Basssno, 1866.

Froude, James Anthony: Calvinism. New York, 1871.

Godet, F.: Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated by A. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1880.

Godet, F.: Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Translated by A. Cusin. 2.vols. Edinburgh, 1886.

Geikie, Cunningham: The Holy Land and the Bible. 2 vols. New York, 1888.

Harless, Gottlieb C. A.: Commentar uber den Brief Pauli an die Ephesier. Erlangen, 1834.

Heinrici, C. F. Georg: Das zweite Sendschreiben des Apostel Paulus an die Korinthier. Berlin, 1887.

Hengstenberg, E. W.: Commentary on the Psalms. Translated by Fairbairn and Thomson. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1846.

Hodge, Charles: Systematic Theology. 3 vols. New York, 1872.

Hatch, Edwin: Essays in Biblical Greek. Oxford, 1889.

Jebb, R C.: The Oedipus Coloneus of Sophocles. Cambridge, 1885.

Jebb, R C.: The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles. Cambridge, 1883.

Kingsley, Charles: The Roman and the Teuton. London, 1864.

Kingsley, Charles: Hypatia. London, 1874.

Lange, J. P.: The Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Translated by J. F. Hurst, with Additions by Philip Schaff and M. B. Riddle. New York, 1869.

Lundy, John P.: Monumental Christianity. 2nd edition. New York, 1882.

Lanciani, Rodolfo: Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Boston and New York, 1888.

Lenormant, Francois: Beginnings of History. New York, 1882.

Lightfoot, J. B.: St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. London, 1866.

Lightfoot, J. B.: St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians. London, 1869.

Lightfoot, J. B.: St. Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and Philemon. London, 1875.

Lightfoot, J. B.: The Apostolic Fathers. 2nd edition. Part 2. 3 vols. London, 1885.

Lightfoot, J. B.: Essays on Supernatural Religion. London, 1889.

Lumby, John Rawson: The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippians. Schaff's Popular Commentary. New York, 1882.

Lux Mundi, A Series of Studies in the Religion of the Incarnation. Edited by Charles Gore. 4th edition. London, 1890.

Meyer, Heinrich A. W.: Commentaries on Romans, First and Second Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. American edition.

Merivale, Charles: The Conversion of the Roman Empire. Boyle Lectures for 1864 New York, 1866.

Moule, H. C. G.: The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans. Cambridge Bible. Cambridge, 1887.

Moule, H. C. G.: The Epistle to the Ephesians, Cambridge Bible. Cambridge, 1887.

Morison, James: A Critical Exposition of the Third Chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. London, 1866.

Morison, James: St. Paul's Teaching on Sanctification; a Critical Exposition of Romans 6. London, 1886.

Morison, James: An Exposition of the Ninth Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans. New edition. London, 1888.

Mahaffy, J. P.: Rambles and Studies in Greece. London, 1878.

Muller, Max: The Science of Language. 2 vols. New York, 1862.

Maclaren, Alexander: The Epistles of St. Paul to the Colossians and Philemon. Expositor's Bible. New York, 1888.

Newman, John Henry: The Arians of the Fourth Century. London, 1876.

Nitzsch, Gregor Wilhelm: Erklarende Anmerkungen zu Homer's Odysee. Hannover, 1826.

Perowne, J. J. Stewart: The Book of Psalms. 2 vols. 3rd edition. London, 1873.
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Rossetti, Maria Francesca: A Shadow of Dante. Boston, 1872.

Raleigh, Walter: History of the World. London, 1614.
Nitzsch, Gregor Wilhelm: Erklarende Anmerkungen zu Homer's Odysee. Hannover, 1826.

Perowne, J. J. Stewart: The Book of Psalms. 2 vols. 3rd edition. London, 1873.

Rossetti, Maria Francesca: A Shadow of Dante. Boston, 1872.

Raleigh, Walter: History of the World. London, 1614.

Symonds John Addington: Studies of the Greek Poets. 2 vola New York, 1880.

Shedd, Willianu G. T.: A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary upon the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. New York.

Schaff, Philip, and Riddle, Matthew B.: The Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Schaff's Popular Commentary. New York, 1882.

Stallbaum, Godofredus: Platonis Opera Omnia 10 vols. Gotha, 1833.

Salmon, George: A Historical Introduction to the Study of the Books of the New Testament. 3rd edition. London, 1888.

Stalker, James: The Life of St. Paul. New York.

Stanley, Arthur P.: The Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians. 4th edition. London, 1876.

Stanley, Arthur P.: Christian Institutions. New York, 1881.

Schleusner, Johann Friedrich: Novus Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus, sive Lexicon in LXX 2nd edition. 3 vols. Glasgow, 1822.

Smith, W. Robertson: The Prophets of Israel. Edinburgh 1882.

Toy, Crawford H.: Quotations in the New Testament. New York, 1884.

Tholuck, A.: Commentar zum Brief an die R.. Halle, 1856.

Trommius, Abraham: Concordantiae Graecae Versionis vulgo dictae LXX Interpretum. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1718.

Viger, Francis: De Praecipuis Graecae Dictionis Idiotismis Liber. 2 vols. 3rd edition. London, 1824.

Westcott, Brooke Foss: The Epistle to the Hebrews. London, 1889.

Whately, Richard: On Some of the Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul, and in other parts of the New Testament. 8th edition. London, 1861.

Wilson, Daniel Bishop of Calcutta: Expository Lectures on St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians. New York, 1846.

Wordsworth, Christopher: Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. London, 1839.

Weiss, Bernhard: A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament. Translated by A. J. K. Davidson. 2 vols. New York, 1889.

Weiss, Bernhard: Das Marcusevangelium und seine synoptischen Parallelen. Berlin, 1872.

Young, Robert: Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Edinburgh, 1880.

Young, John: The Life and Light of Men. London, 1866.

INTRODUCTION
The life and labors of Paul are fully treated in well-known and easily accessible works. His language and style will be discussed in the fourth and final volume of this
work. I shall confine this introduction to an account of the several epistles treated in the present volume.

THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS

The Roman Church had been for some time in existence when Paul wrote this epistle (see Romans 1:8, 10, 12, 13; 15:23). That he was acquainted with many of its
members appears from the salutations in the sixteenth chapter. In Acts 28:15 the existence of the Church is assumed as well known, and the company which meets the
apostle at Appii Forum has clearly the character of a deputation. The date and circumstances of the origin and organization of the Church cannot, however, be certainly
determined.

The Church consisted of both Jews and Gentiles; but the predominance of the Gentile element is apparent from the epistle itself (see Romans 1:5, 12-16; 3:27-30; 4:6;
6:19; 11:13, 25, 28, 30; 15:1, 8, 16). 1

Paul had long desired to preach the Gospel at Rome, but when, apparently, on the eve of accomplishing his wish, his plan was complicated by the necessity of visiting
Jerusalem with the collection for "the poor saints." He did not, in any event, contemplate a long stay in Rome, intending to take it en route for Spain. Being thus delayed,
he determined to write at once, in order both to meet the immediate needs of the Church and to prepare the way for his personal presence. The epistle was written
during his last visit at Corinth (Acts 20:2, 3), and was despatched by the hands of Phoebe the deaconess, 2 about A.D. 59. Its authenticity is generally conceded,
together with the fact that it was written in Greek, though some Roman Catholic critics have maintained that it was written in Latin. There is nothing surprising in its
having been written in Greek, since the Greek language was prevalent at Rome, having become indeed the general language of the world, and the composition of the
letter in Greek accords with Paul's Hellenic associations and training. The Latin fathers never claim their own language as the original of any part of the New Testament,
and Ignatius, Justin, and Irenaeus all wrote in Greek to Romans.

The  aim of the
             (c) epistle is didactic ratherMedia
                                           than polemic,
                                                 Corp. though it acquires a polemic flavor in its opposition of Christianity to legalism. It is distinguished among
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by its systematic character Its object is to present a comprehensive statement of the doctrine of salvation through Christ, not a complete system of christian doctrine. Its
theme is, The gospel, the power of God unto salvation to Jew and Gentile alike; a power because of its revelation of a righteousness of God for believers.
having been written in Greek, since the Greek language was prevalent at Rome, having become indeed the general language of the world, and the composition of the
letter in Greek accords with Paul's Hellenic associations and training. The Latin fathers never claim their own language as the original of any part of the New Testament,
and Ignatius, Justin, and Irenaeus all wrote in Greek to Romans.

The aim of the epistle is didactic rather than polemic, though it acquires a polemic flavor in its opposition of Christianity to legalism. It is distinguished among the epistles
by its systematic character Its object is to present a comprehensive statement of the doctrine of salvation through Christ, not a complete system of christian doctrine. Its
theme is, The gospel, the power of God unto salvation to Jew and Gentile alike; a power because of its revelation of a righteousness of God for believers.

In the development of this theme Paul shows that Jew and Gentile are alike violators of divine law, and are consequently exposed to the divine wrath, from which there
is no deliverance through works or ordinances, but only through the Gospel of Jesus Christ accepted by faith.

In insisting upon this universal condition of salvation, God neither violates His original covenant with Israel, nor deprives Himself of the right to judge sin.

The truth of justification by faith is an Old-Testament truth, illustrated in the case of Abraham, and applicable to both Jews and Gentiles. The true seed of Abraham are
those who follow him, not in circumcision but in faith. The saving provision in Christ is coextensive with the results of the fall in Adam, and assures present and future
salvation to its subjects. The office of the law was to develop and manifest the sin which originated in Adam's fall, and thus to give full scope to the redemptive work of
Christ.

This truth neither encourages immorality nor convicts God of unfaithfulness to His covenant with Israel. Justification by faith involves personal union with Christ, and
consequent death to sin and moral resurrection to newness of life. Grace does not imply liberty to sin, but a change of masters and a new obedience and service. Grace
does not do away with God's holy law, but only with the false relation of the natural man to that law; in which sin made use of the law to excite man's opposition to it,
and thus to bring him into bondage and death. This is illustrated from Paul's own experience.

The deliverance from this bondage, which the law could not effect, is wrought by the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus, which frees from condemnation and initiates
a life of sonship inspired and controlled by the Spirit of God. The power of this life appears in the assurance of hope which it imparts amid the trials of this mortal state,
a hope founded in the divine election.

To the claim that God cannot reject the unbelieving Jew without breaking His own covenant and stultifying His decree, is opposed the doctrine of absolute divine
sovereignty, unconditioned by human merit or service, but exercised in perfect righteousness and mercy, which are vindicated by God's forming for Himself a people of
believers, both Jew and Gentile. It is further shown that this divine economy includes the operation of human free agency no less than of divine sovereignty, and that the
rejection of Israel was therefore due to their blind reliance on their original election, and their refusal of the righteousness which is through faith in Christ. This rejection is
only partial and temporary. God has not cast off His people, but has overruled their unbelief for the salvation of the Gentiles, who, in turn, shall be the means of the
restoration of the Jews. See note at the end of Romans 11.

The practical and hortatory portion of the epistle, which begins with Romans 12, treats of the cultivation of different graces, civil duties, the right of private judgment,
and the doctrine of christian expediency in its relations to weak faith.

Critics are not unanimous as to the integrity of the epistle. The authenticity of the doxology has been questioned, and the Tubingen critics declared the fifteenth and
sixteenth chapters to be spurious. By some, the greater part of Romans 16 is supposed to be addressed to the Ephesians. See on Romans 14:23; 16:25.

The epistle is characterized by system, masculine vigor, logical acuteness, copiousness of thought, and depth of feeling. Logic is backed by history, and christian
doctrine and precept are illumined from the Prophets and Psalms. Neither personal feeling nor national sentiment is allowed to turn the keen edge of truth. The opening
theme - all alike under sin - is evolved with remorseless sternness. The picture of the moral condition of the pagan world is the work of an eye-witness, and is terrible in
its stark realism. Yet the logic is aglow with intense feeling, which rises at times toward the level of the Ephesian epistle. The emotion is as deep as in Second
Corinthians, but less turbulent. The irony of that epistle is almost wholly absent. The opening of the ninth chapter is a veritable sob. The personal expressions are
affectionate and laudatory, but the companion and friend who appears in First Thessalonians, Philippians, and Philemon, mostly gives place to the apostle and teacher.
The powerful dramatic element in the epistle is overlooked in the popular impression of a hard theological treatise. It appears in the forensic moulds in which the great
spiritual processes are occasionally cast; in the embodiment of the antagonism of sin and holiness in a personal struggle; in the introduction of objections as by an
interlocutor; in the vivid contrasts of life and death, spirit and flesh, bondage and freedom, condemnation and acquittal: in the impersonation of the whole creation
groaning and travailing for deliverance from the bondage of corruption.

The transitions are as easy and natural as the contrasts are sharp. The nervous but steady movement of Romans 2; 3; 4, suddenly subsides with the opening of Romans
5, and one can pause and bare his forehead to the sweet air ere he begins upon the new ascent from ver. 19. The first words of the eighth chapter succeed the seventh
like a quiet melody given out by flute or horn after the tumultuous harmonies of the orchestra; and one is conscious of no shock in the descent from the high themes of
sovereignty and grace to their applications in common life and duty.

The epistle must be grasped entire. No portion of the New Testament lends itself to more dangerous distortions of truth through fragmentary use. No one of Paul's
epistles is so dependent for its just effect upon the perception of the relation of its parts to the whole. Its logic and its feeling are inseparable. It answers the highest test
of eloquence in stimulating emotion with profound thought, and in fusing thought in feeling.

But to acquire such a grasp is no easy task, especially for the English reader. It requires far more than close grammatical analysis, and adjustment of the special
theological problems raised by the epistle. The letter must be studied in the light of the whole body of the Pauline writings, and with the largest possible acquaintance
with the logical and rhetorical habits of the apostle. The fullness and impetuosity of his thought sometimes render him careless of its arrangement. Suggestions, striking
into the main line of reasoning, are pursued with an eagerness and to a length which may easily divert the reader from the principal track. Possible qualifications of a
truth are temporarily neglected in the concentration of thought upon a single aspect. It is not always easy to discover where the matter of a parenthesis gives place to the
resumption of the main thought; sometimes indeed the parenthesis is carried on as if it were the main thought. The first member of a proposition often acquires a
headway which makes him forget to offset it with its complementary member. His antitheses are not always evenly balanced, and one member may be literal and the
other metaphorical. Certain expressions depend for their force upon word-plays which cannot be translated, and prepositions are accumulated with reference to shades
of meaning which tax the utmost resources of the translator and commentator.

THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS

The account of Paul's first visit to Corinth is given in Acts 17. He continued there a year and six months, going thence to Syria, and making a brief stay on his way to
Jerusalem at Ephesus, to which he returned and remained for over two years. The church at Corinth became the most important of those founded by the apostle, and
probably embraced the church at the adjoining seaport of Cenchreae (see on Romans 16:1), and the Christians scattered throughout Achaia (2 Corinthians 1:1).

After Paul's departure from Corinth, Apollos, commended by the Ephesian church, was sent to labor there. Notwithstanding his efficiency he involuntarily became the
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Besides this, the characteristic sensuous and pleasure-loving tendencies of the Corinthians began to assert themselves within the church. The majority of the converts
probably embraced the church at the adjoining seaport of Cenchreae (see on Romans 16:1), and the Christians scattered throughout Achaia (2 Corinthians 1:1).

After Paul's departure from Corinth, Apollos, commended by the Ephesian church, was sent to labor there. Notwithstanding his efficiency he involuntarily became the
cause of division in the church, as the nucleus of a party which preferred his polished rhetoric to the plainer utterances of Paul (1 Corinthians 3:4, 5).

Besides this, the characteristic sensuous and pleasure-loving tendencies of the Corinthians began to assert themselves within the church. The majority of the converts
were of a low social grade, many of them slaves, and the seductions of the gay city often proved too strong for resistance.

The report of these evils, brought to Ephesus by Apollos on his return from Corinth, called out a letter from Paul which is lost, but which is referred to in 1 Corinthians
5:9. Additional tidings came in a letter from the church to Paul, asking advice on the following points:

1.Celibacy and marriage. Was married life a lower condition than celibacy, or was it wrong in itself? Were marriages allowable between Christians and heathen?
Should a Christian wife or husband abandon a heathen spouse? \

2.Meats offered to idols. Idol sacrifices were festivals. Gentile converts refused to abandon the society of their heathen friends, and mingled with them at the idol feasts;
while a meal at a public festival was a substantial help to the poor. Might Christians attend these festivals? Might they buy in the market the resold meat which had been
offered to idols?

3.Rules in assemblies. Should men cover their heads? Should women appear uncovered? Might women speak and teach in public?

4.Spiritual gifts. Which was the more important, speaking with tongues or preaching? What should be done when several began to speak at once?

5.The resurrection. Some maintained that it was purely spiritual and that it was already past.

6.They also desired to hear something more about the collection for the poor in Judaea, and to have Apollos sent back.

The bearers of the letter, Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus, together with those of the household of Chloe (1 Corinthians 1:11), also brought tidings of the factions
which had divided the church and the quarrels over the different preachers. Certain Judaic teachers had come, with commendatory letters from Jerusalem, claiming the
authority of Peter and impugning that of Paul, declaring that Peter was the true head of the Christian Church and Paul an interloper. A fourth distinct party is supposed
by some to be indicated by the words "I of Christ" (see on 1 Corinthians 1:10). It also appeared that the assemblies of the church had become disorderly; that the
agapae and the eucharist were scenes of gluttony, brawling, and drunkenness; while the gatherings for worship were thrown into confusion by the simultaneous speaking
of those who professed the gift of tongues. Women were speaking unveiled in these assemblies. One prominent church-member was living criminally with his
stepmother.

On the receipt of this letter Paul abandoned his intended visit to Corinth, sent Titus to inform the church of his change of plan and to arrange for the collection, and
dictated to Sosthenes the first epistle to the Corinthians. Notwithstanding the subscription of the letter, "written from Philippi," a mistake which grew out of 1
Corinthians 16:5 it was written at Ephesus, as appears from 1 Corinthians 16:8, 19

He begins by stating his complaints against the church (1 Corinthians 1:10-11. 20). He then answers the questions contained in their letter: Marriage (1 Corinthians 7:1-
40); Sacrificial feasts (1 Corinthians 8:1-13). From this he diverges to the insinuations against his character and authority, noticing the charge based upon his refusal to
receive pecuniary support, and asserting his unselfish devotion to the Gospel (1 Corinthians 9.). He returns to the sacrificial feasts (1 Corinthians 10.). Then he passes
to the regulation of the assemblies (1 Corinthians 11.). The different spiritual gifts and their mutual relation are discussed in 1 Corinthians 12, and Love is shown to be
greater and more enduring than all gifts (1 Corinthians 13.). The subject of speaking with tongues is then taken up, and the superiority of prophecy to the gift of tongues
is asserted (1 Corinthians 14:1-40). 1 Corinthians 15 discusses the resurrection, and the epistle concludes with references to certain personal and incidental matters,
including the collection.

Authorities are generally agreed in placing the date of the epistle A.D. 57. Its authenticity is conceded on all hands.

The key-note of the epistle is struck in two correlated thoughts - the supreme headship of Christ, and the union of believers as one body in and with Him. The former
thought finds expression in Paul's humble disclaimer of all merely personal authority, and of all right to a hearing save as Christ's agent and mouthpiece. The power of
preaching resides in its theme - Christ crucified - and not in its philosophic wisdom nor in the personal culture of its preachers. The gifts and graces of the Church are
due to Christ alone. The other thought is the standing confutation and rebuke of all the errors and abuses which have invaded the Church. Faction, fornication, litigation,
fellowship with idolaters - all are sufficiently condemned by the fact that they break the sacred tie between the Church and Christ, and between individuals and the
Church. Union in Christ implies divine order in the Church. The sexes fall into their true relation. The subordinations of the heavenly hierarchies are perpetuated in the
Church. Confusion is banished from public worship, and the mystery of the eucharist is expounded in the mutual love and helpfulness of the participants. Diversities of
spiritual gifts are harmonized and utilized through their relation to the one body and the informing power of one divine Spirit - the Spirit of love. Christian expediency,
involving individual sacrifice for the common welfare, becomes an authoritative principle. This unity finds its crowning exhibition in the resurrection, in which believers
share the resurrection of their Lord, and enter into final and perfect communion with His glorified life.

It has been truthfully said that no portion of the New Testament discusses so directly the moral problems of that age or of our own. Many of the same questions emerge
in the social and church-life of modern times. Such are the rally of cliques round popular preachers; the antithesis of asceticism and christian liberty; of christian zeal and
christian wisdom; the true relation of the sexes and the proper position and function of woman in the Church; the assertion of individual inspiration against the canons of
christian decency; the antagonism between individualism and the subordination of the members to the body; the resurrection in the light of modern science; aestheticism
and morals.

No epistle of the New Testament, therefore, should be more carefully studied by the modern pastor.

THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS

Paul's stay at Ephesus was cut short by the riot. He departed to Troas, and thence to Macedonia (Acts 20.), where he met Titus, for whose arrival he had anxiously
waited in order to learn the effect of his letter (2 Corinthians 1:8; 2:13; 7:5). Titus' report was both gratifying and disheartening. He had been cordially received, and the
epistle had caused penitence and amendment; but the influence of the anti-Pauline parties had increased, and they were openly assailing Paul's character and insisting on
their own superior apostolic claims. Accordingly Titus was again sent to Corinth with a second epistle, written from some point in Macedonia. The statement of the
subscription that it was written from Philippi, lacks evidence, besides being in itself improbable. The date is the autumn of A.D. 57.

The epistle is among the least systematic of Paul's writings, for the reason that it was written in a conflict of feeling, in which joy, grief, and indignation struggled for the
mastery.
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1. Thankfulness for the effect of his first letter.
subscription that it was written from Philippi, lacks evidence, besides being in itself improbable. The date is the autumn of A.D. 57.

The epistle is among the least systematic of Paul's writings, for the reason that it was written in a conflict of feeling, in which joy, grief, and indignation struggled for the
mastery. Its main motives are three in number.

1. Thankfulness for the effect of his first letter.

2. Indignation at the work and increasing influence of the false teachers.

3. Anxiety for the completion of the collection, and that the Corinthians should imitate the good example of the Macedonian churches. "The three objects of the epistle
are, in point of arrangement, kept distinct; but so vehement were the feelings under which he wrote, that the thankful expression of the first part is darkened by the
indignation of the third; and the directions about the business of the contribution are colored by the reflections both of his joy and of his grief" (Stanley).

The style accords with this turbulence of feeling. It is surcharged with passionate emotion. No one of Paul's epistles is so intensely personal. Here only he reveals two of
those great spiritual experiences which belong to a Christian's inmost heart-life - personal crises which are secrets between a man and his God. One of these - the thorn
in the flesh - is a crisis of agony; the other - the rapture into the third heaven - a crisis of ecstasy. Bengel's remark is familiar, that the epistle is an itinerary. "The very
stages of his journey are impressed upon it; the troubles at Ephesus, the repose at Troas, the anxieties and consolations of Macedonia, the prospect of removing to
Corinth" (Stanley). His self-vindication is not only a remarkable piece of personal history, but a revelation of his high sense of honor and his keen sensitiveness. His
"boasting," into which he is driven by persistent slander, throws into relief his aversion to self-praise. He formally announces his intention to boast, as though he can
bring himself to the task only by committing himself to it. Thrice he repeats the announcement, and each time seems to catch, with a sense of relief, at an opportunity for
digressing to a different subject. Ecstatic thanksgiving and cutting irony, self-assertion and self-abnegation, commendation, warning and authority, paradox, apology, all
meet and cross and seethe; yet out of the swirling eddies rise, like rocks, grand Christian principles and inspiring hopes. Such are the double power of the Gospel for
life or death; the freedom and energy of the dispensation of the Spirit; suffering the path to glory; the divine purpose in the decay of the fleshly tabernacle; the new and
heavenly investment of the mortal life; the universal judgment; the nature of repentance as distinguished from sorrow, and the principles of christian liberality. Full and
swift as is the torrent, there is ever a hand on the floodgate. In the most indignant outburst the sense of suppression asserts itself. Indignation and irony never run into
malediction. We cease to be surprised at the apostle's capability of indignation when we catch glimpses, as we do throughout the epistle, into the depths of his
tenderness.

It is not strange that such a tempest should set its mark upon the style and diction, especially if we assume that the epistle was dictated to an amanuensis. In some
particulars the epistle is the most difficult in the New Testament. The style is broken, involved, at times obscure. The impetuosity of the thought carries it from point to
point with a rapidity which makes it often hard to grasp the sequence and connection. It is preeminently picturesque, abounding in metaphors which sometimes lie
undeveloped in the heart of single words, and sometimes are strangely mixed or suddenly shifted. Building and clothing blend in describing the heavenly investiture of the
believer; now the Corinthians are a commendatory letter written in the apostles' hearts, now the letter is written by Christ on the Corinthians' hearts; the rush of thought
does not stop at the incongruity of an epistle on stone and of ink on stone tables; now the knowledge of Christ, now the apostles themselves are a sweet odor. Paul
does not huckster the word of God. He does not benumb his converts like a torpedo. Here a word calls up Gideon's lamps and pitchers, there the rocky strongholds of
the Cilician pirates. A rapid series of participles carries us through the successive stages of a battle - the hemming in, the cutting the way out, the pursuit, the blow of the
enemy's sword. The high citadel is stormed, the lofty towers are overthrown, the captives are led away. Paul bears about a daily death: affliction is a light weight, glory
an overwhelming burden: the fleshly body is a tent, the glorified body an eternal building, or a garment dropped from above.

Certain words appear to have a peculiar fascination for the writer, as if they gathered up into themselves the significance of whole masses of thought. Without arresting
its main current, the stream eddies round these. Sometimes he dwells on them caressingly, as "the God of all comfort, who comforteth us, that we may be able to
comfort with the comfort wherewith we are comforted." Sometimes he rings them out like a challenge, as commend, commendation, boast. Sometimes he touches and
retouches them with a sarcastic emphasis, as bear with me, bear with them. "So full of turns is he everywhere," says Erasmus, "so great is the skill, you would not
believe that the same man was speaking. Now, as some limpid fountain, he gently bubbles forth; anon, like a mighty torrent, he rolls crashing on, whirling many things
along in his course: again he flows calmly and smoothly, or spreads out into a lake."

The authenticity of the epistle is conceded. Unsuccessful attempts have been made against its integrity, as the effort to show that it consists of three separate epistles, or
of two.

THE EPISTLES OF THE IMPRISONMENT

This name is given to the Epistles to the Philippians, Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon, because they were composed during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome. By a
few critics they have been assigned to the period of the confinement at Caesarea.

Paul arrived in Rome, under guard, after his shipwreck at Malta, in March, A.D. 61, in the seventh year of the reign of Nero. He was placed in charge of the Praetorian
Guard, the members of which relieved each other in his custody, each soldier being chained to his hand. This interruption of his missionary labors was a blessing in
disguise. Twenty years of exhausting toil had brought the necessity for rest and meditation. The two years of confinement in Caesarea afforded the apostle the leisure
for sinking his thought deeper into the mystery of the Gospel. The effect is apparent in the epistles from his Roman prison. Nothing in these, indeed, contradicts his
previous writings; the fundamental themes of the earlier epistles recur, and Philippians in particular exhibits marked parallels with Romans. In all Christ is central. In
Romans and in the Corinthian epistles there are not wanting instances of the exalted feeling which is so marked in Ephesians, Colossians, and Philippians. The Judaizing
insolence, castigated in Galatians, is sharply touched again in Philippians. The relations of Jew and Gentile reappear in Ephesians; and Christ's headship of the Church,
assumed in First Corinthians, is developed and emphasized in Ephesians and Colossians.

Nevertheless, the Epistles of the Imprisonment carry us into a new atmosphere. The thought takes new directions and a wider range. The apostle's personality appears
in an aspect which it is not easy to analyze, but which carries with it the sense of a broadening and deepening of the whole man. In the discussion of christian truth the
points of emphasis are shifted. In the earlier epistles he deals largely with unbelievers, in the latter with Christians. In the one he is aiming to initiate union with Christ; in
the other to develop communion. In the one he points to the cross, in the other from the cross to the inheritance of grace and glory which it commands. In the one he
emphasizes Christ crucified, in the other Christ risen, ascended, and reigning. In all alike the cross is central, but in these latter epistles it is coordinated with the vast
economy of creation, redemption, the Church on earth and in heaven, as it lies entire in the eternal counsels of God. Here the person rather than the work of Christ is in
the foreground: here, for the first time in the Pauline writings, the eye is distinctly fixed upon the pre-incarnate Son of God. While in the earlier groups of epistles the
moral applications of doctrine are not overlooked, in these, the ethical element is more evenly balanced with the theological. In Philippians the ethical element dominates
the theological. The great christological truths are translated into christian experience, and brought to bear as the principles and motives of duty. "No duty is too small to
illustrate one or other of the principles which inspired the divinest acts of Christ. The commonest acts of humility and beneficence are to be imitations of the
condescension which brought Him from the position of equality with God to the obedience of the cross; and the ruling motive of the love and kindness practiced by
Christians to one another is to be the recollection of their common connection with Him." 3

A difference from the earlier epistles also develops through the new phase of error with which the apostle has to deal. Epaphras announced the appearance of a new
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                                                                                                                                                             of Essenic
asceticism and Gnostic speculativeness. These were the forces which brought to the front the doctrines of Christ's person and of the Church; the one as the bulwark
against the fancy of mediate creation and the affected humility of angel-worship, and the other, in its exhibition of Christ as the head of the body of believers, contesting
Christians to one another is to be the recollection of their common connection with Him." 3

A difference from the earlier epistles also develops through the new phase of error with which the apostle has to deal. Epaphras announced the appearance of a new
enemy in the churches of the Lycus. The point of assault had begun to shift from legalism to philosophic mysticism. Legalism itself betrayed the infusion of Essenic
asceticism and Gnostic speculativeness. These were the forces which brought to the front the doctrines of Christ's person and of the Church; the one as the bulwark
against the fancy of mediate creation and the affected humility of angel-worship, and the other, in its exhibition of Christ as the head of the body of believers, contesting
the claim of philosophy to be the supreme source of wisdom, and the right of legal ordinances to give the law to life.

THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS

For Philippi, see on Philippians 1:1.

With the arrival of Paul at Philippi (Acts 16.), the Gospel entered Europe. On his departure he left Luke to complete the organization of the Church. He subsequently
visited the city twice, after which we hear nothing of the Philippian church until he writes to it from his Roman prison. On hearing of his transfer to Rome, the Philippians,
with the same generosity which they had shown on former occasions (Philippians 4:15, 16; 2 Corinthians 11:8, 9), sent a supply of money by Epaphroditus, who, on his
return, brought this letter.

The epistle is unofficial and familiar in character, even the apostolic title being dropped in the opening salutation. In its unsystematic structure it rivals Second
Corinthians. It opens with an account of the progress of the Gospel in Rome since his arrival, the efforts of his opposers, and the zeal of his friends, and an expression
of his own feelings as to his possible death or continued life. An exhortation follows to christian unity, courage, and humility, the latter illustrated by the great act of
Christ's humiliation. He hopes soon to be released: he is about to send Timothy to Philippi; Epaphroditus has been sick, and is about to return home. Let them beware
of the Judaizers - the dogs, the concision. Their arrogant claims are contrasted with the rights and privileges of Christians, and the contrast is pointed by his own
spiritual history and a recital of the legal privileges which he relinquished for Christ. Then follow an exhortation to steadfastness, a lament over the victims of sensuality,
and a contrast of such with those whose life and hope are heavenly. Two prominent ladies are entreated to reconcile their differences, after which come some parting
admonitions to entertain pure thoughts and high aims, and a grateful acknowledgment of the gift brought by Epaphroditus.

In the tone of strong personal attachment which pervades the epistle, it resembles the first to the Thessalonians. It contains no formulated doctrinal teaching, and no
indication of the presence of doctrinal errors within the Church. Only the severe allusions in the third chapter, to Judaizers and Antinomian loose-livers, have the flavor
of controversy, and the treatment of these is not argumentative, but denunciatory, hortative, and expostulatory. The only warning to the Church is against internal
dissensions. Christ is set forth, not in His relation to great christian mysteries, but as a living power in personal experience - notably in the apostle's own.

The words and imagery reveal occasional traces of the contact of Stoicism, as citizenship (Philippians 1:28; 3:20); content, or self-sufficient (Philippians 4:2); and the
passage, Philippians 1:21-27 presents a vivid contrast with the Stoic's theory of life and his justification of suicide. The epistle abounds in picturesque words, as earnest
expectation (Philippians 1:20); terrified (Philippians 1:28); depart (Philippians 1:23); robbery (Philippians 2:6); holding forth (Philippians 2:16); offered: (Philippians
2:17); not regarding (Philippians 2:30); keep (Philippians 4:7); learned (Philippians 4:11), etc. See notes.

Bishop Lightfoot observes: "The Epistle to the Philippians is not only the noblest reflection of Paul's personal character and spiritual illumination, his large sympathies, his
womanly tenderness, his delicate courtesy, his frank independence, his entire devotion to the Master's service - but as a monument of the power of the Gospel it yields
in importance to none of the apostolic writings.... To all ages of the Church - to our own especially - this epistle reads a great lesson. While we are expending our
strength on theological definitions or ecclesiastical rules, it recalls us from these distractions to the very heart and center of the Gospel - the life of Christ and the life in
Christ. Here is the meeting-point of all our differences, the healing of all our feuds, the true life alike of individuals and sects and churches; here doctrine and practice are
wedded together; for here is the 'creed of creeds' involved in and arising out of the 'work of works.'"

The authenticity and genuineness are generally conceded, though violently assailed by the Tubingen critics. The date of composition is probably about A.D. 62, and the
epistle is, I think, to be placed in order before the other three 4

THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS

For Ephesus, see on Revelation 2:1.

The church in Ephesus was founded during Paul's long residence there (Acts 19:10; 20:31). He left the city immediately after the great riot (Acts 19.), and never
returned. His last personal contact with the church was when he met its elders at Miletus (Acts 20:18, 35).

There has been much dissension as to the destination of the epistle. The principal views are three: 1. That it was addressed to the church at Ephesus. 2. To the church
at Laodicaea. 3. That it was an encyclical or circular epistle, intended for the church at Ephesus along with a body of neighboring churches. Some also have regarded it
as designed for the churches of Ephesus and Laodicaea, and others for the Laodicaean church along with a circle of churches.

I regard the epistle as addressed to the Church at Ephesus. Such was the general opinion of the early church. The words "in Ephesus" (Ephesians 1:1), though omitted
in two important manuscripts, are found in the majority of manuscripts and in all the old versions. The Laodicaean theory 5 was started by Marcion, who was severely
taken to task by Tertullian for altering the title to "the Epistle to the Laodicaeans." Marcion himself inserted the epistle in his canon as "the Epistle to the Ephesians;" and
it is significant that no manuscript which omits "in Ephesus" substitutes "in Laodicaea." The encyclical theory rests mainly on internal grounds, such as the general tenor
of the epistle, and the absence of personal reminiscences, appeals and greetings, and of local references. But when addressing a circle of churches, Paul is wont to
specify the fact, as in First and Second Corinthians and Galatians. If the words "in Ephesus" be rejected, the epistle is entirely without local designation, and is catholic
rather than encyclical. Moreover, whenever Paul, in the address of an epistle, uses toi~v ou+sin which are, he follows these with the name of a place, as at Rome," "at
Philippi," "at Corinth."

The Ephesian church, so far as is indicated by the letter, furnished no special reason for its composition. It contains no references to the dangers which Paul predicted at
Miletus, no allusions to his personal relations with the church, and no salutations to individuals. Its theme is the Church of Christ, founded in the will of the Father,
developed by the work of the Son, and united in him through the indwelling and energy of the Holy Spirit.

The body of believers is chosen of God: their privilege is adoption: the motive of adoption is grace, its medium Jesus Christ, its element love, its end holiness and the
glorification of divine grace (Ephesians 1:3-6.

The work of the Son in this scheme is redemption, remission of sins, and the gift of wisdom and discernment. His central position in the divine plan will appear in the
consummation, which will consist in the summing up of all things in Him (Ephesians 1:7-12.

The agent and
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Hence the prayer that the operation of the Spirit may appear in the bestowment of wisdom and revelation (compare Ephesians 1:8), and of quickened spiritual
discernment; so that believers may recognize the divine call, and experience the hope which it engenders, the riches of the inheritance which it assures (compare
The work of the Son in this scheme is redemption, remission of sins, and the gift of wisdom and discernment. His central position in the divine plan will appear in the
consummation, which will consist in the summing up of all things in Him (Ephesians 1:7-12.

The agent and earnest of this inheritance of believers is the Holy Spirit (Ephesians 1:13-14.

Hence the prayer that the operation of the Spirit may appear in the bestowment of wisdom and revelation (compare Ephesians 1:8), and of quickened spiritual
discernment; so that believers may recognize the divine call, and experience the hope which it engenders, the riches of the inheritance which it assures (compare
Ephesians 1:11), and the efficiency of the divine power which is exhibited and pledged to them in the resurrection and exaltation of Christ (Ephesians 1:15-22.

The election, the call, the redemptive work, the adoption, the personal holiness, the knowledge and discernment - all find their embodiment in the Church the body of
Christ, in which the divine fullness dwells (Ephesians 1:22, 23).

The scope of this plan is universal, including both Jews and Gentiles. Its operation is illustrated in the turning of the Gentiles from their sins, and in the destruction of the
national and religious barriers between them and the Jews, making of the two one Church in Christ, the dwelling-place of the Spirit, built on the foundation of the
apostles and prophets, with Christ as the corner-stone (Ephesians 2:1-22.

The inclusion of the Gentiles in the divine covenant is a mystery of which Paul has been made the minister. The intent of this mystery is to manifest through the Church to
the heavenly powers the manifold wisdom of God (Ephesians 3:2-10.

Thus far the theme, the Church, is struck at Ephesians 1:22, 23; 2:19-22; 3:10.

The prayer (Ephesians 3:14-21 includes the points already touched - the universal fatherhood of God; the sonship of Christ; the work of the Spirit in believers; the
indwelling of Christ by faith; love as the element of christian life; knowledge of the deep things of God - and returns to the main theme, the Church.

The key-note of the practical portion of the epistle is given in Ephesians 4:1: "Walk worthy of your calling." The practical exhortations contemplate individuals in their
relation to the Church. The fundamental duty is unity through the one informing Spirit (Ephesians 4:3, 4). The great factors of church fellowship are specified: "One
Lord" (Christ); one principle of "faith," uniting to Christ; one formal sign, "baptism," marking admission to the body of Christ; one universal "Father," ruling, pervading,
and dwelling in all (Ephesians 4:5, 6).

This unity of the Church includes and is furthered by various manifestations of the Spirit in the form of different gifts; and the authority of Christ to confer and distribute
these gifts is indicated by His descent to earth and Hades, and His ascent to the glory of the Father (Ephesians 4:7-16. In the thought that the purpose of these gifts is
the edifying of the body of Christ, the theme - the Church - is again sounded.

Practical exhortations follow, to spiritual renewal, truthfulness, peace, honesty, purity of speech and life, love, godly caution, temperance, holy meditation and christian
interchange, gratitude, and the reciprocal duties of husband and wife, in which last the church-theme is once more enunciated in typifying by the marriage-rite Christ's
love for the Church (Ephesians 4:7-.).

The Church includes the household. The exhortations to fidelity in household relations are continued (Ephesians 6:1-9 The ideal of the Church and of individual
character is realized only through conflict with the evil world and the powers of darkness, in which the power of God alone can insure victory. Hence the Christian is
urged to clothe himself with the divine panoply (Ephesians 6:10-18.

The authenticity of the epistle has been challenged on the ground of dissimilarity to the other writings of Paul, unusual words and phrases, and a general un-Pauline
character in doctrine and diction. As regards doctrine, the charge is beneath notice. As to diction, the argument from unusual expressions would bear equally against the
genuineness of some of the best attested epistles. While there are forty-two unique words in this letter, there are thirty-eight in Colossians, above a hundred in Romans,
and two hundred and thirty in First Corinthians; while the well-known peculiarities of Paul's style are as evident in this as in the other epistles.

The epistle has also been assailed as "a mere verbose expansion" of the Colossian letter. There are, indeed, marked resemblances between the two both in matter and
form, and sometimes literal correspondences, as might be expected in two epistles written about the same time; but both the subject and the treatment of the two
epistles present too many differences to bear out this charge of amplification. On the contrary, the same subject is sometimes treated more concisely in Ephesians than
in Colossians (Ephesians 1:15-17; Colossians 1:3-6; Ephesians 4:32; Colossians 3:12-14. Ephesians, moreover, contains matter not found in Colossians (Ephesians
1:13-14; 4:8-15; 5:7-14, 23-31; 6:10-17.

The polemic element in Colossians is wanting in Ephesians. The Christology of Colossians is more metaphysical than that of Ephesians, while the predestinarianism of
Ephesians does not appear in Colossians.

This epistle presents peculiar difficulties to the student. Dean Alford says: "The difficulties lie altogether beneath the surface; are not discernible by the cursory reader,
who finds all very straightforward and simple. But when we begin to inquire why thought succeeds to thought, and one cumbrous parenthesis to another - depths under
depths disclose themselves, wonderful systems of parallel allusion, frequent and complicated underplots - every word, the more we search, approves itself as set in its
exact logical place; we see every phrase contributing by its own similar organization and articulation to the carrying out of the organic whole. But this result is not won
without much labor of thought, without repeated and minute laying together of portions and expressions, without bestowing on single words and phrases, and their
succession and arrangement, as much study as would suffice for whole sections of more exoteric epistles."

While the diction is marked by a peculiar sonorousness and depth of tone, it does not surpass in variety and picturesqueness that of some other epistles, Second
Corinthians, for instance. The shorter epistle to the Colossians contains thirty-eight unique words to forty-two in Ephesians. But no writing of Paul equals this in the
liturgical majesty of its movement. The Epistle to the Romans is the ever-deepening flow of a stately river; Second Corinthians is the rush of a rapid; Ephesians is the
solemn swell of a calm sea. Not a familiar and personal letter like Philippians and Philemon, it is, equally with these, devoid of official stateliness. Its dignity is that of the
seer rather than of the bishop and teacher. It rises at times to the height of apocalypse. The impression of a teacher expounding his theme is largely merged in the
impression of a great mind and an adoring soul mastered and swept onward by the theme.

The figure of a cathedral, into which Professor Longfellow has so finely cast his general conception of the "Divina Commedia," equally well, perhaps, even better, suits
the Ephesian letter. If the expression may be allowed, that epistle is the veritable high-Gothic of sacred literature; every line and detail carrying the eye upward, and the
whole combining in one great upreach, irradiated with the rich hues Of a the many-tinted wisdom of God." Even as St. Ouen mirrors its lines in the font at the portal, the
whole magnificent ideal of the Church of Christ condenses itself into the inscription round the baptismal layer - "one Lord, one Faith, one Baptism." Every window is
blazoned with its story, but in each the central figure is the same - now the Victim of the cross, now the Conqueror with his train of captives, now the King ascended
and throned in light. No partition with its rigid lines sunders the band of worshippers. Jew and Gentile kneel side by side, every face turned toward the cross. On the
very threshold the ear is greeted with a burst of choral thunder. The vast aisles throb with praise, crossed with the minor chords of penitent rehearsal, and the deep
sighs of tempted
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for the children and servants; and over all the sweet, sad, triumphant tumult is heard the voice of the great apostle, rising with the incense-cloud from before the altar in
that wondrous prayer, never surpassed save by the intercessions of Jesus Himself - "That He would grant you, according to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened
with might by His Spirit in the inner man; that Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith; that ye, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend, with all
whole magnificent ideal of the Church of Christ condenses itself into the inscription round the baptismal layer - "one Lord, one Faith, one Baptism." Every window is
blazoned with its story, but in each the central figure is the same - now the Victim of the cross, now the Conqueror with his train of captives, now the King ascended
and throned in light. No partition with its rigid lines sunders the band of worshippers. Jew and Gentile kneel side by side, every face turned toward the cross. On the
very threshold the ear is greeted with a burst of choral thunder. The vast aisles throb with praise, crossed with the minor chords of penitent rehearsal, and the deep
sighs of tempted souls struggling with the powers of darkness; while from the side-chapels float the words of admonition to the newly-wedded, and of homely precept
for the children and servants; and over all the sweet, sad, triumphant tumult is heard the voice of the great apostle, rising with the incense-cloud from before the altar in
that wondrous prayer, never surpassed save by the intercessions of Jesus Himself - "That He would grant you, according to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened
with might by His Spirit in the inner man; that Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith; that ye, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend, with all
saints, what is the breadth, and length, and depth, and height; and to know the love of Christ which passeth knowledge, that ye might be filled unto all the fullness of
God."

THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS

For Colossae, see on Colossians 1:2.

The Gospel was first preached in the cities of the Lycus by Epaphras (Colossians 1:7; 4:12; Philemon 1:23), who may also have founded the churches there. The
theory that the church at Colossae was founded by Paul has no sufficient foundation. 6 The church had never been personally visited by Paul. Though his missionary
journeys had carried him into the Galatian and Phrygian country (Acts 16:6), the indefinite usage of these terms, the absence of all hints of a visit in the epistle itself, and
the notices of his route in the Acts, go to show that his path did not lie through the valley of the Lycus. Colossians 2:1 appears to indicate that the Colossians were
personally unknown to him.

The occasion of the letter was the visit of Epaphras to the apostle in prison, and Paul's communication with Colossae in the matter of the restoration of Onesimus.
Whether Epaphras shared his captivity or not (see on Philemon 1:23), he did not return to Colossae with this letter, but remained in Paul's company (Colossians 4:12);
and his stay in Rome was long enough to put the apostle fully in possession of the dangers which menaced the Colossian church. Paul took the opportunity of Tychicus'
journey to Colossae with Onesimus, to send this letter.

Phrygia was a favorable soil for the development of error. "Cosmological speculation, mystic theosophy, religious fanaticism, all had their home there." 7 The leading
worship was that of Cybele, the great Mother of the Gods, which was spread over Asia Minor generally, and especially prevailed in Mysia and Galatia. It was
orgiastic, accompanied with frenzied dances, howlings, and self-mutilations. Phrygia was also the home of Ophitism, or serpent-worship. Montanism, with its ecstasy
and trance, its faith-cures, its gloomy asceticism, its passion for martyrdom, and its savage intolerance, owed to Phrygia its leader; and the earlier name of the sect was
"the Sect of the Phrygians."

Under Antiochus the Great, two thousand Jewish families had been transplanted into Phrygia and Lydia; and while the staple of the church was Gentile, the epistle
distinctly recognizes the presence and operation of Jewish influences (Colossians 2:16-21.

The form of error which prevailed at Colossae included three elements: Jewish formalism; speculative mysticism, representing the germs of what afterward developed
as Gnosticism; and Essenism, the medium through which the Jewish and Gnostic elements came into combination.

Though Gnosticism, as such, had not developed itself at this time, a knowledge of its principal features is necessary to an intelligent reading of this epistle.

It took its name from gnosis knowledge, since it claimed for a select few the possession of a superior acquaintance with truth. Its tendencies were thus exclusive and
aristocratic. The Gnostics denied the direct creation of the world by God, because God would thus be shown to be the creator of evil. God's creative energy was
thwarted by the world of matter, which is essentially evil, in eternal antagonism to God, and with which God could not come into direct contact without tainting His
nature. Hence creation became possible only through a series of emanations from God, each successive emanation being less divine, until the point was reached where
contact with matter became possible. These emanations were called aeons, spirits, or angels; and to these worship was rendered with an affectation of humility in
approaching the lower grades of divinity, instead of venturing into the immediate presence of the Supreme. The evil of matter was to be escaped either by rigid
abstinence from the world of sense, or by independence of it. The system therefore tended to the opposite extremes of asceticism and licentiousness.

Essenism, in the apostolic age, had established itself in Asia Minor. The Essenes combined the ritualism of the Jew with the asceticism and mysticism of the Gnostic.
They rigorously observed the Mosaic ritual, except in the matter of slain sacrifices, which they refused to offer, regarding their ordinary meals as sacrificial rites. They
discountenanced marriage, and foreswore oil, wine, and animal food. Their theology revealed traces of sun-worship. Holding the immortality of the souls they denied
the resurrection of the body. Their also held some mystical doctrine of emanations, as agents in creation, akin to that of the Gnostic aeons. Like the Gnostics, they
maintained the evil of matter.

In this epistle Paul strikes at the intellectual exclusiveness of the Colossian heretics with the doctrine of the universality of the Gospel (Colossians 1:6, 23, 28; 3:11).
Their gnosis - the pretended higher, esoteric wisdom - is met with the assertion of the Gospel as the true wisdom, the common property of all believers. The words
wisdom, knowledge, full knowledge, intelligence, occur frequently in the epistle. Gnw~siv knowledge is used but once, while ejpi>gnwsiv full knowledge, occurs four
times, emphasizing the knowledge of God and of Christ as the perfection of knowledge. Divine wisdom is offered and prayed for as the privilege of Christians
(Colossians 1:9, 27, 28; 3:10, 16). The pretended wisdom is denounced as deceitful philosophy, founded in tradition, and both its Gentile and its Jewish phases are
characterized as mere elements or rudiments, unworthy of men in Christ (Colossians 2:8, 20). It is presumptuous and arrogant; a mere show of wisdom (Colossians
2:18, 23).

The doctrine of angelic mediators in the creation and government of the world is offset by the truth of the Eternal Son, begotten before the creation, by whom all things
were created and are maintained, and who is also the only and absolute head of the Church (Colossians 1:15-18. For a succession of angelic emanations, each less
divine than its predecessor, is substituted the Son of God, in whom dwells the sum-total of the divine powers and attributes (Colossians 1:19; 2:9). An angel or spirit,
who is neither God nor man, cannot reconcile God and man. For the haziness which invests the personality and character of these intermediaries, we have the sharply
defined personality of Christ, the Word made flesh, uniting in Himself the human and the divine, human even unto death, divine unto the eternal life and power of the
Godhead, and thus reconciling and bringing into perfect unity all things in Himself (Colossians 1:19, 22; 2:9, 10).

The person of Christ is thus exhibited in two aspects, the cosmical and the theological, in its relations to the universe and to the Church. On the one hand, Christ is
supreme in the creation and administration of the world (Colossians 1:15-17. "He is the beginning, middle, and end of creation." On the other hand, Christ is supreme in
the spiritual economy. "If the function of Christ is unique in the universe, so is it also in the Church." In Him alone man is reconciled and united to God. In Him alone the
individual children of God are compacted into one body, propelled and guided in their several activities, and each placed and held in due relation to the whole
(Colossians 1:18, 22; 2:10-15, 19).

In this rigorous insistence upon the person of Christ as alone solving the problem of God's relation to the world, Paul strikes not only at the Colossian error, but also at
the later error of Arius, whose Christ is of a different essence from God, His participation in the divine attributes partial, and His revelation therefore limited and
 CopyrightArianism
imperfect.   (c) 2005-2009,   Infobase
                      furnishes         Media
                                a principle      Corp. but not a basis of communion between the divine and the human. "The supernatural being whom Page
                                            of conduct,                                                                                                               9 forth
                                                                                                                                                              Arius sets / 567as
a mediator between God and man, does not unite, but separates them, for He serves to reveal the infinite, impassable gulf that lies between them." 8
(Colossians 1:18, 22; 2:10-15, 19).

In this rigorous insistence upon the person of Christ as alone solving the problem of God's relation to the world, Paul strikes not only at the Colossian error, but also at
the later error of Arius, whose Christ is of a different essence from God, His participation in the divine attributes partial, and His revelation therefore limited and
imperfect. Arianism furnishes a principle of conduct, but not a basis of communion between the divine and the human. "The supernatural being whom Arius sets forth as
a mediator between God and man, does not unite, but separates them, for He serves to reveal the infinite, impassable gulf that lies between them." 8

Bishop Lightfoot most truthfully remarks: "Christ's mediatorial function in the Church is represented as flowing from His mediatorial function in the world. With ourselves
this idea has retired very much into the background. Though in the creed common to all the churches we profess our belief in Him as the Being through whom all things
were created, yet in reality this confession seems to exercise very little influence on our thoughts. And the loss is serious. How much our theological conceptions suffer
in breadth and fullness by the neglect, a moment's reflection will show. How much more hearty would be the sympathy of theologians with the revelations of science and
the developments of history, if they habitually connected them with the operation of the same Divine Word, who is the center of all their religious aspirations, it is
needless to say." 9

The doctrine of Christ as the true and only medium of union between God and man is fatal to the voluntary humility which substitutes the worship of angels for that of
Christ. Christ is presented as the legitimate object of adoration, the refusal of which is a rupture of the connection between the members of the body and their Head
(Colossians 2:18, 19). All things must be done in His name. The intercourse of the Church, the relations of the household, are to take their impulse and character
directly from the indwelling word of Christ (Colossians 3:16-25. The Essene view of marriage is thus assailed (Colossians 3:18, 19). Asceticism, legalism, ritualism are
condemned as fixing the mind upon mere external things. Their precepts are the merest rudiments of an earthly and sensual economy - "shadows of things to come."
The imposition of these precepts is a moral tyranny: "mere legal obligations are a part of a dead compact, a torn and canceled bond, which is now nailed to Christ's
cross." They do not lift the life into the higher moral and spiritual plane; they do not protect it against the temptations of the flesh; they furnish no efficient remedy for sin
(Colossians 2:8, 16, 20, 23). Reconciliation with God through the blood of the cross will set the thoughts on heavenly things, will strangle unholy passions and
indulgences, and will create a new man in the image of Christ (Colossians 1:20; 2:11, 14; 3:1-10. By this; asceticism and licentiousness are alike branded (Colossians
3:5).

The genuineness and authenticity of the epistle were universally acknowledged by the early Church, and not seriously questioned until the attack of Mayerhoff in 1838,
followed by Baur and Schwegler. Holtzmann (1872) held that it was partly spurious, though containing a genuine epistle, which he fancied that he could extract. Dr.
Davidson denies the Pauline authorship, and thinks it was written about 120 A.D. The assaults are, in part, on the same grounds as those against Ephesians - textual
and grammatical departures from Paul's style, unique forms of expression, and differences of idea. Against Colossians in particular it is urged that the errors it attacks
are later than Paul's date.

The Pauline authorship cannot be overthrown by any of these considerations. As to the errors treated in the epistle, it has already been shown that they contained the
germs of later Gnosticism. The variations in style are no greater than those which appear in different writings by the same author. They are easily explained by difference
of subject, and by the mental changes in the writer himself. Many of the unique words are echoes of the vocabulary of the heretical teachers (see especially in ch. 2. and
notes), and every epistle of Paul contains numerous words which are found nowhere else. Not counting those which occur in the Septuagint, there are over a hundred in
both Romans and First Corinthians; over ninety in Second Corinthians; thirty-three or four in Galatians; forty-one in Philippians; over thirty in the two Thessalonian
letters, and above one hundred and fifty in the three Pastorals. The absence of peculiarly Pauline words and phrases it is only necessary flatly to deny. Any Greek
student may satisfy himself on that point by means of a Concordance.

The Christology of the epistle is that of the earlier epistles, only more fully developed. Notably the preexistence of Christ is emphasized. The doctrine of Christ's person
is more fully and precisely stated than in any other of Paul's letters.

The style lacks the richness and rhythmical sonorousness of Ephesians. This arises in part from its more controversial character, which betrays itself in Paul's style, here
as elsewhere, by his employment of unusual words and long compounds. The earlier chapters especially are marked by a certain stiffness which is imparted by the rarity
of the ordinary connecting particles, and the connection of the sentences by participial constructions and relative pronouns, or by "causal and inferential
conjunctions" (see Colossians 1). Bishop Lightfoot observes that "the absence of all personal connection with the Colossian church will partially, if not wholly, explain
the diminished fluency of this letter. At the same time no epistle of Paul is more vigorous in conception or more instinct with meaning. It is the very compression of the
thoughts which creates the difficulty. If there is a want of fluency, there is no want of force."

THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON

This epistle is the only private letter of Paul which has been preserved, and the only one in the New Testament except 3 John. 10

Onesimus, a slave, had run away from his master, Philemon, of Colossae, and had hidden himself in Rome, where he came under Paul's influence and was converted to
Christianity.

In his loyalty to the civil law, Paul felt that Onesimus, in fulfillment of his Christian duty, should return to his master. He had probably robbed Philemon, and should make
at least this restitution. He therefore sent Onesimus back to Colossae under the escort of Tychicus, who carried this letter to Philemon.

Paul did not attack slavery as an institution. He did not charge Philemon to emancipate his slave. For the final extinction of slavery he relied on the spirit of the Gospel,
and on its principle that all men are brethren in Christ and alike servants of the one heavenly Master.

After salutations to Philemon and his household, and acknowledgments of Philemon's loving service to the Church and to himself, he introduces the main subject of the
letter. He asks as a personal favor that Philemon will kindly receive Onesimus. He praises the ministries of the latter to himself, playing upon his name, "once
unprofitable but now profitable," and expressing his desire to keep him with himself. This, however, he will not do without Philemon's consent. If Philemon shall see fit
to retain him in his own service, he will find him, as a Christian, far more valuable than he was as a pagan slave. Perhaps his flight was divinely permitted, in order that
he might return to his master as a Christian brother. He hints delicately at Onesimus' possible thefts, offering his personal security for the amount stolen, though
intimating that Philemon is already in his debt for his own conversion. He is sure that Philemon will comply with his request. He thinks he will soon be released from
prison, and asks his friend to prepare him a lodging in view of his visit.

The epistle has always been celebrated as a model of Christian tact and courtesy. Paul waives his apostolic right to command, and throws himself upon the appeal of
Christian friendship, backing it with a delicate allusion to his sufferings for the Gospel's sake. Without palliating Onesimus' fault, he throws round him the protection of
his own confidence and esteem. He softens the phrases which describe the slave's fight and theft. He does not say "he ran away," but "he was separated from thee." He
does not say "he stole," but, "if he hath wronged thee or oweth thee aught." With exquisite tact he assumes that Philemon will regard Onesimus' ministries to the prisoner
as his own, and will rejoice in them as an expression of his own affection.

Few sections of Scripture contain within the same space more topics for the preacher. Among these may be noted, Fellowship in Christian service (Philemon 1, 2,11,
 Copyright
12, 13, 19): (c) 2005-2009,
             Friendship     Infobase
                        founded in faithMedia  Corp.1:3, 5-7, 20): The practical quality of love and faith (Philemon 1:2, 5, 6, 7): The true method of Christian
                                         (Philemon                                                                                                      Page 10      / 567
                                                                                                                                                                 persuasion:
The power of the Gospel to deal with the worst: The Christian method of dealing with bad social institutions: The union of all classes and conditions in Christ. 11
as his own, and will rejoice in them as an expression of his own affection.

Few sections of Scripture contain within the same space more topics for the preacher. Among these may be noted, Fellowship in Christian service (Philemon 1, 2,11,
12, 13, 19): Friendship founded in faith (Philemon 1:3, 5-7, 20): The practical quality of love and faith (Philemon 1:2, 5, 6, 7): The true method of Christian persuasion:
The power of the Gospel to deal with the worst: The Christian method of dealing with bad social institutions: The union of all classes and conditions in Christ. 11

The letter has often been compared with the younger Pliny's epistle to Sabinianus, written under similar circumstances. Doddridge remarks that although antiquity
furnishes no example of the epistolary style equal to Pliny's letter, Paul's letter to Philemon is far superior as a human composition. Dr. Davidson says: "It puts Paul's
character in a light which none other of his writings exhibit. The qualities which dictated its composition are eminently attractive. Dignity, generosity, prudence,
friendship, politeness, skillful address, purity, are apparent. Hence it has been called, with great propriety, 'the polite epistle.' True delicacy, fine address, consummate
courtesy, nice strokes of rhetoric, make it a unique specimen of the epistolary style. It shows the perfect Christian gentleman." Ewald: "Nowhere can the sensibility and
warmth of tender friendship blend more beautifully with the higher feeling of a superior mind, nay, of a teacher and apostle, than this brief and yet so eminently significant
letter." Renan: "A little chef-d'oeuere of the art of letter-writing." Calvin: "Though he handleth a subject which otherwise were low and mean, yet after his manner he is
borne up aloft unto God. With such modest entreaty doth he humble himself on behalf of the lowest of men, that scarce anywhere else is the gentleness of his spirit
portrayed more truly to the life." Maclaren: "Without thought of effect, and with complete unconsciousness, this man beats all the famous letter-writers on their own
ground. That must have been a great intellect, and closely conversant with the Fountain of all light and beauty, which could shape the profound and far-reaching
teachings of the epistle to the Colossians, and pass from them to the graceful simplicity and sweet kindliness of this exquisite letter; as if Michael Angelo had gone
straight from smiting his magnificent Moses from the marble mass, to incise some delicate and tiny figure of Love or Friendship on a cameo."

The authenticity of the epistle is conceded. The assaults of Baur and Holtzmann require no notice.

PAUL'S MISSIONARY JOURNEYS

First Journey (Acts 13, 14.) A.D. 45-46. Starting from Antioch in Syria.

Cyprus,

Perga,

Antioch in Pisidia,

Iconium,

Lystra and Derbe,

Return to Iconium,

Antioch in Pisidia,

Perga,

Attaleia,

Syrian Antioch.

Second journey (Acts 15:36 - 17:22), A.D. 53-56. Starting from Antioch in Syria.

Churches of Syria and Cilicia,

Derbe and Lystra,

Phrygia and Galatia,

Troas,

Macedonia,

Philippi,

Thessalonica,

Beroea,

Athens,

Corinth (writes 1 and 2 Thessalonians),

Ephesus,

Caesarea,

Jerusalem.

Third Journey (Acts 18:22 - 21:15), A.D. 56-60. Starting from Jerusalem.

Syrian Antioch,
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Galatia,

Phrygia,
Third Journey (Acts 18:22 - 21:15), A.D. 56-60. Starting from Jerusalem.

Syrian Antioch,

Galatia,

Phrygia,

Ephesus (writes First Corinthians, and, according to some, Galatians),

Troas,

Macedonia (writes Second Corinthians, place uncertain), Illyricum,

Corinth (writes Epistle to the Romans),

Troas,

Assos,

Mitylene,

Chios,

Trogyllium,

Miletus,

Cos,

Rhodes,

Patara.

Tyre,

Ptolemais,

Caesarea,

Jerusalem.

From Jerusalem to Caesarea. Two years in confinement. Voyage to Rome. Writes Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon from his Roman prison.

Subsequent movements uncertain. Epistles to Timothy and Titus commonly assigned to a second imprisonment at Rome.

ABBREVIATIONS
A.V. Authorized Version.

Cit. Cited.

= Equivalent to.

Expn. Explanation.

Lit. Literally.

Rev. Revised Version of the New Testament.

Rev. O.T. Revised Version of the Old Testament.

Sept. Septuagint Version of the Old Testament.

Sqq. Following.

Synop. Synoptists.

Tex. Rec. Received Text.

Tynd. Tyndale's Version of the New Testament.

Vulg. Vulgate or Latin Translation of the New Testament.

Wyc. Wycliffe's Version of the New Testament.

The phrase "only here in New Testament" refers to Greek words only.
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THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS
Wyc. Wycliffe's Version of the New Testament.

The phrase "only here in New Testament" refers to Greek words only.

THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS
CHAPTER 1

Superscription (vers. 1, 2). Dr. Morison observes that the superscription is peerless for its wealth of theological idea.

1. Paul (Pau~lov). A transcript for the Latin paulus or paullus, meaning little. It was a favorite name among the Cilicians, and the nearest approach in sound to the
Hebrew Saul. According to some, both names were borne by him in his childhood, Paulus being the one by which he was known among the Gentiles, and which was
subsequently assumed by him to the exclusion of the other, in order to indicate his position as the friend and teacher of the Gentiles. The practice of adopting Gentile
names may be traced through all the periods of Hebrew history. 12 Double names also, national and foreign, often occur in combination, as Belteshazzar-Daniel;
Esther-Hadasa; thus Saul-Paulus.

Others find in the name an expression of humility, according to Paul's declaration that he was "the least of the apostles" (1 Corinthians 15:9). Others, an allusion to his
diminutive stature; and others again think that he assumed the name out of compliment to Sergius Paulus, the deputy of Cyprus. Dean Howson, while rejecting this
explanation, remarks: "We cannot believe it accidental that the words 'who is also called Paul,' occur at this particular point of the inspired narrative. The heathen name
rises to the surface at the moment when St. Paul visibly enters on his office as the apostle of the heathen. The Roman name is stereotyped at the moment when he
converts the Roman governor."

A servant (dou~lov). Lit., bond-servant or slave. Paul applies the term to himself, Galatians 1:10; Philippians 1:1; Titus 1:1; and frequently to express the relation of
believers to Christ. The word involves the ideas of belonging to a master, and of service as a slave. The former is emphasized in Paul's use of the term, since Christian
service, in his view, has no element of servility, but is the expression of love and of free choice. From this stand-point the idea of service coheres with those of freedom
and of sonship. Compare 1 Corinthians 7:22; Galatians 4:7; Ephesians 6:6; Philemon 1:16.

On the other hand, believers belong to Christ by purchase (1 Corinthians 6:20; 1 Peter 1:18; Ephesians 1:7), and own Him as absolute Master. It is a question whether
the word contains any reference to official position. In favor of this it may be said that when employed in connection with the names of individuals, it is always applied to
those who have some special work as teachers or ministers, and that most of such instances occur in the opening salutations of the apostolic letters. The meaning, in any
case, must not be limited to the official sense.

Called to be an apostle (klhtostolov). As the previous phrase describes generally Paul's relation to Christ, this expression indicates it specifically. "Called to be an
apostle" (A.V. and Rev.), signifies called to the office of an apostle. 13 Yet, as Dr. Morison observes, there is an ambiguity in the rendering, since he who is simply
called to be an apostle may have his apostleship as yet only in the future. The Greek indicates that the writer was actually in the apostolate - a called apostle. Godet, "an
apostle by way of call."

Separated unto the gospel of God (ajfwrisme>nov eijv eujagge>lion Qeou~). Characterizing the preceding phrase more precisely: definitely separated from the rest of
mankind. Compare Galatians 1:15 and "chosen vessel," Acts 9:15. The verb means "to mark off (ajpo>) from others by a boundary (o[rov)." It is used of the final
separation of the righteous from the wicked (Matthew 13:49; 25:32); of the separation of the disciples from the world (Luke 6:22); and of the setting apart of apostles
to special functions (Acts 13:2). Gospel is an exception to the almost invariable usage, in being without the article (compare Revelation 14:6); since Paul considers the
Gospel rather as to its quality - good news from God - than as the definite proclamation of Jesus Christ as a Savior. The defining elements are added subsequently in
vers. 3, 4. Not the preaching of the Gospel, but; the message itself is meant. For Gospel, see on superscription of Matthew.

2. Had promised afore (proephggei>lato). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., He promised afore. Paul's Old Testament training is manifest. Naturally, in beginning
the more precise description of the new revelation, he refers first to its connection with ancient prophecy. The verb ejpagge>llomai; means more than to proclaim. It
occurs frequently, and always in the sense of profess or promise. See Mark 14:11; Acts 7:5; 1 Timothy 2:10; 6:21.

Prophets. Not limited to the prophets proper, but including all who, in the Old Testament, have prophesied the Gospel - Moses, David, etc. Compare Hebrews 1:1.

In the holy scriptures (ejn grafai~v aJgi>aiv). Or, more strictly, in holy writings. The scriptures would require the article. See on John 5:47; 2:22. Here again the
absence of the article denotes the qualitative character of the phrase - books which are holy as conveying God's revelations. On a[giov holy, see on Acts 26:10. This is
the only passage in which it is applied to scriptures.

3. Concerning His son. Connect with promised afore. Christ is the great personal object to which the promise referred.

4. Declared (oJrisqe>ntov). Rev., in margin, determined. The same verb as in the compound separated in ver. 1 Bengel says that it expresses more than "separated,"
since one of a number is separated, but only one is defined or declared. Compare Acts 10:42; 17:31 It means to designate one for something, to nominate, to instate.
There is an antithesis between born (ver. 3) and declared. As respected Christ's earthly descent, He was born like other men. As respected His divine essence, He was
declared. The idea is that of Christ's instatement or establishment in the rank and dignity of His divine sonship with a view to the conviction of men. This was required
by His previous humiliation, and was accomplished by His resurrection, which not only manifested or demonstrated what He was, but wrought a real transformation in
His mode of being. Compare Acts 2:36; "God made," etc.

With power (ejn duna>mei). Lit., in power. Construe with was declared. He was declared or instated mightily; in a striking, triumphant manner, through His
resurrection.

Spirit of holiness. In contrast with according to the flesh. The reference is not to the Holy Spirit, who is nowhere designated by this phrase, but to the spirit of Christ as
the seat of the divine nature belonging to His person. As God is spirit, the divine nature of Christ is spirit, and its characteristic quality is holiness.

Resurrection from the dead (ajnasta>sewv nekrw~n). Wrong, since this would require the preposition ejk from. Rev., correctly, of the dead Though this resurrection is
here represented as actually realized in one individual only, the phrase, as everywhere in the New Testament, signifies the resurrection of the dead absolutely and
generically - of all the dead, as exemplified, included, and involved in the resurrection of Christ. See on Philippians 3:11

5. We have received (ejla>bomen). Aorist tense. Rev., we received. The categorical plural, referring to Paul, and not including the other apostles, since the succeeding
phrase, among all the nations, points to himself alone as the apostle to the Gentiles

 Copyright
Grace       (c) 2005-2009,
       and apostleship.     Infobase
                        Grace,        Media
                               the general giftCorp.
                                               bestowed on all believers: apostleship, the special manifestation of grace to Paul. The connecting kai Page
                                                                                                                                                      and, has13
                                                                                                                                                              the /force
                                                                                                                                                                     567of
and in particular. Compare Romans 15:15, 16.

For obedience to the faith (eijv uJpakohstewv). Rev., unto obedience of faith. Unto marks the object of the grace and apostleship: in order to bring about. Obedience
5. We have received (ejla>bomen). Aorist tense. Rev., we received. The categorical plural, referring to Paul, and not including the other apostles, since the succeeding
phrase, among all the nations, points to himself alone as the apostle to the Gentiles

Grace and apostleship. Grace, the general gift bestowed on all believers: apostleship, the special manifestation of grace to Paul. The connecting kai and, has the force of
and in particular. Compare Romans 15:15, 16.

For obedience to the faith (eijv uJpakohstewv). Rev., unto obedience of faith. Unto marks the object of the grace and apostleship: in order to bring about. Obedience
of faith is the obedience which characterizes and proceeds from faith.

Nations (e]qnesin). Or Gentiles. Not geographically, contrasting the inhabitants of the world, Jew and Gentile, with the Jews strictly so called, dwelling in Palestine, but
Gentiles distinctively, for whom Paul's apostleship was specially instituted. See on Luke 2:32 and compare on 1 Peter 2:9.

6. Ye also. As Romans among other Gentiles: not, called as I am called.

7. In Rome (ejn c>mh|). The words are omitted in a MS. Of the tenth or eleventh century, and in a cursive 14 of the eleventh or twelfth. The words ejn >sw| in
Ephesus, are also omitted from Ephesians 1:1 by two of the oldest MSS. On which fact has arisen the theory that the Ephesian Epistle was encyclical, or addressed to
a circle of churches, and not merely to the church at Ephesus. This theory has been very widely received. With this has been combined the omission of in Rome from
the Roman Epistle, and the attempt has been made to show that the Roman Epistle was likewise encyclical, and was sent to Ephesus, Thessalonica, and possibly to
some other churches. Archdeacon Farrar advocates this view in "The Expositon," first ser., 9, 211; and also in his "Life and Work of Paul," 2, 170. This theory is used
to defend the view which places the doxology of Romans 16:25-27 at the end of Romans 14. See note there.

Called to be saints (klhtoi~v aJgi>oiv). Or, saints by way of call. See on called to be an apostle, ver. 1. It is asserted that they are what they are called. The term a[gioi
saints is applied to Christians in three senses in the New Testament. 1, As members of a visible and local community (Acts 9:32, 41; 26:10); 2, as members of a
spiritual community (1 Corinthians 1:2; Colossians 3:12); 3, as individually holy (Ephesians 1:18; Colossians 1:12; Revelation 13:10).

8. First (prw~ton me). Not above all, but in the first place. The form of the phrase leads us to expect a succeeding clause introduced by secondly or next; but this is
omitted in the fullness and rapidity of Paul's thought, which so often makes him negligent of the balance of his clauses.

Through Jesus Christ. As the medium of his thanksgiving: "As one who is present to his grateful thoughts; in so far, namely, as that for which he thanks God is vividly
perceived and felt by him to have been brought about through Christ." Compare Romans 7:25; Colossians 3:17; Ephesians 5:20. In penitence and in thanksgiving alike,
Jesus Christ is the one mediator through whom we have access to God.

For you all (perintwn uJmw~n). The preposition means rather concerning, about.

Is proclaimed (katagge>lletai). The different compounds of the simple verb ajgge>llw to announce, are interesting. The simple verb occurs only at John 20:18. 15
~>llein is to report with the additional idea of bringing tidings up to or back to the person receiving them. So John 5:15. The impotent man brought back information to
the Jews. Compare Mark 5:14. So Christ will send the Comforter, and He will bring back to the disciples tidings of things to come. John 16:13-15. See Acts 14:27; 2
Corinthians 7:7; 1 Peter 1:12.

~>llein is to announce with a reference to the source from (ajpo>) which the message comes So Matthew 2:8; Acts 12:14. Compare Luke 7:22; 8:34Acts 5:22.

Katagge>llein is to proclaim with authority, as commissioned to spread the tidings throughout, down among those that hear them, with the included idea of celebrating
or commending. So here. Compare Acts 16:21; 17:3. Thus in ajnagge>llein the recipient of the news is contemplated; in ajpagge>llein the source; in katagge>llein the
relation of the bearer and hearer of the message. The first is found mostly in John, Mark, and Acts; the second in the Synoptists and Acts; the third only. in the Acts and
Paul.

Throughout the whole world. Hyperbolical, but according with the position of the metropolitan church. Compare 1 Thessalonians 1:8.

9. I serve (latreu>w). See on Luke 1:74. The word was used in a special sense to denote the service rendered to Jehovah by the Israelites as His peculiar people. See
Romans 9:4; Acts 26:7. Compare Hebrews 9:1, 6. As in his Philippian letter, Paul here appropriates the Jewish word for the spiritual Christian service. See on
Philippians 3:3.

10. I might have a prosperous journey (eujodwqh>somai). Rev., I may be prospered. The A.V. brings out the etymological force of the word. See on 3 John 1:2.

11. Some spiritual gift (ti ca>risma). Note the modesty in some. Ca>risma is a gift of grace (ca>riv) a favor received without merit on the recipient's part. Paul uses it
both in this ordinary sense (Romans 5:15, 16; 6:23), and in a special, technical sense, denoting extraordinary powers bestowed upon individuals by the Holy Spirit,
such as gifts of healing, speaking with tongues, prophecy, etc. See Romans 12:6; 1 Corinthians 1:7; 12:4, 31; 1 Peter 4:10. In 1 Timothy 4:14; 2 Timothy 1:6 it is used
of the sum of the powers requisite for the discharge of the office of an evangelist.

To the end ye may be established (eijv to). Not that I may establish you. The modest use of the passive leaves out of view Paul's personal part. For established, see on
Luke 22:32; 1 Peter 5:10. The word shows that he had in view their christian character no less than their instruction in doctrine.

12. That is (tou~ou de> ejstin). The A.V. and Rev. omit de> however, thus losing an important shade of meaning. That is is not merely an explanatory repetition of the
preceding phrase, but modifies the idea contained in it. It is a modest and delicate explanation, by which Paul guards himself against the possible appearance of
underestimating the christian standpoint of his readers, to whom he was still, personally, a stranger. Hence he would say: "I desire to impart some spiritual gift that you
may be strengthened, not that I would imply a reproach of weakness or instability; but that I desire for you the strengthening of which I stand in need along with you,
and which I hope may be wrought in us both by our personal intercourse and our mutual faith."

13. I would not have you ignorant. An emphatic expression calling special attention to what follows. Compare 1 Corinthians 10:1; 1 Thessalonians 4:13.

Have some fruit (tina). the phrase, compare Romans 6:22. A metaphorical statement of what is stated literally in ver. 11. Not equivalent to bear fruit, but to gather as a
harvest. Compare John 4:36; Philippians 1:22; Colossians 1:6. Fruit is a favorite metaphor with Paul. He uses it in both a good and a bad sense. See Romans 7:4, 5;
6:22; Galatians 5:22.

14. Debtor (ojfeile>thv). All men, without distinction of nation or culture, are Paul's creditors, "He owes them his life, his person, in virtue of the grace bestowed upon
him, and of the office which he has received."(Godet).
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Greeks - Barbarians. Gentiles without distinction. Paul takes the conventional Greek division of all mankind into Greeks and non-Greeks. See on Acts 6:1. The
question whether he includes the Romans among the Greeks or the Barbarians, is irrelevant.
6:22; Galatians 5:22.

14. Debtor (ojfeile>thv). All men, without distinction of nation or culture, are Paul's creditors, "He owes them his life, his person, in virtue of the grace bestowed upon
him, and of the office which he has received."(Godet).

Greeks - Barbarians. Gentiles without distinction. Paul takes the conventional Greek division of all mankind into Greeks and non-Greeks. See on Acts 6:1. The
question whether he includes the Romans among the Greeks or the Barbarians, is irrelevant.

15. To you also that are in Rome. To you refers to the christian Church, not to the population generally. In every verse, from 6 to 13, uJmei~v you refers to the Church.

16. For (ga). Marking the transition from the introduction to the treatise. "I am ready to preach at Rome, for, though I might seem to be deterred by the contempt in
which the Gospel is held, and by the prospect of my own humiliation as its preacher, I am not ashamed of it." The transition occupies vers. 16, 17.

The Gospel. Omit of Christ.

Power (du>namiv). Not merely a powerful means in God's hands, but in itself a divine energy.

First. Not principally, nor in preference to the Greek; but first in point of time. Compare John 4:22; Romans 3:1; 9:1; Matthew 15:24.

17. For therein is the righteousness of God revealed (dikaiosu>nh gaptetai). Rev., more correctly, therein is revealed a righteousness of God. The absence of the article
denotes that a peculiar kind of righteousness is meant. This statement contains the subject of the epistle: Righteousness is by faith. The subject is not stated formally nor
independently, but as a proof that the Gospel is a power, etc.

This word dikaiosu>nh righteousness, and its kindred words di>kaiov righteous, and dikaio>w to make righteous, play so important a part in this epistle that it is
desirable to fix their meaning as accurately as possible.

CLASSICAL USAGE. In the Greek classics there appears an eternal, divine, unwritten principle of right, dwelling in the human consciousness, shaping both the
physical and the moral ordering of the world, and personified as Themis (Qe>miv). This word is used as a common noun in the phrase qe>miv ejsti it is right
(fundamentally and eternally), like the Latin fas est. Thus Homer, of Penelope mourning for Ulysses, qe>miv ejstiv it is the sacred obligation of the wife (founded in her
natural relation to her husband, ordained of heaven) to mourn ("Odyssey," 14, 130). So Antigone appeals to the unwritten law against the barbarity of refusing burial to
her brother.

"Nor did I deem thy edicts strong enough,

That thou, a mortal man, shouldst overpass

The unwritten laws of God that know not change."

SOPHOCLES, "Antigone," 453-455.

See, also, "Odyssey," 14, 91; Aristophanes, "Clouds," 140; "Antigone," 880.

This divine ordering requires that men should be shown or pointed to that which is according to it - a definite circle of duties and obligations which constitute right
(di>kh). 16 Thus what is di>kaiov righteous, is properly the expression of the eternal Themis. While di>kh and qe>miv are not to be distinguished as human and divine,
di>kh has a more distinctively human, personal character, and comes into sharper definition. It introduces the distinction between absolute right and power. It imposes
the recognition of a moral principle over against an absolutely constraining natural force. The conception of di>kh is strongly moral. 17 Di>kaiov is right; dikaiosu>nh is
rightness as characterizing the entire being of man.

There is a religious background to the pagan conception. In the Homeric poems morality stands in a relation, loose and undeveloped indeed, but none the less real, to
religion. This appears in the use of the oath in compacts; in the fear of the wrath of heaven for omission of sacrifices; in regarding refusal of hospitality as an offense
against Zeus, the patron of strangers and suppliants. Certain tribes which are fierce and uncivilized are nevertheless described as di>kaioi righteous. "The characteristic
stand-point of the Homeric ethics is that the spheres of law, of morals, and of religion are by no means separate, but lie side by side in undeveloped
unity." (Nagelsbach).

In later Greek literature this conception advances, in some instances, far toward the christian ideal; as in the fourth book of Plato's "Laws," where he asserts that God
holds in His hand the beginning, middle, and end of all things; that justice always follows Him, and punishes those who fall short of His laws. Those who would be dear
to God must be like Him. Without holiness no man is accepted of God.

Nevertheless, however clearly the religious background and sanction of morality may be recognized, it is apparent that the basis of right is found, very largely, in
established social usage. The word ethics points first to what is established by custom. While with Mr. Grote we must admit the peculiar emphasis on the individual in
the Homeric poems, we cannot help observing a certain influence of social sentiment on morals. While there are cases like the suitors, Paris and Helen, where public
opinion imposes no moral check, there are others where the force of public opinion is clearly visible, such as Penelope and Nausicaa. The Homeric view of homicide
reveals no relation between moral sentiment and divine enactment. Murder is a breach of social law, a private and civil wrong, entailing no loss of character. Its penalty
is a satisfaction to the feelings of friends, or a compensation for lost services.

Later, we find this social aspect of morality even more strongly emphasized. "The city becomes the central and paramount source of obligation. The great, impersonal
authority called 'the Laws' stands out separately, both as guide and sanction, distinct from religious duty or private sympathy" (Grote). Socrates is charged with impiety
because he does not believe in the gods of the state, and Socrates himself agrees that that man does right who obeys what the citizens have agreed should be done, and
who refrains from what they forbid. 18

The social basis of righteousness also appears in the frequent contrast between di>kh and bi>a, right and force. A violation of right is that which forces its way over the
social sanction. The social conception of di>kaiov is not lost, even when the idea is so apprehended as to border on the christian love of one's neighbor. There is a
wrong toward the gods, but every wrong is not in itself such. The inner, personal relation to deity, the absolute and constraining appeal of divine character and law to
conscience, the view of duty as one's right, and of personal right as something to be surrendered to the paramount claim of love - all these elements which distinguish
the christian conception of righteousness - are thus in sharp contrast with a righteousness dictated by social claims which limit the individual desire or preference, but
which leave untouched the tenacity of personal right, and place obligation behind legitimacy. 19

ItCopyright
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absolute and final standard of right, and every wrong is a sin against God (Psalms 51:4). Each man stands in direct and primary relation to the holy God as He is by the
law of His own nature. Righteousness is union with God in character. To the Greek mind of the legendary age such a conception is both strange and essentially
impossible, since the Greek divinity is only the Greek man exaggerated in his virtues and vices alike. According to the christian ideal, righteousness is character, and the
conscience, the view of duty as one's right, and of personal right as something to be surrendered to the paramount claim of love - all these elements which distinguish
the christian conception of righteousness - are thus in sharp contrast with a righteousness dictated by social claims which limit the individual desire or preference, but
which leave untouched the tenacity of personal right, and place obligation behind legitimacy. 19

It is desirable that the classical usage of these terms should be understood, in order to throw into sharper relief the Biblical usage, according to which God is the
absolute and final standard of right, and every wrong is a sin against God (Psalms 51:4). Each man stands in direct and primary relation to the holy God as He is by the
law of His own nature. Righteousness is union with God in character. To the Greek mind of the legendary age such a conception is both strange and essentially
impossible, since the Greek divinity is only the Greek man exaggerated in his virtues and vices alike. According to the christian ideal, righteousness is character, and the
norm of character is likeness to God. This idea includes all the social aspects of right. Love and duty toward God involve love and duty to the neighbor.

Here must be noted a peculiar usage of di>kaiov righteous, and dikaiosu>nh righteousness, in the Septuagint. They are at times interchanged with ejlehmosu>nh mercy,
and e]leov kindness. The Hebrew chesed kindness, though usually rendered by e]leov, is nine times translated by dikaiosu>nh righteousness, and once by di>kaiov
righteous. The Hebrew tsedakah, usually rendered by dikaiosu>nh, is nine times translated by ejlehmosu>nh mercy, and three times by e]leov kindness. Compare the
Heb. and Sept. at Deuteronomy 6:25; 24:13 (15); Genesis 19:19; 24:27. This usage throws light on the reading dikaiosu>nhn, Rev., righteousness (kindness?), instead
of ejlehmosu>nhn mercy, A.V., alms, Matthew 6:1. Mr. Hatch ("Essays in Biblical Greek") says that the meaning kindness is so clear in this passage that scribes, who
were unaware of its existence, altered the text. He also thinks that this meaning gives a better sense than any other to Matthew 1:19 "Joseph, being a kindly (di>kaiov,
A.V., just) man." 20

1. In the New Testament di>kaiov is used both of God and of Christ. Of God, 1 John 1:9; John 17:25; Revelation 16:5; Romans 3:26. Of Christ, 1 John 2:1; 3:7; Acts
3:14; 7:52; 22:14. In these passages the word characterizes God and Christ either in their essential quality or in their action; either as righteous according to the eternal
norm of divine holiness (John 17:25; 1 John 3:7; Romans 3:26), or as holiness passes into righteous dealing with men (1 John 1:9).

2. Di>kaiov is used of men, denoting their normal relation to the will and judgment of God. Hence it means virtuous upright, pure in life, correct in thinking and feeling. It
stands opposed to ajnomi>a lawlessness; aJmarti>a sin; ajkaqarsi>a impurity, a contrast wanting in classical usage, where the conception of sin is vague. See Romans
6:13, 16, 18, 20; 8:10; 2 Corinthians 6:7, 14; Ephesians 5:9; 6:14; Philippians 1:11; James 3:18.

Where dikaiosu>nh righteousness, is joined with oJsio>thv holiness (Luke 1:75; Ephesians 4:24), it denotes right conduct toward men, as holiness denotes piety toward
God. It appears in the wider sense of answering to the demands of God in general, Matthew 13:17; 10:41; 23:29; Acts 10:22, 35; and in the narrower sense of
perfectly answering the divine demands, guiltless. So of Christ, Acts 3:14; 1 Peter 3:18; 1 John 2:1.

3. It is found in the classical sense of it is right, Philippians 1:7 or that which is right, Colossians 4:1. This, however, is included within the Christian conception.

Dikaiosu>nh righteousness, is therefore that which fulfills the claims of di>kh right. "It is the state commanded by God and standing the test of His judgment; the
character and acts of a man approved of Him, in virtue of which the man corresponds with Him and His will as His ideal and standard" (Cremer).

The medium of this righteousness is faith. Faith is said to be counted or reckoned for righteousness; i.e., righteousness is ascribed to it or recognized in it. Romans 4:3,
6, 9, 22; Galatians 3:6; James 2:23.

In this verse the righteousness revealed in the Gospel is described as a righteousness of God. This does not mean righteousness as an attribute of God, as in Romans
3:5; but righteousness as bestowed on man by God. The state of the justified man is due to God. The righteousness which becomes his is that which God declares to be
righteousness and ascribes to him. Righteousness thus expresses the relation of being right into which God puts the man who believes. See further, on justified, Romans
2:13.

Is revealed (ajpokalu>ptetai). Emphasizing the peculiar sense in which "righteousness" is used here. Righteousness as an attribute of God was revealed before the
Gospel. Righteousness in this sense is a matter of special revelation through the Gospel. The present tense describes the Gospel in its continuous proclamation: is being
revealed.

From faith to faith (ejk pi>stewv eijv pi>stin). Rev., by faith unto faith. According to the A.V. the idea is that of progress in faith itself; either from Old to New
Testament faith, or, in the individual, from a lower to a higher degree of faith; and this idea, I think, must be held here, although it is true that it is introduced secondarily,
since Paul is dealing principally with the truth that righteousness is by faith. We may rightly say that the revealed righteousness of God is unto faith, in the sense of with a
view to produce faith; but we may also say that faith is a progressive principle; that the aim of God's justifying righteousness is life, and that the just lives by his faith
(Galatians 2:20), and enters into "more abundant" life with the development of his faith. Compare 2 Corinthians 2:16; 3:18; 4:17; Romans 6:19; and the phrase,
justification of life, Romans 5:18.

THE BEGINNING OF THE DISCUSSION.

18. For. All men require this mode of justification, for all men are sinners, and therefore exposed to God's wrath.

The wrath of God (ojrgh). Not punishment, but the personal emotion. See on John 3:36.

Ungodliness and unrighteousness (ajse>beian kaian). Irreligiousness and immorality. See on godliness, 2 Peter 1:3; also 2 Peter 2:13.

Hold (kateco>ntwn). Not possess: compare ver. 21. Rev., correctly, hold down; i.e., hinder or i. Compare 2 Thessalonians 2:6, 7; Luke 4:42.

The truth. Divine truth generally, as apparent in all God's self-revelations.

19. That which may be known (to). So A.V. and Rev., as equivalent to that which is knowable. But that which is knowable was not revealed to the heathen. If it was,
what need of a revelation? Better, that which is known, the universal sense in the New Testament, signifying the universal objective knowledge of God as the Creator,
which is, more or less, in all men.

In them. In their heart and conscience. The emphasis should be on in. Thus the apparent tautology - what is known is manifest - disappears.

20. The invisible things of Him. The attributes which constitute God's nature, afterward defined as "His eternal power and divinity."

From the creation (ajpo>). From the time of. Rev., since.

Are clearly seen (kaqora~tai). We have here an oxymoron, literally a pointedly foolish saying; a saying which is impressive or witty through sheer contradiction or
paradox. Invisible
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coward. In English compare Shakespeare:

"Dove-feathered raven, fiend angelical;
From the creation (ajpo>). From the time of. Rev., since.

Are clearly seen (kaqora~tai). We have here an oxymoron, literally a pointedly foolish saying; a saying which is impressive or witty through sheer contradiction or
paradox. Invisible things are clearly visible. See on Acts 5:41. Illustrations are sometimes furnished by single words, as gluku>pikrov bittersweet; qrasu>deilov a bold
coward. In English compare Shakespeare:

"Dove-feathered raven, fiend angelical;

Beautiful tyrant, wolfish-ravening lamb."

Spenser:

"Glad of such luck, the luckless lucky maid."

Godhead (qeio>thv). Rev., better, divinity. Godhead expresses deity (qeo>thv). qeio>thv is godhood, not godhead. It signifies the sum-total of the divine attributes.

So that they are (eijv to). The A.V. expresses result; but the sense is rather purpose. The revelation of God's power and divinity is given, so that, if, after being
enlightened, they fall into sin, they may be without defense.

Without excuse (ajnapologh>touv). See on answer, 1 Peter 3:15. Only here and Romans 2:1.

21. Knowing - glorified not. "I think it may be proved from facts that any given people, down to the lowest savages, has at any period of its life known far more than it
has done: known quite enough to have enabled it to have got on comfortably, thriven and developed, if it had only done what no man does, all that it knew it ought to
do and could do" (Charles Kingsley, "The Roman and the Teuton").

Became vain (ejmataiw>qhsan). Vain things (ma>taia) was the Jews' name for idols. Compare Acts 4:15. Their ideas and conceptions of God had no intrinsic value
corresponding with the truth. "The understanding was reduced to work in vacuo. It rendered itself in a way futile" (Godet).

Imaginations (dialogismoi~v). Rev., better, reasonings. See on Matthew 15:19; Mark 7:21; James 2:4.

Foolish (ajsu>netov). See on suneto>v prudent, Matthew 11:67 and the kindred word su>nesiv understanding, Mark 12:33; Luke 2:47. They did not combine the
facts which were patent to their observation.

Heart (kardi>a). The heart is, first, the physical organ, the center of the circulation of the blood. Hence, the seat and center of physical life. In the former sense it does
not occur in the New Testament. As denoting the vigor and sense of physical life, see Acts. 14:17; James 5:5; Luke 21:34. It is used fifty-two times by Paul.

Never used like yuch>, soul, to denote the individual subject of personal life, so that it can be exchanged with the personal pronoun (Acts 2:43; 3:23; Romans 13:1);
nor like pneu~ma spirit, to denote the divinely-given principle of life.

It is the central seat and organ of the personal life (yuch>) of man regarded in and by himself. Hence it is commonly accompanied with the possessive pronouns, my,
his, thy, etc.

Like our heart it denotes the seat of feeling as contrasted with intelligence. 2 Corinthians 2:4; Romans 9:2; 10:1; 2 Corinthians 6:11; Philippians 1:7. But it is not limited
to this. It is also the seat of mental action, feeling, thinking, willing. It is used

1.Of intelligence, Romans 1:21; 2 Corinthians 3:15; 4:6; Ephesians 1:18.

2.Of moral choice, 1 Corinthians 7:37; 2 Corinthians 9:7.

3.As giving impulse and character to action, Romans 6:17; Ephesians 6:5; Colossians 3:22; 1 Timothy 1:5; 2 Timothy 2:22. The work of the law is written on the heart,
Romans 2:15. The Corinthian Church is inscribed as Christ's epistle on hearts of flesh, 2 Corinthians 2:23.

4.Specially, it is the seat of the divine Spirit, Galatians 4:6; Romans 5:5; 2 Corinthians 1:22. It is the sphere of His various operations, directing, comforting, establishing,
etc., Philippians 4:7; Colossians 3:15; 1 Thessalonians 3:13; 2 Thessalonians 2:17; 3:5. It is the seat of faith, and the organ of spiritual praise, Romans 10:9; Ephesians
5:19; Colossians 3:16.

It is equivalent to the inner man, Ephesians 3:16, 17. Its characteristic is being hidden, Romans 2:28, 29; 8:27; 1 Corinthians 4:5; 14:25.

It is contrasted with the face, 1 Thessalonians 2:17; 2 Corinthians 5:12; and with the mouth, Romans 10:8. 21

22. Professing (fa>skontev). The verb is used of unfounded assertion, Acts 24:9; 25:19; Revelation 2:2.

Wise, they became fools. Another oxymoron; see on ver. 20. Compare Horace, insaniens sapientia raving wisdom. Plato uses the phrase ma>taion doxosofi>an vain-
glorying of wisdom ("Sophist," 231),

23. Image made like (oJmoiw>mati eijko>nov). Rev., more literally, the likeness of an image. See on Revelation 13:14. Equivalent to what was shaped like an image.
Likeness indicates the conformity with the object of comparison in appearance; image, the type in the artist's mind; the typical human form. See, further, on Philippians
2:7.

Birds and beasts and creeping things. Deities of human form prevailed in Greece; those of the bestial form in Egypt; and both methods of worship were practiced in
Rome. See on Acts 7:41. Serpent-worship was common in Chaldaea, and also in Egypt. The asp was sacred throughout the latter country. The worship of Isis was
domesticated at Rome, and Juvenal relates how the priests of Isis contrived that the silver images of serpents kept in her temple should move their heads to a suppliant
("Satire" vi., 537). Many of the subjects of paintings in the tombs of the kings at Thebes show the importance which the serpent was thought to enjoy in the future state.
22 Dollinger says that the vestal virgins were intrusted with the attendance upon a holy serpent, and were charged with supplying his table with meats on festival days.

24. Gave them up (pare>dwken). Handed them over to the power of sin. See on Matthew 4:12; 11:27; 26:2; Mark 4:29; Luke 1:2; 1 Peter 2:23.
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for their punishment. He gave them up as being those who, etc. Meth>llaxan exchanged (so Rev.), is stronger than the simple verb in ver. 23. Godet renders travestied.
Compare the same word in ver. 26.
22 Dollinger says that the vestal virgins were intrusted with the attendance upon a holy serpent, and were charged with supplying his table with meats on festival days.

24. Gave them up (pare>dwken). Handed them over to the power of sin. See on Matthew 4:12; 11:27; 26:2; Mark 4:29; Luke 1:2; 1 Peter 2:23.

25. Who changed (oi[tinev meth>llaxan). Rev., for that they exchanged. The double relative specifies the class to which they belonged, and thereby includes the reason
for their punishment. He gave them up as being those who, etc. Meth>llaxan exchanged (so Rev.), is stronger than the simple verb in ver. 23. Godet renders travestied.
Compare the same word in ver. 26.

Truth of God. Equivalent to the true God.

Into a lie (ejn tw|~ yeu>dei). Better, as Rev., exchanged, etc., for a lie. Lit., the lie; a general abstract expression for the whole body of false gods. Bengel remarks, "the
price of mythology."

Worshipped and served (ejseba>sqhsan kaitreusan). The former of worship generally; the latter of worship through special rites or sacrifices. On the latter verb, see on
Revelation 22:3.

More than the Creator (para>). The preposition indicates passing by the Creator altogether; not merely giving preference to the creature. Hence Rev., rather than.
Compare Luke 18:14 where the approved reading is par' ejkei~non rather than the other, implying that the Pharisee was in no respect justified.

Blessed (eujloghto). See on 1 Peter 1:3.

26. Vile affections (pa>qh ajtimi>av). Lit., passions of dishonor Rev., passions. As distinguished from ejpiqumi>ai lusts, in ver. 24, pa>qh passions, is the narrower and
intenser word. 'Epiqumi>a is the larger word, including the whole world of active lusts and desires, while the meaning of pa>qov is passive, being the diseased condition
out of which the lusts spring. qb>ai are evil longings; pa>qh ungovernable affections. Thus it appears that the divine punishment was the more severe, in that they were
given over to a condition, and not merely to an evil desire. The two words occur together, 1 Thessalonians 4:5.

Women (qh>leiai). Strictly, females. This, and a]rsenev males, are used because only the distinction of sex is contemplated.

27. Burned (ejxekau>qhsan). The terms are terrible in their intensity. Lit., burned out. The preposition indicates the rage of the lust.

Lust (ojre>xei). Only here in the New Testament. It is a reaching out after something with the purpose of appropriating it. In later classical Greek it is the most general
term for every kind of desire, as the appetite for food. The peculiar expressiveness of the word here is sufficiently evident from the context.

That which is unseemly (thnhn). Primarily, want of form, disfigurement. Plato contrasts it with eujschmosu>nh gracefulness ("Symposium," 196).

Which was meet (e]dei). Rev., was due, which is better, though the word expresses a necessity in the nature of the case - that which must needs be as the consequence
of violating the divine law.

The prevalence of this horrible vice is abundantly illustrated in the classics. See Aristophanes, "Lysistrata," 110; Plato, "Symposium," 191; Lucian, "Amores," 18;
"Dialogi Meretricii," 5, 2; Juvenal, 6, 311; Martial, 1, 91; 7, 67. See also Becker's "Charicles;" Forsyth's "Life of Cicero," pp. 289, 336; and Dollinger's "Heathen and
Jew," ii., 273 sqq. Dollinger remarks that in the whole of the literature of the ante-Christian period, hardly a writer has decisively condemned it. In the Doric states,
Crete and Sparta, the practice was favored as a means of education, and was acknowledged by law. Even Socrates could not forbear feeling like a Greek on this point
(see Plato's "Charmides"). In Rome, in the earlier centuries of the republic, it was of rare occurrence; but at the close of the sixth century it had become general. Even
the best of the emperors, Antoninus and Trajan, were guilty.

On the Apostle's description Bengel remarks that "in stigmatizing we must often call a spade a spade. The unchaste usually demand from others an absurd modesty."
Yet Paul's reserve is in strong contrast with the freedom of pagan writers (see Ephesians 5:12). Meyer notes that Paul delineates the female dishonor in less concrete
traits than the male.

28. Even as. Expressing the correlation between the sin and the punishment.

They did not like to have God in their knowledge (oujk ejdoki>masan). Lit., did not approve. Rev., refused. They did not think God worth the knowing. Compare 1
Thessalonians 2:4. Knowledge (ejpignw>sei) is, literally, full knowledge. They did not suffer the rudimentary revelation of nature to develop into full knowledge - "a
penetrating and living knowledge of God" (Meyer). In Dante's division of Hell, the section assigned to Incontinence, or want of self-control, is succeeded by that of
Bestiality, or besotted folly, which comprises infidelity and heresy in all their forms - sin which Dante declares to be the most stupid, vile, and hurtful of follies. Thus the
want of self-restraint is linked with the failure to have God in knowledge. Self is truly possessed only in God. The tendency of this is ever downward toward that
demoniac animalism which is incarnated in Lucifer at the apex of the infernal cone, and which is so powerfully depicted in this chapter. See "Inferno," 9.

Reprobate mind (ajdo>kimon nou~n). Lit., not standing the test. See on is tried, James 1:12; and trial, 1 Peter 1:7. There is a play upon the words. As they did not
approve, God gave them up unto a mind disapproved. This form of play upon words of similar sound is perhaps the most frequent of Paul's rhetorical figures, often
consisting in the change of preposition in a compound, or in the addition of a preposition to the simple verb. Thus peritomh> circumcision, katatomh> concision,
Philippians 3:2, 3. "Our epistle known (ginwskome>nh) and read (ajnaginwskome>nh)." Compare Romans 2:1; 1 Corinthians 11:29-31; Romans 12:3. 23 The word
reprobate is from re-probare, to reject on a second trial, hence, to condemn.

29. Filled. The retribution was in full measure. Compare Proverbs 1:31; Revelation 18:6.

Wickedness (ponhri>a|). See on Mark 7:22.

Covetousness (pleonexi>a|). Lit., the desire of having more. It is to be distinguished from filarguri>a, rendered love of money, 1 Timothy 6:10 and its kindred adjective
fila>rgurov, which A.V. renders covetous Luke 16:14; 2 Timothy 3:2; properly changed by Rev. into lovers of money. The distinction is expressed by covetousness
and avarice. The one is the desire of getting, the other of keeping. Covetousness has a wider and deeper sense, as designating the sinful desire which goes out after
things of time and sense of every form and kind. Hence it is defined by Paul (Colossians 3:5) as idolatry, the worship of another object than God, and is so often
associated with fleshly sins, as 1 Corinthians 5:11; Ephesians 5:3, 5; Colossians 3:5. Lightfoot says: "Impurity and covetousness may be said to divide between them
nearly the whole domain of selfishness and vice." Socrates quotes an anonymous author who compares the region of the desires in the wicked to a vessel full of holes,
and says that, of all the souls in Hades, these uninitiated or leaky persons are the most miserable, and that they carry water to a vessel which is full of holes in a similarly
holey colander. The colander is the soul of the ignorant (Plato, "Gorgias," 493). Compare, also, the description of covetousness and avarice by Chaucer, "Romaunt of
the Rose," 183-246.
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"Covetise

That eggeth folk in many a guise
nearly the whole domain of selfishness and vice." Socrates quotes an anonymous author who compares the region of the desires in the wicked to a vessel full of holes,
and says that, of all the souls in Hades, these uninitiated or leaky persons are the most miserable, and that they carry water to a vessel which is full of holes in a similarly
holey colander. The colander is the soul of the ignorant (Plato, "Gorgias," 493). Compare, also, the description of covetousness and avarice by Chaucer, "Romaunt of
the Rose," 183-246.

"Covetise

That eggeth folk in many a guise

To take and yeve (give) right nought again,

And great treasoures up to laine (lay).

And that is she that maketh treachours,

And she maketh false pleadours.

Full crooked were her hondes (hands) two,

For Covetise is ever woode (violent)

To grippen other folkes goode."

"Avarice

Full foul in painting was that vice.

She was like thing for hunger dead,

That lad (led) her life onely by bread.

This Avarice had in her hand

A purse that honge by a band,

And that she hid and bond so strong,

Men must abide wonder long,

Out of the purse er (ere) there come aught,

For that ne commeth in her thought,

It was not certaine her entent

That fro that purse a peny went."

Maliciousness (kaki>a|). See on naughtiness, James 1:21.

Full (mestou). Properly, stuffed.

Envy, murder (fqo>nou, fo>nou). Phthonou, phonou. A parononasia or combination of like-sounding words. 24 Compare Galatians 5:21. Murder is conceived as a
thought which has filled the man. See 1 John 3:15.

Debate (e]ridov). In the earlier sense of the word (French, debattre, to beat down, contend) including the element of strife. So Chaucer:

"Tales both of peace and of debates."

"Man of Law's Tale," 4550.

Later usage has eliminated this element. Dr. Eadie ("English Bible") relates that a member of a Scottish Church-court once warned its members not to call their
deliberations "a debate," since debate was one of the sins condemned by Paul in this passage. Rev., correctly, strife.

Deceit (do>lou). See on John 1:47.

Malignity (kakohqei>av). Malicious disposition.

30. Haters of God (qeostugei~v). Rev., hateful to God. All classical usage is in favor of the passive sense, but all the other items of the list are active. Meyer defends
the passive on the ground that the term is a summary of what precedes. The weight of authority is on this side. The simple verb stuge>w to hate, does not occur in the
New Testament. Stughto>v hateful, is found Titus 3:3. The verb is stronger than, mise>w I hate, since it means to show as well as to feel hatred.

Proud (uJperhfa>nouv). Rev., haughty. See on pride, Mark 7:22.

Boasters (ajlazo>nav). Swaggerers. Not necessarily implying contempt or insult.

31. Without understanding, covenant-breakers (ajsune>touv ajsunqe>touv). Another paronomasia: asynetous, asynthetous. This feature of style is largely due to the
pleasure which all people, and especially Orientals, derive from the assonance of a sentence. Archdeacon Farrar gives a number of illustrations: the Arabic Abel and
Kabel  (Abel(c)
 Copyright    and2005-2009,
                  Cain); DalutInfobase
                                 and G'ialut  (David
                                          Media        and Goliath). A Hindoo constantly adds meaningless rhymes, even to English words, as button-bitten;
                                                   Corp.                                                                                                   Pagekettley-bittley.
                                                                                                                                                                    19 / 567
Compare the Prayer-book, holy and wholly; giving and forgiving; changes and chances. Shakespeare, sorted and consorted; in every breath a death. He goes on to
argue that these alliterations, in the earliest stages of language, are partly due to a vague belief in the inherent affinities of words ("Language and Languages," 227).
Boasters (ajlazo>nav). Swaggerers. Not necessarily implying contempt or insult.

31. Without understanding, covenant-breakers (ajsune>touv ajsunqe>touv). Another paronomasia: asynetous, asynthetous. This feature of style is largely due to the
pleasure which all people, and especially Orientals, derive from the assonance of a sentence. Archdeacon Farrar gives a number of illustrations: the Arabic Abel and
Kabel (Abel and Cain); Dalut and G'ialut (David and Goliath). A Hindoo constantly adds meaningless rhymes, even to English words, as button-bitten; kettley-bittley.
Compare the Prayer-book, holy and wholly; giving and forgiving; changes and chances. Shakespeare, sorted and consorted; in every breath a death. He goes on to
argue that these alliterations, in the earliest stages of language, are partly due to a vague belief in the inherent affinities of words ("Language and Languages," 227).

32. Judgment (dikai>wma). Rev., correctly, ordinance.

Commit (pra>ssontev). Rev., better, practice. See on John 3:21.

Paul would have been familiar with the abominations of the pagan world from the beginning of his life. The belief in paganism was more firmly rooted in the provinces
than in Italy, and was especially vigorous in Tarsus; which was counted among the three Kappa Kakista, most villainous K's of antiquity - Kappadokia, Kilikia, and
Krete. Religion there was chiefly of an Oriental character, marked by lascivious rites. See Farrar's "Life and Work of Paul," ii., 24-34

CHAPTER 2

1. O man. General, but still with a general and slightly reproachful reference to the Jew.

Judgest (kri>nwn). With the sense of condemning.

2. The judgment (to). Not the act, but the contents of the judgment.

3. Reckonest (logi>zh|). See on 1 Peter 5:12. Intimating a process of reasoning.

Thou shalt escape. Thou emphatic, opposed to Jewish self-conceit.

4. Despisest thou (katafronei~v). The indicative mood unites a declaration with the question: "Do you despise? Aye, you do."

Riches (plou>tou). A favorite word with Paul to describe the quality of the divine attributes and gifts. See 2 Corinthians 8:9; Ephesians 1:7, 18; 2:4, 7; 3:8, 16;
Philippians 4:19; Colossians 1:27.

Goodness (crhsto>thtov). See on easy, Matthew 11:30.

Forbearance and long-suffering (ajnoch~v kaiav). > forbearance, strictly a holding back. In classical Greek mostly of a truce of arms. It implies something temporary
which may pass away under new conditions. Hence used in connection with the passing by of sins before Christ (Romans 3:25). "It is that forbearance or suspense of
wrath, that truce with the sinner, which by no means implies that the wrath will not be executed at the last; nay, involves that it certainly will, unless he be found under
new conditions of repentance and obedience" (Trench). For makroqumi>a long-suffering, see on James 5:7. This reliance on God's tolerance to suspend the rule of His
administration in your case is contempt (despisest). Compare Galatians 6:7.

Not knowing (ajgnow~n). In that thou dost not know. This very ignorance is contempt.

Leadeth (a]gei). The continuous present: is leading all the while thou art despising.

Repentance (meta>noian). See on Matthew 3:2; 21:29.

5. Treasurest up (qhsauri>zeiv). Accumulatest. Glancing back to riches.

For thyself. Possibly a tinge of irony.

Wrath against the day of wrath (ojrghra| ojrgh~v). A very striking image - treasuring up wrath for one's self. Rev., better, in the day, etc. The sinner stores it away. Its
forthcoming is withheld by the forbearance of God. It will break out in the day when God's righteous judgment shall be revealed.

7. Eternal life. Supply He will render.

8. Contentious (ejx ejriqei>av). Rev., better, factious. Lit., of faction. See on James 3:14. Intriguers; partisan agitators.

Indignation and wrath (ojrghv). See on be patient, James 5:7.

9. Tribulation and anguish (qli~yiv kaia). For tribulation, see on Matthew 13:21. Stenocwri>a anguish, which occurs only in Paul (8:35; 2 Corinthians 6:4; 12:10),
literally means narrowness of place. The dominant idea is constraint. In Deuteronomy 28:53, 57 it describes the confinement of a siege. Trench remarks: "The fitness of
this image is attested by the frequency with which, on the other hand, a state of joy is expressed in the Psalms and elsewhere, as a bringing into a large room," Psalms
117:5; 2 Samuel 22:20. Aquinas says: loetitia est latitia, joy is breadth.

11. Respect of persons (proswpolhmyi>a) Only once outside of Paul's writings, James 2:1 on which see note.

12. Without law (ajno>mwv). Both law in the abstract and the Mosaic law. The principle laid down is general, though apparently viewed with special reference to the
law of Moses.

In the law (ejn no>mw|). Rev., under law, i.e., within the sphere of. No decision as to the reference to the law of Moses or otherwise can be based on the presence or
absence of the article. No>mov law, is used both with and without the article for the Mosaic law. Cremer correctly says that "the article is usually wanting when the
stress is laid, not upon the historical impress and outward form of the law, but upon the conception itself;" or, as Bishop Lightfoot, "law considered as a principle,
exemplified no doubt chiefly and signally in the Mosaic law, but very much wider than this in its application."

Shall be judged (kriqh>sontai). The antithesis shall perish suggests a condemnatory judgment. There is no doubt that the simple kri>nw is used in the New Testament in
the sense of condemning. See John 3:18; 2 Thessalonians 2:12; Hebrews 13:4. The change from perish to judge is suggested by by the law. "The Jews alone will be,
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         speaking, subjected toInfobase   Media
                                 a detailed      Corp.
                                            inquiry such as arises from applying the particular articles of a code" (Godet). Both classes of men shall be Page  20 /in567
                                                                                                                                                          condemned;   both
the result will be perishing, but the judgment by the law is confined to those who have the law.
exemplified no doubt chiefly and signally in the Mosaic law, but very much wider than this in its application."

Shall be judged (kriqh>sontai). The antithesis shall perish suggests a condemnatory judgment. There is no doubt that the simple kri>nw is used in the New Testament in
the sense of condemning. See John 3:18; 2 Thessalonians 2:12; Hebrews 13:4. The change from perish to judge is suggested by by the law. "The Jews alone will be,
strictly speaking, subjected to a detailed inquiry such as arises from applying the particular articles of a code" (Godet). Both classes of men shall be condemned; in both
the result will be perishing, but the judgment by the law is confined to those who have the law.

13. Hearers (ajkroatai). Like the Jews, who heard it regularly in the synagogues. Only here in Paul. Three times in James. It brings out, better than the participle oiJ
ajkou>ontev those that hear, the characteristic feature; those whose business is hearing.

14. When (o[tan). Lit., whenever, supposing a case which may occur at any time.

The Gentiles. Rev., properly, Gentiles. There is no article. Not the Gentiles collectively, but Gentiles among whom the supposed case occurs.

Which have not the law (tamon e]conta). The mh not negatives the possession of the law. Rev., which have no law.

Having not the law (no>mon mh). Here mh not negatives the possession of the law. Rev., having no law. It is difficult to indicate the proper emphasis in the English text,
since the use of italics is limited to words not in the original.

15. Which shew (oi[tinev ejndei>knuntai). Rev., better, in that they shew, the double relative specifying the class to which they belong, and therefore the reason for
what precedes. Shew, properly, in themselves (ejn).

The work of the law. The conduct corresponding to the law.

Their conscience also bearing witness (summarturou>shv aujtw~n th~v suneidh>sewv). For conscience, see on 1 Peter 3:16. The force of ou>n with the verb is
therewith; i.e., with the prescript of the law, respecting the agreement or disagreement of the act with it. So Rev.

The meanwhile (metaxu). Rev. renders with one another. Their thoughts one with another. The phrase metaxulwn is variously explained. Some alternately, now
acquitting and now condemning. Others, among themselves, as in internal debate. So Alford, "thought against thought in inner strife." Others again, accusations or
vindications carried on between Gentiles and Gentiles. As the other parts of the description refer to the individual soul in itself and not to relations with others, the
explanation expressed in Rev. - the mutual relations and interchanges of the individual thoughts - seems preferable.

16. My gospel. As distinguished from false teaching Paul's assurance of the truth of the Gospel is shown in his confident assertion that it will form the standard of
judgment in the great day.

17. Behold (i]de). But the correct reading is eij de but if.

Thou art called (ejponoma>zh|). Rev., much better, bearest the name of, bringing out the value which attached to the name Jew, the theocratic title of honor. See on
Hebrews, Acts 6:1.

Restest in (ejpanapau>h|). Rev., better, upon, giving the force of ejpi> in the verb. The radical conception of the verb ajnapau>w is relief. See Matthew 11:28. Thou
restest with a blind trust in God as thy Father and protector exclusively.

18. The things that are more excellent (taronta). This may be the meaning, and it is adopted by Rev. with the proper omission of more. But it may also mean the things
which differ; in which case we shall render provest instead of approvest. The sense will then be: thou dost test with nice discrimination questions of casuistry. Compare
Philippians 1:10. The latter interpretation seems preferable, being borne out by the succeeding being instructed.

Being instructed (kathcou>menov). Systematically through catechetical and synagoguic instruction. See on Luke 1:4. This formal instruction is the basis of the critical
discrimination.

20. Instructor (paideuth), Rev., corrector. Better, because emphasizing the element of discipline or training. See on chastise, Luke 23:16

Of babes (nhpi>wn) The term used by the Jews to designate proselytes or novices. Paul uses it of one not come of legal age, Galatians 4:1.

The form - in the law (mo>rfwsin). Not mere appearance, but the scheme, the correct embodiment of the lineaments of truth and knowledge in the law.

21. Thou that preachest (oJ khru>sswn). See on Matthew 4:17. Stealing is so gross a vice that one may openly denounce it.

22. Sayest (le>gwn). The denunciation is not so pronounced. The Talmud charges the crime of adultery upon the three most illustrious Rabbins.

Abhorrest (bdelusso>menov). The verb means originally to turn away from a thing on account of the stench. See on abomination, Matthew 24:15.

Commit sacrilege (iJerosulei~v). Rev. renders according to the etymology, iJero>n temple, sula>w to despoil; hence rob temples. Some explain, the pillage of idol
temples; others, robbing the Jewish temple by embezzlement, withholding the temple tribute, etc. The robbery of temples as practiced by the Jews is inferred from Acts
19:37. Compare Josephus, "Antiq.," 4:8, 10, where he lays down the law not to plunder Gentile temples, nor to seize treasure stored up there in honor of any God. 25

23. Transgression (paraba>sewv). Trench remarks upon "the mournfully numerous group of words" which express the different aspects of sin. It is aJmartia the missing
of a mark; para>basiv the overpassing of a line; parakoh> the disobedience to a voice; para>ptwma a falling when one should have stood; ajgno>hma ignorance of
what one should know; h[tthma a diminishing of what should be rendered in full measure; ajnomi>a or paranomi>a non-observance of law; plhmme>leia discord.

The primary sense of the preposition para> is beside or by, with reference to a line or extended surface. Hence it indicates that which is not on its true line but beside it,
either in the way of falling short or of going beyond. Thus, in the sense of going beyond, Romans 12:3 to think more highly than he ought (par' o{ dei~), where the sense
of beyond is fixed by uJperfronei~n to think beyond or over." So Luke 13:2. In the sense of falling short, Thucydides, 3, 49: "Mitylene came near such peril" (paranou),
as if parallel to the danger but not touching it. Hence paraba>siv differs from the Homeric uJperbasi>a transgression, in that the latter carries only the idea of going
beyond or over. A mark or line as a standard is thus implied. Transgression implies something to transgress. With the law came in the possibility off transgressing the
law. "Where there is no law there is no transgression" (Romans 4:15). Hence Adam's sin is called a transgression (Romans 5:14), because it was the violation of a
definite command. Paul habitually uses the word and its kindred paraba>thv transgressor, of the transgression of a commandment distinctly given (Galatians 3:19; 1
Timothy
 Copyright2:14Romans     2:25, 27).
             (c) 2005-2009,         HenceMedia
                               Infobase    it is peculiarly
                                                  Corp. appropriate here of one who boasts in the law. It thus differs from aJmarti>a sin (see on sins, Page
                                                                                                                                                          Matthew21 1:21),
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that one may sin without being under express law. See Romans 5. Sin (aJmarti>a) was in the world until the law; i.e. during the period prior to the law. Death reigned
from Adam to Moses over those who had not sinned (aJmarth>santav) after the similitude of Adam's transgression (paraba>sewv). The sin is implicit, the transgression
explicit.
as if parallel to the danger but not touching it. Hence paraba>siv differs from the Homeric uJperbasi>a transgression, in that the latter carries only the idea of going
beyond or over. A mark or line as a standard is thus implied. Transgression implies something to transgress. With the law came in the possibility off transgressing the
law. "Where there is no law there is no transgression" (Romans 4:15). Hence Adam's sin is called a transgression (Romans 5:14), because it was the violation of a
definite command. Paul habitually uses the word and its kindred paraba>thv transgressor, of the transgression of a commandment distinctly given (Galatians 3:19; 1
Timothy 2:14Romans 2:25, 27). Hence it is peculiarly appropriate here of one who boasts in the law. It thus differs from aJmarti>a sin (see on sins, Matthew 1:21), in
that one may sin without being under express law. See Romans 5. Sin (aJmarti>a) was in the world until the law; i.e. during the period prior to the law. Death reigned
from Adam to Moses over those who had not sinned (aJmarth>santav) after the similitude of Adam's transgression (paraba>sewv). The sin is implicit, the transgression
explicit.

25. Breaker of the law (paraba>thv). Rev., transgressor. See on James 2:11.

Thy circumcision is made uncircumcision. "But if any citizen be found guilty of any great or unmentionable wrong, either in relation to the gods, or his parents, or the
state, let the judge deem him to be incurable, remembering what an education and training he has had from youth upward, and yet has not abstained from the greatest of
crimes" (Plato, "Laws," 854).

29. Praise. Possibly in allusion to the etymological meaning of Jew, the praised one. Compare Genesis 49:8. The word here means the holy satisfaction of God as
opposed to Jewish vain-glory.

CHAPTER 3

1. Advantage (perisso). Lit., surplus. Hence prerogative or pre-eminence.

Profit (wjfe>leia). Compare profiteth, Romans 2:25.

2. Chiefly (prw~ton). Rev., first of all; i.e., first in order. Paul, however, does not enumerate further, being led away by another thought.

The oracles (tagia). Diminutive. Strictly, brief utterances. Both in classical and biblical Greek, of divine utterances. In classical Greek, of prose oracles. See Acts 7:38;
Hebrews 5:12; I Peter 4:11. Not especially Messianic passages, but the Old Testament scriptures with the law and the promises.

3. Did not believe (hjpi>sthsan). Rev., were without faith. Not, as some, were unfaithful, which is contrary to New Testament usage. See Mark 16:11, 16; Luke 24:11,
41; Acts 28:24; Romans 4:20 etc. The Rev. rendering is preferable, as bringing out the paronomasia between the Greek words: were without faith; their want of faith;
the faithfulness of God.

Faith of God. Better, as Rev., faithfulness; the good faith of God; His fidelity to His promises. For this sense see on Matthew 23:23. Compare Titus 2:10 and see on
faithful, 1 John 1:9; Revelation 1:5; 3:14. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:9; 10:13; 2 Corinthians 1:18.

Make without effect (katargh>sei). See on Luke 13:7. The word occurs twenty-five times in Paul, and is variously rendered in A.V. make void, destroy, loose, bring to
nought, fail, vanish away, put away, put down, abolish, cease. The radical meaning is to make inert or idle. Dr. Morison acutely observes that it negatives the idea of
agency or operation, rather than of result or effect. It is rather to make inefficient than to make without effect. So in Luke 13:7 why should the tree be allowed to make
the ground idle? 1 Corinthians 13:8 prophecies shall fail, or have no more work to do. 2 Timothy 1:10 Christ abolished death. There is no more work for it. Romans
6:6 the body of sin is rendered inactive. Romans 3:31 Do we deprive the law of its work - render it a dead letter?

4. God forbid (mhnoito). Lit., may it not have come to pass. Used by Paul fourteen times. It introduces the rebuttal of an inference drawn from Paul's arguments by an
opponent. Luther renders das sey ferne that be far. Wyc. fer be it. It corresponds to the Hebrew chalilah. profane, which in the Septuagint is sometimes rendered by it,
sometimes by mhdamw~v by no means, sometimes by mh may it not be, and again by i[lewv God be merciful to us (see on Matthew 16:22). It indicates a feeling of
strong aversion: "Away with the thought."

Let God be true (gine>sqw oJ Qeov). Rev., better, "let God be found true;" thus giving the force of gi>nomai to become. See on was, I am, John 8:58. The phrase is
used with reference to men's apprehension. Let God turn out to be or be found to be by His creatures.

Be justified. Acknowledged righteous. The figure is forensic. God's justice is put on trial.

Overcome (nikh>sh|v). Rev., prevail. Gain the case. The word occurs only three times outside of John's writings.

When thou art judged (ejn tw|~ kri>nesqai> se). Rev., when thou comest into judgment. 26

5. Commend (suni>sthsin). Only twice outside of Paul's writings, Luke 9:32; 2 Peter 3:5 both in the physical sense. Lit., to place together. Hence of setting one person
with another by way of introducing or presenting him, and hence to commend. Also to put together with a vein of showing, proving, or establishing. Expositors render
here differently: commend, establish, prove. Commend is the prevailing sense in the New Testament, though in some instances the two ideas blend, as Romans 5:8; 2
Corinthians 7:11; Galatians 2:18. See Romans 16:1; 2 Corinthians 4:2; 6:4; 10:18.

Who taketh vengeance (oJ ejpife>rwn thn). Rev., much better, who visiteth with wrath. Lit., bringeth the anger to bear. The force of the article it is difficult to render. It
may be the wrath, definitely conceived as judicial, or, more probably, as in Matthew 3:7 referring to something recognized - the wrath to come, the well-understood
need of unrighteousness. See on Romans 12:19.

As a man (kata). Rev., after the manner of men; i.e., I use a mode of speech drawn from human affairs. The phrase is thrown in apologetically, under a sense that the
mode of speech is unworthy of the subject. Morison aptly paraphrases: "When I ask the question, 'Is God unjust who inflicteth wrath?' I am deeply conscious that I am
using language which is intrinsically improper when applied to God. But in condescension to human weakness I transfer to Him language which it is customary for men
to employ when referring to human relationships." Compare 1 Corinthians 9:8; Romans 6:19.

7. Lie (yeu>smati). Only here in the New Testament. The expression carries us back to ver. 4, and is general for moral falsehood, unfaithfulness to the claims of
conscience and of God, especially with reference to the proffer of salvation through Christ.

9. Are we better (proeco>meqa). Rev., are we in worse case than they? Render, with the American Revisers, are we in better case than they, i.e., have we any
advantage? The Rev. takes the verb as passive - are we surpassed? which would require the succeeding verses to show that the Gentiles are not better than the Jews;
whereas they show that the Jews are not better than the Gentiles. Besides, nothing in the context suggests such a question. 27 Paul has been showing that the Old
Testament privileges, though giving to the Jews a certain superiority to the Gentiles, did not give them any advantages in escaping the divine condemnation. After such
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We have before proved (proh|tiasa>meqa). The reference is not to logical proof, but to forensic accusation. The simple verb means to charge as being the cause
9. Are we better (proeco>meqa). Rev., are we in worse case than they? Render, with the American Revisers, are we in better case than they, i.e., have we any
advantage? The Rev. takes the verb as passive - are we surpassed? which would require the succeeding verses to show that the Gentiles are not better than the Jews;
whereas they show that the Jews are not better than the Gentiles. Besides, nothing in the context suggests such a question. 27 Paul has been showing that the Old
Testament privileges, though giving to the Jews a certain superiority to the Gentiles, did not give them any advantages in escaping the divine condemnation. After such
showing it was natural that the question should be renewed: Do the Jews have any advantage?

We have before proved (proh|tiasa>meqa). The reference is not to logical proof, but to forensic accusation. The simple verb means to charge as being the cause
(aijti>a) of some evil: hence to accuse, impeach. Rev., correctly, we before laid to the charge.

11. Understandeth (suniw~n). See on foolish, Romans 1:21.

Seeketh after (ejkzhtw~n). Lit., seeketh out. See on 1 Peter 1:10.

12. They are together become unprofitable (a[ma hjcreiw>qhsan). Only here in the New Testament: Together carries forward the all. The Hebrew of the Psalm means
have become corrupt. The Greek word is to become useless. Compare John 15:6.

Good (crhstto>thta). Only in Paul's writings. The radical idea of the word is profitableness. Compare have become unprofitable. Hence it passes readily into the
meaning of wholesomeness. See on, Matthew 11:30. It is opposed by Paul' to ajpotomi>a abruptness, severity (Romans 11:22). It is rendered kindness in Ephesians
2:7; Colossians 3:12; Galatians 5:22. Paul, and he only, also uses ajgaqwsu>nh for goodness. The distinction as drawn out by Jerome is that ajgaqwsu>nh represents a
sterner virtue, showing itself in a zeal for truth which rebukes, corrects, and chastises, as Christ when He purged the temple. Crhsto>thv is more gentle, gracious, and
kindly Bishop Lightfoot defines it as a kindly disposition to one's neighbor, not necessarily taking a practical form, while ajgaqwsu>nh energizes the crhsto>thv.

13. Open sepulchre (ta>fov ajnew|gme>nov). Lit., a sepulchre opened or standing open. Some explain the figure by the noisome exhalations from a tomb. Others refer
it to a pit standing open and ready to devour, comparing Jeremiah 5:16 where the quiver of the Chaldaeans is called an open sepulchre. So Meyer and Morison. Godet
compares the phrase used of a brutal man: "it seems as if he would like to eat you." Compare Dante's vision of the lion:

"With head uplifted and with ravenous hunger,

So that it seemed the air was afraid of him."

"Inferno," 1, 47.

Have used deceit (edoliousan). Hebrew, they smoothed their tongues. Guile is contrasted with violence in the previous clause. Wyc., with their tongues they did
guilingly. The imperfect tense denotes perseverance in their hypocritical professions.

16. Destruction (su>ntrimma). A dashing to pieces. Only here. The kindred verb suntri>bw to break in pieces, shiver, is frequent. See Mark 5:4; 14:3; Revelation 2:27
etc.

19. We know. Often in Paul, of a thing generally conceded.

Saith - speaketh (le>gei - lalei~). See on Matthew 28:18. The former contemplates the substance, the latter the expression of the law.

May be stopped (fragh|~). Lit., fenced up. The effect of overwhelming evidence upon an accused party in court.

May become guilty before God (uJpo>dikov ge>nhtai tw|~ Qew|~). Rev., brought under the judgment of God.

>dikov under judgment, occurs only here. In classical Greek it signifies brought to trial or liable to be tried. So Plato, "Laws," 846, of a magistrate imposing unjust
penalties. "Let him be liable to pay double to the injured party." Id., 879, "The freeman who conspired with the slave shall be liable to be made a slave." The rendering
brought under judgment regards God as the judge; but He is rather to be regarded as the injured party. Not God's judgments, but His rights are referred to. The better
rendering is liable to pay penalty to God. 28

20. Works of the law. Not the Mosaic law in its ritual or ceremonial aspect; but the law in a deeper and more general sense, as written both in the decalogue and in the
hearts of the Gentiles, and embracing the moral deeds of both Gentiles and Jews. The Mosaic law may indeed be regarded as the primary reference, but as
representing a universal legislation and including all the rest. The moral revelation, which is the authoritative instruction of God, may be viewed either indefinitely and
generally as the revelation of God to men; or authoritatively, as to the duty incumbent on man as man; or with reference to the instruction as to the duty incumbent on
men as sinful men under a dispensation of mercy; or as instruction as to the duty of Jews as Jews. Ver. 20 relates to the instruction regarding the duty incumbent on men
as men. "It is the law of commandments which enjoins those outer acts and inner choices and states which lie at the basis and constitute the essence of all true religion.
In the background or focal point of these commandments he sees the decalogue, or duologue, which is often designated 'the moral law by way of pre-
eminence" (Morison, from whom also the substance of this note is taken). By the phrase works of the law is meant the deeds prescribed by the law.

Flesh (sa>rx). Equivalent to man. It is often used in the sense of a living creature - man or beast. Compare 1 Peter 1:24; Matthew 24:22; Luke 3:6. Generally with a
suggestion of weakness, frailty, mortality; Septuagint, Jeremiah 17:5; Psalms 77:39; Ephesians 6:12. The word here has no doctrinal bearing.

Be justified (dikaiwqh>setai). For the kindred adjective di>kaiov righteous, see on Romans 1:17.

1. Classical usage. The primitive meaning is to make right. This may take place absolutely or relatively. The person or thing may be made right in itself, or with reference
to circumstances or to the minds of those who have to do with them. Applied to things or acts, as distinguished from persons, it signifies to make right in one's
judgment. Thus Thucydides, ii. 6, 7. "The Athenians judged it right to retaliate on the Lacedaemonians." Herodotus, i., 89, Croesus says to Cyrus: "I think it right to
shew thee whatever I may see to thy advantage."

A different shade of meaning is to judge to be the case. So Thucydides, iv., 122: "The truth concerning the revolt was rather as the Athenians, judged the case to be."
Again, it occurs simply in the sense to judge. Thucydides, v., 26: "If anyone agree that the interval of the truce should be excluded, he will not judge correctly "In both
these latter cases the etymological idea of right is merged, and the judicial element predominates.

In ecclesiastical usage, to judge to be right or to decide upon in ecclesiastical councils.

Applied to persons, the meaning is predominantly judicial, though Aristotle ("Nichomachaean Ethics," v., 9) uses it in the sense of to treat one rightly. There is no
reliable instance
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                                                                                                                                                        Page 23 390-393:
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Paris, subjected to the judgment of men, tested (dikaiwqei) is compared to bad brass which turns black when subjected to friction. Thus tested or judged he stands in
right relation to men's judgments. He is shown in the true baseness of his character.
In ecclesiastical usage, to judge to be right or to decide upon in ecclesiastical councils.

Applied to persons, the meaning is predominantly judicial, though Aristotle ("Nichomachaean Ethics," v., 9) uses it in the sense of to treat one rightly. There is no
reliable instance of the sense to make right intrinsically; but it means to make one right in some extrinsic or relative manner. Thus Aeschylus, "Agamemnon," 390-393:
Paris, subjected to the judgment of men, tested (dikaiwqei) is compared to bad brass which turns black when subjected to friction. Thus tested or judged he stands in
right relation to men's judgments. He is shown in the true baseness of his character.

Thus the verb acquires the meaning of condemn; adjudge to be bad. Thucydides, iii., 40: Cleon says to the Athenians, "If you do not deal with the Mitylenaeans as I
advise, you will condemn yourselves." From this readily arises the sense of punish; since the punishment of a guilty man is a setting him in right relation to the political or
moral system which his conduct has infringed. Thus Herodotus, i., 100: "Deioces the Mede, if he heard of any act of oppression, sent for the guilty party and punished
him according to his offense." Compare Plato, "Laws," ii., 934. Plato uses dikaiwth>ria to denote places of punishment or houses of correction ("Phaedrus," 249).
According to Cicero, dikaio>w was used by the Sicilians of capital punishment: ">qhsan, that is, as the Sicilians say, they were visited with punishment and
executed" ("Against Verres," v., 57).

To sum up the classical usage, the word has two main references:

1, to persons;

2, to things or acts. In both the judicial element is dominant.

The primary sense, to make right, takes on the conventional meanings to judge a thing to be right, to judge, to right a person, to treat rightly, to condemn, punish, put to
death.

2. New Testament usage. This is not identical with the classical usage. In the New Testament the word is used of persons only. In Matthew 11:19; Luke 7:35 of a
quality, Wisdom, but the quality is personified. It occurs thirty-nine times in the New Testament; 29 twenty-seven in Paul; eight in the Synoptists and Acts; three in
James; one in the Revelation.

A study of the Pauline passages shows that it is used by Paul according to the sense which attaches to the adjective di>kaiov, representing a state of the subject
relatively to God. The verb therefore indicates the act or process by which a man is brought into a right state as related to God. In the A.V. confusion is likely to arise
from the variations in translation, righteousness, just, justifier, justify. See Romans 3:24, 26, 28, 30; 4:2; 5:1, 9; Galatians 2:16; 3:8, 11, 24; Titus 3:7.

The word is not, however, to be construed as indicating a mere legal transaction or adjustment between God and man, though it preserves the idea of relativity, in that
God is the absolute standard by which the new condition is estimated, whether we regard God's view of the justified man, or the man's moral condition when justified.
The element of character must not only not be eliminated from it; it must be foremost in it. Justification is more than pardon. Pardon is an act which frees the offender
from the penalty of the law, adjusts his outward relation to the law, but does not necessarily effect any change in him personally. It is necessary to justification, but not
identical with it. Justification aims directly at character. It contemplates making the man himself right; that the new and right relation to God in which faith places him shall
have its natural and legitimate issue in personal rightness. The phrase faith is counted for righteousness, does not mean that faith is a substitute for righteousness, but that
faith is righteousness; righteousness in the germ indeed, but still bona fide righteousness. The act of faith inaugurates a righteous life and a righteous character. The man
is not made inherently holy in himself, because his righteousness is derived from God; neither is he merely declared righteous by a legal fiction without reference to his
personal character; but the justifying decree, the declaration of God which pronounces him righteous, is literally true to the fact in that he is in real, sympathetic relation
with the eternal source and norm of holiness, and with the divine personal inspiration of character. Faith contains all the possibilities of personal holiness. It unites man to
the holy God, and through this union he becomes a partaker of the divine nature, and escapes the corruption that is in the world through lust (2 Peter 1:4). The intent of
justification is expressly declared by Paul to be conformity to Christ's image (Romans 8:29, 30). Justification which does not actually remove the wrong condition in
man which is at the root of his enmity to God, is no justification. In the absence of this, a legal declaration that the man is right is a fiction. The declaration of
righteousness must have its real and substantial basis in the man's actual moral condition.

Hence justification is called justification of life (Romans 5:18); it is linked with the saving operation of the life of the risen Christ (Romans 4:25; 5:10); those who are in
Christ Jesus "walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit" (Romans 8:1); they exhibit patience, approval, hope, love (Romans 5:4, 5). Justification means the
presentation of the self to God as a living sacrifice; non-conformity to the world; spiritual renewal; right self-estimate - all that range of right practice and feeling which is
portrayed in the twelfth chapter of this Epistle. See, further, on Romans 4:5.

Knowledge (ejpi>gnwsiv). Clear and exact knowledge. Always of a knowledge which powerfully influences the form of the religions life, and hence containing more of
the element of personal sympathy than the simple gnw~siv knowledge, which may be concerned with the intellect alone without affecting the character. See Romans
1:28; 10:2; Ephesians 4:13. Also Philippians 1:9 where it is associated with the abounding of love; Colossians 3:10; Philemon 1:6 etc. Hence the knowledge of sin here
is not mere perception, but an acquaintance with sin which works toward repentance, faith, and holy character.

21. Now (nuni) Logical, not temporal. In this state of the case. Expressing the contrast between two relations - dependence on the law and non-dependence on the
law.

Without the law. In a sphere different from that in which the law says "Do this and live."

Is manifested (pefane>rwtai). Rev., hath been manifested, rendering the perfect tense more strictly. Hath been manifested and now lies open to view. See on John 21:1
and on revelation, Revelation 1:1 The word implies a previous hiding. See Mark 4:22; Colossians 1:26, 27.

Being witnessed (marturoume>nh). Borne witness to; attested. The present participle indicates that this testimony is now being borne by the Old Testament to the new
dispensation.

22. Faith of Jesus Christ. A common form for "faith in Christ."

Difference (diastolh>). Only by Paul here, Romans 10:12; 1 Corinthians 14:7. Better, as Rev., distinction.

23. Have sinned (h[marton). Aorist tense: sinned, looking back to a thing definitely past - the historic occurrence of sin.

And come short (uJsterou~ntai). Rev., fall short: The present tense. The A.V. leaves it uncertain whether the present or the perfect have come is intended. They sinned,
and therefore they are lacking. See on Luke 15:14. The word is not merely equivalent to they are wanting in, but implies want under the aspect of shortcoming.

The glory of God (th~v do>xhv tou~ Qeou~). Interpretations vary greatly. The glory of personal righteousness; that righteousness which God judges to be glory; the
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The dominant meanings of do>xa in classical Greek are notion, opinion, conjecture, repute. See on Revelation 1:6. In biblical usage: 1. Recognition, honor, Philippians
and therefore they are lacking. See on Luke 15:14. The word is not merely equivalent to they are wanting in, but implies want under the aspect of shortcoming.

The glory of God (th~v do>xhv tou~ Qeou~). Interpretations vary greatly. The glory of personal righteousness; that righteousness which God judges to be glory; the
image of God in man; the glorying or boasting of righteousness before God; the approbation of God; the state of future glory.

The dominant meanings of do>xa in classical Greek are notion, opinion, conjecture, repute. See on Revelation 1:6. In biblical usage: 1. Recognition, honor, Philippians
1:11; 1 Peter 1:7. It is joined with timh> honor, 1 Timothy 1:17; Hebrews 2:7, 9; 2 Peter 1:17. Opposed to ajtimi dishonor, 1 Corinthians 11:14, 15; 15:43; 2
Corinthians 6:8. With zhte>w to seek, 1 Thessalonians 2:6; John 5:44; 7:18. With lamba>nw to receive, John 5:41, 44. With di>dwmi to give, Luke 17:18; John 9:24.
In the ascriptive phrase glory be to, Luke 2:14 and ascriptions in the Epistles. Compare Luke 14:10 2. The glorious appearance which attracts the eye, Matthew 4:8;
Luke 4:6; 12:27. Hence parallel with eijkw>n image; morfh> form; oJmoi>wma likeness; ei+dov appearance, figure, Romans 1:23; Psalms 17:15; Numbers 12:8.

The glory of God is used of the aggregate of the divine attributes and coincides with His self-revelation, Exodus 33:22; compare pro>swpon face, ver. 23. Hence the
idea is prominent in the redemptive revelation (Isaiah 60:3; Romans 6:4; 5:2). It expresses the form in which God reveals Himself in the economy of salvation (Romans
9:23; 1 Timothy 1:11; Ephesians 1:12). It is the means by which the redemptive work is carried on; for instance, in calling, 2 Peter 1:3; in raising up Christ and believers
with Him to newness of life, Romans 6:4; in imparting strength to believers, Ephesians 3:16; Colossians 1:11; as the goal of Christian hope, Romans 5:2; 8:18, 21; Titus
2:13. It appears prominently in the work of Christ - the outraying of the Father's glory (Hebrews 1:3), especially in John. See 1:14; 2:11, etc.

The sense of the phrase here is: they are coming short of the honor or approbation which God bestows. The point under discussion is the want of righteousness.
Unbelievers, or mere legalists, do not approve themselves before God by the righteousness which is of the law. They come short of the approbation which is extended
only to those who are justified by faith. 30

24. Being justified. The fact that they are justified in this extraordinary way shows that they must have sinned.

Freely (dwrea). Gratuitously. Compare Matthew 10:8; John 15:25; 2 Corinthians 11:7; Revelation 21:6.

Grace (ca>riti). See on Luke 1:30.

Redemption (ajpolutrw>sewv). From ajpolutro>w to redeem by paying the lu>tron price. Mostly in Paul. See Luke 21:28; Hebrews 9:15; 11:35. The distinction must
be carefully maintained between this word and lu>tron ransom. The Vulgate, by translating both redemptio, confounds the work of Christ with its result. Christ's death
is nowhere styled lu>trwsiv redemption. His death is the lu>tron ransom, figuratively, not literally, in the sense of a compensation; the medium of the redemption,
answering to the fact that Christ gave Himself for us.

25. Set forth (proe>qeto). Publicly, openly (pro>); correlated with to declare. He brought Him forth and put Him before the public. Bengel, "placed before the eyes of
all;" unlike the ark of the covenant which was veiled and approached only by the high-priest. The word is used by Herodotus of exposing corpses (5:8); by Thucydides
of exposing the bones of the dead (2:34). Compare the shew-bread, the loaves of the setting-forth (th~v proqese>wv). See on Mark 2:26. Paul refers not to
preaching, but to the work of atonement itself, in which God's righteousness is displayed. Some render purposed or determined, as Romans 1:13; Ephesians 1:9 and
according to the usual meaning of pro>qesiv purpose, in the New Testament. But the meaning adopted here is fixed by to declare.

Propitiation (iJlasth>rion). This word is most important, since it is the key to the conception of Christ's atoning work.

In the New Testament it occurs only here and Hebrews 9:5; and must be studied in connection with the following kindred words: iJla>skomai which occurs in the New
Testament only Luke 18:13 God be merciful, and Hebrews 2:17 to make reconciliation. Ilasmo>v twice, 1 John 2:2; 4:10; in both cases rendered propitiation. The
compound ejxila>skomai, which is not found in the New Testament, but is frequent in the Septuagint and is rendered purge, cleanse, reconcile, make atonement.

Septuagint usage. These words mostly represent the Hebrew verb kaphar to cover or conceal, and its derivatives. With only seven exceptions, out of about sixty or
seventy passages in the Old Testament, where the Hebrew is translated by atone or atonement, the Septuagint employs some part or derivative of iJla>skomai or
ejxila>skomai or qh>v or ejxilasmo>v is the usual Septuagint translation for kippurim covering for sin, A.V., atonement. Thus sin-offerings of atonement; day of
atonement; ram of the atonement. See Exodus 29:36; 30:10; Leviticus 23:27; Numbers 5:8 etc. They are also used for chattath sin-offering, Ezekiel 44:27; 45:19; and
for selichah forgiveness. Psalms 129:4; Daniel 9:9.

These words are always used absolutely, without anything to mark the offense or the person propitiated.

Ila>skomai, which is comparatively rare, occurs as a translation of kipher to cover sin, Psalms 64:3; 77:38; 78:9; A.V., purge away, forgive, pardon. Of salach, to bear
away as a burden, 2 Kings 5:18; Psalms 24:11: A.V., forgive, pardon. It is used with the accusative (direct objective) case, marking the sin, or with the dative (indirect
objective), as be conciliated to our sins.

q>skomai mostly represents kipher to cover, and is more common than the simple verb. Thus, purge the altar, Ezekiel 43:26; cleanse the sanctuary, Ezekiel 45:20;
reconcile the house, Daniel 9:24. It is found with the accusative case of that which is cleansed; with the preposition peri> concerning, as "for your sin," Exodus 32:30;
with the preposition uJpe>r on behalf of A.V., for, Ezekiel 45:17; absolutely, to make an atonement, Leviticus 16:17; with the preposition ajpo> from, as "cleansed
from the blood," Numbers 35:33. There are but two instances of the accusative of the person propitiated: appease him, Genesis 32:20; pray before (propitiate) the
Lord, Zechariah 7:2.

Ilasthrion, A.V., propitiation, is almost always used in the Old Testament of the mercy-seat or golden cover of the ark, and this is its meaning in Hebrews 9:5 the only
other passage of the New Testament in which it is found. In Ezekiel 43:14, 17, 20 it means a ledge round a large altar, and is rendered settle in A.V.; Rev., ledge, in
margin.

This term has been unduly pressed into the sense of explanatory sacrifice. In the case of the kindred verbs, the dominant Old-Testament sense is not propitiation in the
sense of something offered to placate or appease anger; but atonement or reconciliation, through the covering, and so getting rid of the sin which stands between God
and man. The thrust of the idea is upon the sin or uncleanness, not upon the offended party. Hence the frequent interchange with ajgia>zw to sanctify, and kaqari>zw to
cleanse. See Ezekiel 43:26 where ejxila>sontai shall purge, and kaqariou~sin shall purify, are used coordinately. See also Exodus 30:10 of the altar of incense: "Aaron
shall make an atonement (ejxila>setai) upon the horns of it - with the blood of the sin-offering of atonement" (kaqarismou~ purification). Compare Leviticus 16:20. The
Hebrew terms are also used coordinately.

Our translators frequently render the verb kaphar by reconcile, Leviticus 6:30; 16:20; Ezekiel 45:20. In Leviticus 8:15 Moses put blood upon the horns of the altar and
cleansed (ejkaqa>rise) the altar, and sanctified (hJgi>asen) it, to make reconciliation (tou~ ejxila>sasqai) upon it. Compare Ezekiel 45:15, 17; Daniel 9:24.

The  verb and
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                                         Media   Corp. idea of expiation is excluded. As applied to an altar or to the walls of a house (Leviticus 14:48-53, this idea could
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have no force, because these inanimate things, though ceremonially unclean, could have no sin to be expiated. Moses, when he went up to make atonement for the
idolatry at Sinai, offered no sacrifice, but only intercession. See also the case of Korah, Numbers 16:46; the cleansing of leprosy and of mothers after childbirth,
Leviticus 14:1-20; 12:7; 15:30; the reformation of Josiah, 2 Chronicles 34; the fasting and confession of Ezra, Ezra 10:1-15; the offering of the Israelite army after the
Our translators frequently render the verb kaphar by reconcile, Leviticus 6:30; 16:20; Ezekiel 45:20. In Leviticus 8:15 Moses put blood upon the horns of the altar and
cleansed (ejkaqa>rise) the altar, and sanctified (hJgi>asen) it, to make reconciliation (tou~ ejxila>sasqai) upon it. Compare Ezekiel 45:15, 17; Daniel 9:24.

The verb and its derivatives occur where the ordinary idea of expiation is excluded. As applied to an altar or to the walls of a house (Leviticus 14:48-53, this idea could
have no force, because these inanimate things, though ceremonially unclean, could have no sin to be expiated. Moses, when he went up to make atonement for the
idolatry at Sinai, offered no sacrifice, but only intercession. See also the case of Korah, Numbers 16:46; the cleansing of leprosy and of mothers after childbirth,
Leviticus 14:1-20; 12:7; 15:30; the reformation of Josiah, 2 Chronicles 34; the fasting and confession of Ezra, Ezra 10:1-15; the offering of the Israelite army after the
defeat of Midian. They brought bracelets, rings, etc., to make an atonement (ejxila>sasqai) before the Lord; not expiatory, but a memorial, Numbers 31:50-54. The
Passover was in no sense expiatory; but Paul says, "Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us; therefore purge out (ejkkaqa>rate) the old leaven. Let us keep the feast
with sincerity and truth;" 1 Corinthians 5:7, 8.

In the Old Testament the idea of sacrifice as in itself a propitiation continually recedes before that of the personal character lying back of sacrifice, and which alone
gives virtue to it. See 1 Samuel 15:22; Psalms 40:6-10; 50:8-14, 23; 51:16, 17; Isaiah 1:11-18; Jeremiah 7:21-23; Amos 5:21-24; Micah 6:6-8. This idea does not
recede in the Old Testament to be reemphasized in the New. On the contrary, the New Testament emphasizes the recession, and lays the stress upon the cleansing and
life-giving effect of the sacrifice of Christ. See John 1:29; Colossians 1:20-22; Hebrews 9:14; 10:19-21; 1 Peter 2:24; 1 John 1:7; 4:10-13.

The true meaning of the offering of Christ concentrates, therefore, not upon divine justice, but upon human character; not upon the remission of penalty for a
consideration, but upon the deliverance from penalty through moral transformation; not upon satisfying divine justice, but upon bringing estranged man into harmony
with God. As Canon Westcott remarks: "The scripture conception of iJla>skesqai is not that of appeasing one who is angry with a personal feeling against the offender,
but of altering the character of that which, from without, occasions a necessary alienation, and interposes an inevitable obstacle to fellowship "(Commentary on St.
John's Epistles, p. 85).

In the light of this conception we are brought back to that rendering of iJlasth>rion which prevails in the Septuagint, and which it has in the only other New-Testament
passage where it occurs (Hebrews 9:5) - mercy-seat; a rendering, maintained by a large number of the earlier expositors, and by some of the ablest of the moderns.
That it is the sole instance of its occurrence in this sense is a fact which has its parallel in the terms Passover, Door, Rock, Amen, Day-spring, and others, applied to
Christ. To say that the metaphor is awkward counts for nothing in the light of other metaphors of Paul. To say that the concealment of the ark is inconsistent with set
forth is to adduce the strongest argument in favor of this rendering. The contrast with set forth falls in perfectly with the general conception. That mercy-seat which was
veiled, and which the Jew could approach only once a fear, and then through the medium of the High-Priest, is now brought out where all can draw nigh and experience
its reconciling power (Hebrews 10:19, 22; compare Hebrews 9:8). "The word became flesh and dwelt among us. We beheld His glory. We saw and handled" (John
1:14; 1 John 1:1-3. The mercy-seat was the meetingplace of God and man (Exodus 25:17-22; Leviticus 16:2; Numbers 7:89); the place of mediation and
manifestation. Through Christ, the antitype of the mercy-seat, the Mediator, man has access to the Father (Ephesians 2:18). As the golden surface covered the tables of
the law, so Christ stands over the law, vindicating it as holy and just and good, and therewith vindicating the divine claim to obedience and holiness. As the blood was
annually sprinkled on the golden cover by the High-Priest, so Christ is set forth "in His blood," not shed to appease God's wrath, to satisfy God's justice, nor to
compensate for man's disobedience, but as the highest expression of divine love for man, taking common part with humanity even unto death, that it might reconcile it
through faith and self-surrender to God.

Through faith. Connect with propitiation (mercy-seat). The sacrifice of Christ becomes effective through the faith which appropriates it. Reconciliation implies two
parties. "No propitiation reaches the mark that does not on its way, reconcile or bring into faith, the subject for whom it is made. There is no God-welcome prepared
which does not open the guilty heart to welcome God" (Bushnell).

In His blood. Construe with set forth, and render as Rev., by His blood; i.e., in that He caused Him to shed His blood.

To declare His righteousness (eiJv e]ndeixin th~v dikaiosu>nhv aujtou~). Lit., for a shewing, etc. Rev., to shew. For practical proof or demonstration. Not, as so often
explained, to shew God's righteous indignation against sin by wreaking its penalty on the innocent Christ. The shewing of the cross is primarily the shewing of God's
love and yearning to be at one with man (John 3:14-17. The righteousness of God here is not His "judicial" or "punitive" righteousness, but His righteous character,
revealing its antagonism to sin in its effort to save man from his sin, and put forward as a ground of mercy, not as an obstacle to mercy.

For the remission of sins that are past (diaresin tw~n progegono>twn aJmarthma>twn). Rev., correctly, because of the passing over of the sins done aforetime. Passing
over, praetermission, differs from remission (a]fesiv). In remission guilt and punishment are sent away; in praetermission they are wholly or partially undealt with.
Compare Acts 14:16; 17:30. Ama>rthma sin, is the separate and particular deed of disobedience, while aJmarti>a includes sin in the abstract - sin regarded as
sinfulness. Sins done aforetime are the collective sins of the world before Christ.

Through the forbearance of God (ejn th|~ ajnoch|~ tou~ Qeou~). Rev., in the forbearance. Construe with the passing by. The word ajnoch> forbearance, from
ajne>cw to hold up, occurs in the New Testament only here and Romans 2:4. It is not found in the Septuagint proper, and is not frequent in classical Greek, where it is
used of a holding back or stopping of hostilities; a truce; in later Greek, a permission.

The passage has given much trouble to expositors, largely, I think, through their insisting on the sense of forbearance with reference to sins - the toleration or refraining
from punishment of sins done aforetime. But it is a fair construction of the term to apply it, in its primary sense of holding back, to the divine method of dealing with sin.
It cannot be said that God passed over the sins of the world before Christ without penalty, for that is plainly contradicted by Romans 1:18-32; but He did pass them
over in the sense that He did not apply, but held back the redeeming agency of God manifest in the flesh until the "fullness of time." The sacrifices were a homage
rendered to God's righteousness, but they did not touch sin with the power and depth which attached to Christ's sacrifice. No demonstration of God's righteousness
and consequent hatred of sin, could be given equal to that of the life and death of Jesus. Hence Paul, as I take it, says: God set forth Christ as the world's mercy-seat,
for the showing forth of His righteousness, because previously He had given no such manifestation of His righteousness, but had held it back, passing over, with the
temporary institution of sacrifices, the sin at the roots of which He finally struck in the sacrifice of Christ.

26. At this time (ejn tw~| nu~n kairw|~). Lit., in the now season. Rev., at this present season. See on Matthew 12;1. The contrast is with the past, not with the future.

Just and the justifier (di>kaion kai). The sense and yet, often imported into kai and, is purely gratuitous. It is introduced on dogmatic grounds, and implies a problem in
the divine nature itself, namely, to bring God's essential justice into consistency with His merciful restoration of the sinner. On the contrary, the words are coordinate -
righteous and making believers righteous. It is of the essence of divine righteousness to bring men into perfect sympathy with itself. Paul's object is not to show how
God is vindicated, but how man is made right with the righteous God. Theology may safely leave God to take care for the adjustment of the different sides of His own
character. The very highest and strongest reason why God should make men right lies in His own righteousness. Because He is righteous He must hate sin, and the
antagonism can be removed only by removing the sin, not by compounding it.

Him which believeth in Jesus (tostewv x~). Lit., him which is of faith in Jesus. See on ver. 22. Some texts omit of Jesus. The expression "of faith" indicates the
distinguishing peculiarity of the justified as derived from faith in Christ. For the force of ejk out of, see on Luke 16:31; John 8:23; 12:49; 1 John 5:19.
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27. Boasting (kau>chsiv). Rev., glorying. Only once outside of Paul's writings, James 4:16. See on rejoiceth, James 2:13. Not ground of boasting, which would be
kau>chma, as Romans 4:2; 2 Corinthians 1:14; Philippians 1:26. The reference is to the glorying of the Jew (Romans 2:17), proclaiming his own goodness and the
merit of his ceremonial observances.
antagonism can be removed only by removing the sin, not by compounding it.

Him which believeth in Jesus (tostewv x~). Lit., him which is of faith in Jesus. See on ver. 22. Some texts omit of Jesus. The expression "of faith" indicates the
distinguishing peculiarity of the justified as derived from faith in Christ. For the force of ejk out of, see on Luke 16:31; John 8:23; 12:49; 1 John 5:19.

27. Boasting (kau>chsiv). Rev., glorying. Only once outside of Paul's writings, James 4:16. See on rejoiceth, James 2:13. Not ground of boasting, which would be
kau>chma, as Romans 4:2; 2 Corinthians 1:14; Philippians 1:26. The reference is to the glorying of the Jew (Romans 2:17), proclaiming his own goodness and the
merit of his ceremonial observances.

It is excluded (ejxeklei>sqh). A peculiarly vivid use of the aorist tense. It was excluded by the coming in of the revelation of righteousness by faith.

By what law? (diaou no>mou). Lit., by what kind of a law? Rev., by what manner of law? What is the nature of the excluding law?

Of works? (tw~n e]rgwn). Lit., the works, of which the Jew makes so much. Is it a law that enjoins these works? Nay, but a law which enjoins faith. Paul does not
suppose two laws and give the preference to one. There is but one divine law of ejectment, the quality of which is such that, instead of enjoining the Jews' works, it
enjoins faith. The old and the new forms of the religious life are brought under the one conception of law.

30. By faith - through faith (ejk - dia>). Some make the two prepositions equivalent. The difference may be explained from the fact that the real Jew has already a
germinating faith from the completion of which justification arises as fruit from a tree. So Wordsworth: "The Jews are justified out of (ejk) the faith which their father
Abraham had, and which they are supposed to have in him The Gentiles must enter that door and pass through it in order to be justified." Compare Ephesians 2:17.

31. Make void (katargou~men). Rev., make of none effect. See on Romans 3:3.

CHAPTER 4

1. What shall we say? (ti ejrou~men). See Romans 4:1; 6:1; 7:7; 8:31; 9:14, 30. The phrase anticipates an objection or proposes an inference. It is used by Paul only,
and by him only in this Epistle and in its argumentative portions. It is not found in the last five chapters, which are hortatory.

Our Father. The best texts read propa>tora forefather.

Hath found. Westcott and Hort omit. Then the reading would be "what shall we say of Abraham," etc. Found signifies, attained by his own efforts apart from grace.

As pertaining to the flesh (katarka). Construe with found. The question is, Was Abraham justified by anything which pertained to the flesh? Some construe with
Abraham: our father humanly speaking.

2. For. Supply, Abraham found nothing according to the flesh; for, if he did. he has something to boast of.

By works (ejx e]rgwn). Lit., out of works. In speaking of the relation of works to justification, Paul never uses dia> by or through, but ejk out of; works being regarded
by the Jew as the meritorious source of salvation.

3. The Scripture (hJ grafh). The scripture passage. See on John 2:22; and foot-note on John 5:47.

It was counted for righteousness (ejlogi>sqh eijv dikaiosu>nhn). For the phrase logi>zesqai eijv to reckon unto, compare Romans 2:26; 9:8, where eijv is rendered for.
The verb is also used with wJv as. So Romans 8:36; 1 Corinthians 4:1. So in Sept., eijv, Psalms 56:31; Isaiah 29:17; 32:15; 40:17: wJv. Genesis 31:15; Job 41:20;
Psalms 43:22; Isaiah 5:28; 29:16. The phrases ejlogi>sqh eijv and ejl. wJv are thus shown to be substantially equivalent. See further on ver. 5.

4. The reward (oJ misqo). See on 2 Peter 2:13.

Not of grace but of debt (ouj katarin ajllalhma). Lit., according to grace, etc. Not grace but debt is the regulative standard according to which his compensation is
awarded. The workman for hire represents the legal method of salvation; he who does not work for hire, the gospel method; wages cannot be tendered as a gift. Grace
is out of the question when wages is in question.

5. Believeth on Him (pisteu>onti ejpi). The verb pisteu>w to believe is used in the New Testament as follows:

1. Transitively, with the accusative and dative: to entrust something to one, Luke 16:11; John 2:24. In the passive, to be entrusted with something, Romans 3:2; 1
Corinthians 9:17; Galatians 2:7. With the simple accusative, to believe a thing, John 11:26; 1 John 4:16.

2. With the infinitive, Acts 15:11.

3. With o[ti that, Matthew 9:28; Mark 11:24; James 2:19. Especially frequent in John: 4:21; 11:27, 42; 13:19; 14:10, 11; 16:27, 30, etc.

4. With the simple dative, meaning to believe a person or thing, that they are true or speak the truth, John 2:22; 4:21; 5:46.See on John 1:12; 2:22, 23; 8:31; 10:37.

5. With the preposition ejn in. Not frequent, and questioned in some of the passages cited for illustration. In John 3:15ejn aujtw|~ in Him, is probably to be construed
with have eternal life. The formula occurs nowhere else in John. In Mark 1:15 we find pisteu>ete ejn tw|~ eujaggeli>w| believe in the gospel. The kindred noun pi>stiv
faith, occurs in this combination. Thus Galatians 3:26 though some join in Christ Jesus with sons. See also Ephesians 1:15; Colossians 1:4; 1 Timothy 3:13; 2 Timothy
3:15; Romans 3:25. This preposition indicates the sphere in which faith moves, rather than the object to which it is directed, though instances occur in the Septuagint
where it plainly indicates the direction of faith, Psalms 77:22; Jeremiah 12:6.

6. With the preposition ejpi> upon, on to, unto.

a.With the accusative, Romans 4:5; Acts 9:42; 11:17; 16:31; 22:19. The preposition carries the idea of mental direction with a view to resting upon, which latter idea is
conveyed by the same preposition.

b.With the dative, 1 Timothy 1:16; Luke 24:25; compare Romans 9:33; 10:11; 1 Peter 2:6. The dative expresses absolute superposition. Christ as the object of faith, is
the basis on which faith rests.

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absolute transference of trust from one's self to another. Literally the phrase means to believe into. See on John 1:12; 2:23; 9:35; 12:44.
b.With the dative, 1 Timothy 1:16; Luke 24:25; compare Romans 9:33; 10:11; 1 Peter 2:6. The dative expresses absolute superposition. Christ as the object of faith, is
the basis on which faith rests.

7. With the preposition eijv into, Matthew 18:6; John 2:11; Acts 19:4; Romans 10:14; Galatians 2:16; Philippians 1:29 etc. The preposition conveys the idea of the
absolute transference of trust from one's self to another. Literally the phrase means to believe into. See on John 1:12; 2:23; 9:35; 12:44.

Is counted for righteousness (logi>zetai eijv dikaiosu>nhn). Rev., is reckoned. See on ver. 3. The preposition eijv has the force of as, not the telic meaning with a view
to, or in order that he may be (righteous); nor strictly, in the place of righteousness. Faith is not a substitute for righteousness, since righteousness is involved in faith.
When a man is reckoned righteous through faith, it is not a legal fiction. He is not indeed a perfect man, but God does not reckon something which has no real
existence. Faith is the germ of righteousness, of life in God. God recognizes no true life apart from holiness, and "he that believeth on the Son hath life." He is not merely
regarded in the law's eye as living. God accepts the germ, not in place of the fruit, but as containing the fruit. "Abraham believed God.... No soul comes into such a
relation of trust without having God's investment upon it; and whatever there may be in God's righteousness - love, truth, sacrifice - will be rightfully imputed or counted
to be in it, because, being united to Him, it will have them coming over derivatively from Him" (Bushnell). The idea of logical sequence is inherent in logi>zetai is
reckoned the sequence of character upon faith. Where there is faith there is, logically, righteousness, and the righteousness is from faith unto faith (Romans 1:17).
Nevertheless, in the highest development of the righteousness of faith, it will remain true that the man is justified, not by the works of righteousness, which are the fruit of
faith, but by the faith which, in making him a partaker of the life and righteousness of God, generates and inspires the works.

Observe that the believer's own faith is reckoned as righteousness. "In no passage in Paul's writings or in other parts of the New Testament, where the phrase to reckon
for or the verb to reckon alone is used, is there a declaration that anything belonging to one person is imputed, accounted, or reckoned to another, or a formal
statement that Christ's righteousness is imputed to believers" (President Dwight, "Notes on Meyer").

6. Describeth the blessedness (le>gei to). Makarismo>v does not mean blessedness, but the declaration of blessedness, the congratulation. So Plato: "The man of
understanding will not suffer himself to be dazzled by the congratulation (makarismou~) of the multitude ("Republic," ix., 591). Compare Galatians 4:15 (Rev.), and see
note there. Rev., correctly, pronounceth blessing.

7. Iniquities (ajnomi>ai). Lit., lawlessnesses.

Are forgiven (ajfe>qhsan). Lit., were forgiven. See on Matthew 6:12; James 5:15; 1 John 1:9. Also on remission, Luke 3:3.

11. The sign - a seal (shmei~on - sfragi~da). Sign refers to the material token; seal to its religious import. Compare 1 Corinthians 9:2; Genesis 17:11. See on to seal,
Revelation 22:10.

That he might be (eijv to). Not so that he became, but expressing the divinely appointed aim of his receiving the sign.

12. Father of circumcision. Of circumcised persons. The abstract term is used for the concrete. See on 11:7.

Who not only are - but who also walk. Apparently Paul speaks of two classes, but really of but one, designated by two different attributes. The awkwardness arises
from the article toi~v, erroneously repeated with stoicou~sin walk, which latter word expresses an added characteristic, not another class. Paul means that Abraham
received a seal, etc., that he might be the father of circumcision to those who not only are circumcised, but who add to this outward sign the faith which Abraham
exhibited.

Walk (stoicou~sin). See on elements, 2 Peter 3:10.

13. Heir of the world (klhrono>mon ko>smou). See on divided by lot, Acts 13:19; and inheritance, 1 Peter 1:4. "Paul here takes the Jewish conception of the universal
dominion of the Messianic theocracy prefigured by the inheritance of Canaan, divests it of its Judaistic element, and raises it to a christological truth." Compare
Matthew 19:28, 29; Luke 22:30. The idea underlies the phrases kingdom of God, kingdom of Heaven.

16. Sure (bebai>an). Stable, valid, something realized, the opposite of made of none effect, ver. 14.

17. A father of many nations. See Genesis 17:5. Originally his name was Abram, exalted father; afterward Abraham, father of a multitude.

Have I made (te>qeika). Appointed or constituted. For a similar sense see Matthew 24:51; John 15:16 and note; Acts 13:47; 1 Timothy 2:7. The verb shows that the
paternity was the result of a special arrangement. It would not be used to denote the mere physical connection between father and son.

Who quickeneth the dead. This attribute of God is selected with special reference to the circumstances of Abraham as described in vers. 18, 21. As a formal attribute
of God it occurs 1 Samuel 2:6; John 5:21; 2 Corinthians 1:9; 1 Timothy 6:13.

Calleth (kalou~ntov). The verb is used in the following senses:

1To give a name, with o]noma name, Matthew 1:21, 22, 25; Luke 1:13, 31; without o]noma Luke 1:59, 60. To salute by a name, Matthew 23:9; 22:43, 45.

2.Passive. To bear a name or title among men, Luke 1:35; 22:25; 1 Corinthians 15:9. To be acknowledged or to pass as, Matthew 5:9, 19; James 2:23.

3.To invite, Matthew 22:3, 9; John 2:2; 1 Corinthians 10:27. To summon, Matthew 4:21; Acts 4:18; 24:2. To call out from, Matthew 2:15; Hebrews 11:8; 1 Peter 2:9.

4.To appoint. Select for an office, Galatians 1:15; Hebrews 5:4; to salvation, Romans 9:11; 8:30.

5.Of God's creative decree. To call forth from nothing, Isaiah 41:4; 2 Kings 8:1.

In this last sense some explain the word here; but it can scarcely be said that God creates things that are not as actually existing. Others explain, God's disposing
decree. He disposes of things that are not as though existing. 31 The simplest explanation appears to be to give kalei~n the sense of nameth, speaketh of. Compare
Romans 9:7; Acts 7:5. The seed of Abraham "which were at present in the category of things which were not, and the nations which should spring physically or
spiritually from him, God spoke of as having an existence, which word Abraham believed" (Alford). In this case there may properly be added the idea of the summons
to the high destiny ordained for Abraham's seed.

19. Being not weak in faith he considered not (mhsav th|~ pi>stei ouj kateno>hsen). The best texts omit ouj not before considered. According to this the rendering is as
Rev., he considered,
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without a weakening of faith. The preposition kata> in kateno>hsen considered, is intensive - attentively. He fixed his eye upon the obstacles.

Dead (nenekrwme>non). The participle is passive, slain. Used here hyperbolically. Hence, Rev., as good as dead.
to the high destiny ordained for Abraham's seed.

19. Being not weak in faith he considered not (mhsav th|~ pi>stei ouj kateno>hsen). The best texts omit ouj not before considered. According to this the rendering is as
Rev., he considered, etc. Being not weak or weakened: (Rev.) is an accompanying circumstance to he considered. He considered all these unfavorable circumstances
without a weakening of faith. The preposition kata> in kateno>hsen considered, is intensive - attentively. He fixed his eye upon the obstacles.

Dead (nenekrwme>non). The participle is passive, slain. Used here hyperbolically. Hence, Rev., as good as dead.

20. Staggered (diekri>qh). Rev., better, wavered. See on Acts 11:12; James 1:6; 2:4. The word implies a mental struggle.

Promise (ejpaggeli>an). See on Acts 1:4.

Was strong (ejnedunamw>qh). Passive voice. Lit., was strengthened, or endued with strength. Rev., waxed strong.

21. Being fully persuaded (plhroforhqei). Rev., more accurately, fully assured. See on most surely believed, Luke 1:1. The primary idea is, being filled with a thought or
conviction.

Able (dunato>v). The sense is stronger: mighty; compare Luke 1:49; 24:19; Acts 18:24; 2 Corinthians 10:4; Revelation 6:15.

24. It shall be reckoned (me>llei logi>zesqai).. Not the future of the verb to reckon, but me>llw to intend points to God's definite purpose. See on Acts 27:2; 2 Peter
1:12.

Who believe. Since we are those who believe.

25. Was delivered (paredo>qh). See on Matthew 4:12; 1 Peter 2:23. Used of casting into prison or delivering to justice, Matthew 4:12; 10:17, 19:21. Frequently of
the betrayal of Christ, Matthew 10:4; 17:22; John 6:64, 71. Of committing a trust, Matthew 25:14, 20, 22. Of committing tradition, doctrine, or precept, Mark 7:13; 1
Corinthians 11:2; 15:3; Romans 6:17; 2 Peter 2:21. Of Christ's yielding up His spirit, John 19:30. Of the surrender of Christ and His followers to death, Romans 8:32;
2 Corinthians 4:11; Galatians 2:20. Of giving over to evil, Romans 1:26, 28; 1 Corinthians 5:5; Ephesians 4:19.

Raised again for our justification. "But if the whole matter of the justification depends on what He has suffered for our offenses, we shall as certainly be justified or have
our account made even, if He does not rise, as if He does. Doubtless the rising has an immense significance, when the justification is conceived to be the renewing of
our moral nature in righteousness; for it is only by the rising that His incarnate life and glory are fully discovered, and the righteousness of God declared in His person in
its true moral power. But in the other view of justification there is plainly enough nothing depending, as far as that is concerned, on His resurrection" (Bushnell).
Compare Romans 6:4-13.

CHAPTER 5

1. We have (e]comen). The true reading is e]cwmen let us have; but it is difficult if not impossible to explain it. Godet says: "No exegete has been able satisfactorily to
account for this imperative suddenly occurring in the midst of a didactic development." Some explain as a concessive subjunctive, we may have; but the use of this in
independent sentences is doubtful. Others give the deliberative sense, shall we have; but this occurs only in doubtful questions, as Romans 6:1. A similar instance is
found Hebrews 12:28. "Let us have grace," where the indicative might naturally be expected. 32 Compare also the disputed reading, let us bear, 1 Corinthians 15:49
and see note there.

Peace (eijrh>nhn). Not contentment, satisfaction, quiet, see Philippians 4:7; but the state of reconciliation as opposed to enmity (ver. 10).

With God (pro>v). See on with God, John 1:1.

2. Access (prosagwgh). Used only by Paul. Compare Ephesians 2:18; 3:12. Lit., the act of bringing to. Hence some insist on the transitive sense, introduction.
Compare 1 Peter 3:18; Ephesians 2:13. The transitive sense predominates in classical Greek, but there are undoubted instances of the intransitive sense in later Greek,
and some illustrations are cited from Xenophon, though their meaning is disputed. 33

Into this grace. Grace is conceived as a field into which we are brought. Compare Galatians 1:6; 5:4; 1 Peter 5:12. The; state of justification which is preeminently a
matter of grace.

In hope (ejp' ejlpi>di). Lit., on the ground of hope.

3. Tribulations. Sharp contrast of glory and tribulation. Tribulations has the article; the tribulations attaching to the condition of believers. Rev., our tribulations.

Patience (uJpomonh). See on 2 Peter 1:6; James 5:7.

4. Experience (dokimh>n). Wrong. The word means either the process of trial, proving, as 2 Corinthians 8:2 or the result of trial, approvedness, Philippians 2:22. Here
it can only be the latter: tried integrity, a state of mind which has stood the test. The process has already been expressed by tribulation. Rev. renders probation, which
might be defended on the ground of English classical usage. Thus Shakespeare:

"And of the truth herein

This present object made probation.

"Hamlet," i., 1

Jeremy Taylor: "When by miracle God dispensed great gifts to the laity, He gave probation that He intended that all should prophecy and preach."

But probation has come to be understood, almost universally, of the process of trial. The more accurate rendering is proof or approval.

5. Maketh not ashamed (ouJ kataiscu>nei). Mostly in Paul; elsewhere only in Luke 13:17; 1 Peter 2:6; 3:16. Rev., putteth not to shame, thus giving better the strong
sense of the word, to disgrace or dishonor.
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Is shed abroad (ejkke>cutai). Rev. renders the perfect tense; hath been shed abroad. Lit., poured out. Compare Titus 3:6; Acts 2:33; 10:45. See on Jude 1:11.

6. For the ungodly (uJpe). It is much disputed whether uJpe>r on behalf of, is ever equivalent to ajnti> instead of. The classical writers furnish instances where the
5. Maketh not ashamed (ouJ kataiscu>nei). Mostly in Paul; elsewhere only in Luke 13:17; 1 Peter 2:6; 3:16. Rev., putteth not to shame, thus giving better the strong
sense of the word, to disgrace or dishonor.

Is shed abroad (ejkke>cutai). Rev. renders the perfect tense; hath been shed abroad. Lit., poured out. Compare Titus 3:6; Acts 2:33; 10:45. See on Jude 1:11.

6. For the ungodly (uJpe). It is much disputed whether uJpe>r on behalf of, is ever equivalent to ajnti> instead of. The classical writers furnish instances where the
meanings seem to be interchanged. Thus Xenophon: "Seuthes asked, Wouldst thou, Episthenes, die for this one (uJpetou)?" Seuthes asked the boy if he should smite
him (Episthenes) instead of him (ajnt' ejkei>nou). So Irenaeus: "Christ gave His life for (uJpe>r) our lives, and His flesh for (ajnti>) our flesh." Plato, "Gorgias," 515, "If
you will not answer for yourself, I must answer for you (ujpe)." In the New Testament Philemon 1:13 is cited; uJpe, A.V., in thy stead; Rev., in thy behalf. So 1
Corinthians 15:29"baptized for the dead (uJpe)." The meaning of this passage, however, is so uncertain that it cannot fairly be cited in evidence. The preposition may
have a local meaning, over the dead. 34 None of these passages can be regarded as decisive. The most that can be said is that uJpe>r borders on the meaning of
ajnti>. Instead of is urged largely on dogmatic grounds. In the great majority of passages the sense is clearly for the sake of, on behalf of. The true explanation seems to
be that, in the passages principally in question, those, namely, relating to Christ's death, as here, Galatians 3:13; Romans 14:15; 1 Peter 3:18uJpe>r characterizes the
more indefinite and general proposition - Christ died on behalf of - leaving the peculiar sense of in behalf of undetermined, and to be settled by other passages. The
meaning instead of may be included in it, but only inferentially. 35 Godet says: "The preposition can signify only in behalf of. It refers to the end, not at all to the mode of
the work of redemption."

Ungodly. The radical idea of the word is, want of reverence or of piety.

7. Righteous - good (dikai>ou - ajgaqou~). The distinction is: di>kaiov is simply right or just; doing all that law or justice requires; ajgaqo>v is benevolent, kind,
generous. The righteous man does what he ought, and gives to every one his due. The good man "does as much as ever he can, and proves his moral quality by
promoting the wellbeing of him with whom he has to do." 'Agaqo>v always includes a corresponding beneficent relation of the subject of it to another subject; an
establishment of a communion and exchange of life; while di>kaiov only expresses a relation to the purely objective di>kh right. Bengel says: "di>kaiov, indefinitely,
implies an innocent man; oJ ajgaqo>v one perfect in all that piety demands; excellent, honorable, princely, blessed; for example, the father of his country."

Therefore, according to Paul, though one would hardly die for the merely upright or strictly just man who commands respect, he might possibly die for the noble,
beneficent man, who calls out affection. The article is omitted with righteous, and supplied with good - the good man, pointing to such a case as a rare and special
exception.

8. Commendeth. See on Romans 3:5. Note the present tense. God continuously establishes His love in that the death of Christ remains as its most striking
manifestation.

His love (eJautou~). Rev., more literally, His own. Not in contrast with human love, but as demonstrated by Christ's act of love.

9. Wrath (th~v ojrgh~v). Rev., better, "the wrath of God." the article specifying. See on Romans 12:19.

10. Enemies (ejcqroi). The word may be used either in an active sense, hating God, or passively, hated of God. The context favors the latter sense; not, however, with
the conventional meaning of hated, denoting the revengeful, passionate feeling of human enmity, but simply the essential antagonism of the divine nature to sin. Neither
the active nor the passive meaning needs to be pressed. The term represents the mutual estrangement and opposition which must accompany sin on man's part, and
which requires reconciliation.

We were reconciled to God (katalla>ghmen tw|~ Qew|~). The verb means primarily to exchange; and hence to change the relation of hostile parties into a relation of
peace; to reconcile. It is used of both mutual and one-sided enmity. In the former case, the context must show on which side is the active enmity.

In the Christian sense, the change in the relation of God and man effected through Christ. This involves,

1.A movement of God toward man with a view to break down man's hostility, to commend God's love and holiness to him, and to convince him of the enormity and the
consequence of sin. It is God who initiates this movement in the person and work of Jesus Christ. See vers. 6, 8; 2 Corinthians 5:18, 19; Ephesians 1:6; 1 John 4:19.
Hence the passive form of the verb here: we were made subjects of God's reconciling act.

2.A corresponding movement on man's part toward God; yielding to the appeal of Christ's self-sacrificing love, laying aside his enmity, renouncing his sin, and turning to
God in faith and obedience.

3.A consequent change of character in man; the covering, forgiving, cleansing of his sin; a thorough revolution in all his dispositions and principles.

4.A corresponding change of relation on God's part, that being removed which alone rendered Him hostile to man, so that God can now receive Him into fellowship
and let loose upon him all His fatherly love and grace, 1 John 1:3, 7. Thus there is complete reconciliation. See, further, on Romans 3:25, 26.

11. We also joy (kaimenoi). Lit., but also glorying. The participle corresponds with that in ver. 10, being reconciled. We shall be saved, not only as being reconciled,
but as also rejoicing; the certainty of the salvation being based, not only upon the reconciliation, but also upon the corresponding joy.

We have now received the atonement (nu~n thbomen). Now, in contrast with future glory.

Atonement, Rev., properly, reconciliation, the noun being etymologically akin to the verb to reconcile. Atonement at the time of the A.V. signified reconciliation, at-one-
ment, the making two estranged parties at one. So Shakespeare:

"He and Aufidius can no more atone

Than violenist contrarieties."

"Coriolanus," iv., 6.

Fuller: "His first essay succeeded so well, Moses would adventure on a second design to atone two Israelites at variance." The word at present carries the idea of
satisfaction rather than of reconciliation, and is therefore inappropriate here. The article points to the reconciliation in ver. 10. See on Romans 3:24-26.

12. Wherefore as. As (w[sper) begins the first member of a comparison. The second member is not expressed, but is checked by the illustration introduced in vers. 13,
14, and the apostle,
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(ver. 14).

Entered into. As a principle till then external to the world.
satisfaction rather than of reconciliation, and is therefore inappropriate here. The article points to the reconciliation in ver. 10. See on Romans 3:24-26.

12. Wherefore as. As (w[sper) begins the first member of a comparison. The second member is not expressed, but is checked by the illustration introduced in vers. 13,
14, and the apostle, in his flow of thought, drops the construction with which he started, and brings in the main tenor of what is wanting by "Adam who is the type," etc.
(ver. 14).

Entered into. As a principle till then external to the world.

Passed upon (dih~lqen ejf'). Lit., came throughout upon. The preposition dia> denotes spreading, propagation, as eijv into denoted entrance.

For that (ejf' w|=) On the ground of the fact that.

13. Until the law. In the period between Adam and Moses.

Is not imputed (oujk ejllogei~tai). Put to account so as to bring penalty. From lo>gov an account or reckoning. Only here and Philemon 1:18.

Figure (tu>pov). See on 1 Peter 5:3.

15. Of one (tou~ eJno). Rev., correctly, the one - Adam. So the many.

Much more. Some explain of the quality of the cause and effect: that as the fall of Adam caused vast evil, the work of the far greater Christ shall much more cause great
results of good. This is true; but the argument seems to turn rather on the question of certainty. "The character of God is such, from a christian point of view, that the
comparison gives a much more certain basis for belief, in what is gained through the second Adam, than in the certainties of sin and death through the first
Adam" (Schaff and Riddle).

16. That sinned (aJmarth>santov). The better supported reading. Some MSS. and versions read aJmarth>matov transgression.

Of one. Some explain, one man, from the preceding (one) that sinned. Others, one trespass, from ver. 17.

The judgment (kri~ma). Judicial sentence. Compare 1 Corinthians 6:7; 11:29. See on 2 Peter 2:3.

Condemnation (kata>krima). See on shall be damned, Mark 16:16. A condemnatory sentence.

Justification (dikai>wma). Not the subjective state of justification, but a righteous act or deed. Revelation 19:8; see on ver. 18.

The word is sometimes rendered orinance, Hebrews 9:1, 10; an appointment of God having the force of law. So Romans 1:32 where Rev. gives ordinance for
judgment, and Romans 2:26ordinances for righteousness.

17. Reigned. The emphatic point of the comparison. The effect of the second Adam cannot fall behind that of the first. If death reigned, there must be a reign of life.

They which receive (oiJ lamba>nontev). Not believingly accept, but simply the recipients.

Abundance of grace. Note the articles, the abundance of the grace.

18. The offense of one (eJnomatov). Rev., corrects, one trespass.

The righteousness of one (eJnomatov). See on ver 16. Rev., correctly, one act of righteousness.

19. Disobedience (parakoh~v). Only here, 2 Corinthians 10:6; Hebrews 9:2. The kindred verb paralou>w to neglect, Rev., refuse, occurs Matthew 18:17. From
para> aside, amiss, and ajkou>w to hear, sometimes with the accompanying sense of heeding, and so nearly = obey. Parakoh> is therefore, primarily, a failing to hear
or hearing amiss. Bengel remarks that the word very appositely points out the first step in Adam's fall - carelessness, as the beginning of a city's capture is the
remissness of the guards.

Were made (katesta>qhsan). See on James 3:6. Used elsewhere by Paul only at Titus 1:5 in the sense of to appoint to office or position. This is its most frequent use in
the New Testament. See Matthew 24:25; Acts 6:3; 7:10; Hebrews 5:1 etc. The primary meaning being to set down, it is used in classical Greek of bringing to a place,
as a ship to the land, or a man to a place or person; hence to bring before a magistrate (Acts 17:15). From this comes the meaning to set down as, i.e., to declare or
show to be; or to constitute, make to be. So 2 Peter 1:8; James 4:4; 3:6. The exact meaning in this passage is disputed. The following are the principal explanations:

1.Set down in a declarative sense; declared to be.

2.Placed in the category of sinners because of a vital connection with the first tranegressor.

3.Became sinners; were made. This last harmonizes with sinned in ver. 12.

The disobedience of Adam is thus declared to have been the occasion of the death of all, because it is the occasion of their sin; but the precise nature of this relation is
not explained. 36

Obedience (uJpakoh~v). Note the play on the words, parakoe, hypokoe, disobedience, obedience. > obedience, is also derived from ajkou>w to hear (see on
disobedience) and uJpo> beneath, the idea being submission to what one hears.

20. The law entered (pareish~lqen) Rev., literally, came in beside, giving the force of para> beside. Very significant. Now that the parallel between Adam and Christ is
closed, the question arises as to the position and office of the law. How did it stand related to Adam and Christ? Paul replies that it came in alongside of the sin. "It was
taken up into the divine plan or arrangement, and made an occasion for the abounding of grace in the opening of the new way to justification and life" (Dwight).

Might abound (pleona>sh|). Not primarily of the greater consciousness and acknowledgment of sin, but of the increase of actual transgression. The other thought,
however, may be included. See Romans 7:7, 8, 9, 11.
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                abound (uJpereperi>sseusen).                                                                                               Page
                                             Lit., abounded over and above. Only here and 2 Corinthians 7:4. Compare uJperepleo>nase abounded     31 / 567
                                                                                                                                              exceedingly, 1
Timothy 1:14; uJperperissw~v beyond measure, Mark 7:37; uJperauxa>nei; groweth exceedingly, 2 Thessalonians 1:3.
Might abound (pleona>sh|). Not primarily of the greater consciousness and acknowledgment of sin, but of the increase of actual transgression. The other thought,
however, may be included. See Romans 7:7, 8, 9, 11.

Did much more abound (uJpereperi>sseusen). Lit., abounded over and above. Only here and 2 Corinthians 7:4. Compare uJperepleo>nase abounded exceedingly, 1
Timothy 1:14; uJperperissw~v beyond measure, Mark 7:37; uJperauxa>nei; groweth exceedingly, 2 Thessalonians 1:3.

21. Unto death (ejn tw|~ qana>tw|). Wrong. In death, as Rev. As the sphere or dominion of death's tyranny. Compare ver. 14, "death reigned." Some, however,
explain the preposition as instrumental, by death. How much is lost by the inaccurate rendering of the prepositions. Ellicott remarks that there are few points more
characteristic of the apostle's style than his varied but accurate use of prepositions, especially of two or more in the same or in immediately contiguous clauses. See
Romans 3:22; Ephesians 4:6; Colossians 1:16.

Through Jesus Christ our Lord. "And now - so this last word seems to say - Adam has passed away; Christ alone remains" (Godet).

CHAPTER 6

1. What shall we say then? "A transition-expression and a debater's phrase" (Morison). The use of this phrase points to Paul's training in the Rabbinical schools, where
questions were propounded and the students encouraged to debate, objections being suddenly interposed and answered.

Shall we continue (ejpime>nwmen). The verb means primarily to remain or abide at or with, as 1 Corinthians 16:8; Philippians 1:24; and secondarily, to persevere, as
Romans 11:23; Colossians 1:23. So better here, persist.

3. Know ye not (ajgnoei~te). The expression is stronger: are ye ignorant. So Rev. The indicative mood presupposes an acquaintance with the moral nature of baptism,
and a consequent absurdity in the idea of persisting in sin.

So many as (o[soi). Rev., all we who. Put differently from we that (oi[tinev, ver. 2) as not characterizing but designating all collectively.

Baptized into (ei+v). See on Matthew 28:19. The preposition. denotes inward union, participation; not in order to bring about the union, for that has been effected.
Compare 1 Corinthians 12:12, 13, 27.

Into His death. As He died to sin, so we die to sin, just as if we were literally members of His body. Godet gives an anecdote related by a missionary who was
questioning a converted Bechuana on Colossians 3:3. The convert said: "Soon I shall be dead, and they will bury me in my field. My flocks will come to pasture above
me. But I shall no longer hear them, and I shall not come forth from my tomb to take them and carry them with me to the sepulchre. They will be strange to me, as I to
them. Such is the image of my life in the midst of the world since I believed in Christ."

4. We are buried with (suneta>fhmen). Rev., more accurately, were buried. Therefore, as a natural consequence of death. There is probably an allusion to the
immersion of baptism. Compare Colossians 3:3.

Into death. Through the baptism into death referred to in ver. 3. Both A.V. and Rev. omit the article, which is important for the avoidance of the error buried into death.

Glory (do>xhv). The glorious collective perfection of God See on 3:23. Here the element of power is emphasized, which is closely related to the idea of divine glory.
See Colossians 1:11. All the perfections of God contribute to the resurrection of Christ - righteousness, mercy, wisdom, holiness.

We might walk (peripath>swmen). Lit., walk about, implying habitual conduct. See on John 11:9; 1 John 1:6; 3 John 1:4; Luke 11:44.

In newness of life (ejn kaino>thti zwh~v). A stronger expression than new life. It gives more prominence to the main idea, newness, than would be given by the
adjective. Thus 1 Timothy 6:17uncertainty of riches; not uncertain riches, as A.V.

5. We have been planted together (su>mfutoi gego>namen). Rev. gives more accurately the meaning of both words. Su>mfutoi is not planted, which would be formed
from futeu>w to plant, while this word is compounded with su>n together, and fu>w to grow. Gego>naman is have become, denoting process, instead of the simple
ei+nai to be. Hence Rev., have become united, have grown together; an intimate and progressive union; coalescence. Note the mixture of metaphors, walking and
growing.

We shall be also (ajllameqa). It is impossible to reproduce this graphic and condensed phrase accurately in English. It contains an adversative particle ajlla>; but.
Morison paraphrases: "If we were united with Him in the likeness of His death (that will not be the full extent of the union), but we shall be also united," etc. For similar
instances see 1 Corinthians 4:15; Colossians 2:5.

6. Old man (oJ palaio)., Only in Paul, and only three times; here, Ephesians 4:22; Colossians 3:9. Compare John 3:3; Titus 3:5. The old, unrenewed self. Paul views the
Christian before his union with Christ, as, figuratively, another person. Somewhat in the same way he regards himself in Romans 7.

The body of sin (toav). Sw~ma in earlier classical usage signifies a corpse. So always in Homer and often in later Greek. So in the New Testament, Matthew 6:25;
Mark 5:29; 14:8; 15:43. It is used of men as slaves, Revelation 18:13. Also in classical Greek of the sum-total. So Plato: tosmou sw~ma the sum-total of the world
("Timaeus," 31).

The meaning is tinged in some cases by the fact of the vital union of the body with the immaterial nature, as being animated by the yuxh> soul, the principle of individual
life. Thus Matthew 6:25 where the two are conceived as forming one organism, so that the material ministries which are predicated of the one are predicated of the
other, and the meanings of the two merge into one another.

In Paul it can scarcely be said to be used of a dead body, except in a figurative sense, as Romans 8:10 or by inference, 2 Corinthians 5:8. Commonly of a living body.
It occurs with yuch> soul, only 1 Thessalonians 5:23 and there its distinction from yuch> rather than its union with it is implied. So in Matthew 10:28 though even there
the distinction includes the two as one personality. It is used by Paul:

1.Of the living human body, Romans 4:19; 1 Corinthians 6:13; 9:27; 12:12-26.

2.Of the Church as the body of Christ, Romans 12:5; 1 Corinthians 12:27; Ephesians 1:23; Colossians 1:18 etc. Sa>rx flesh, never in this sense.

3.Of plants and heavenly bodies, 1 Corinthians 15:37, 40.
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4.Of the glorified body of Christ, Philippians 3:21.
2.Of the Church as the body of Christ, Romans 12:5; 1 Corinthians 12:27; Ephesians 1:23; Colossians 1:18 etc. Sa>rx flesh, never in this sense.

3.Of plants and heavenly bodies, 1 Corinthians 15:37, 40.

4.Of the glorified body of Christ, Philippians 3:21.

5.Of the spiritual body of risen believers, 1 Corinthians 15:44.

It is distinguished from sa>rx flesh, as not being limited to the organism of an earthly, living body, 1 Corinthians 15:37, 38. It is the material organism apart from any
definite matter. It is however sometimes used as practically synonymous with sa>rx, 1 Corinthians 7:16, 17; Ephesians 5:28, 31; 2 Corinthians 4:10, 11. Compare 1
Corinthians 5:3 with Colossians 2:5. An ethical conception attaches to it. It is alternated with me>lh members, and the two are associated with sin (Romans 1:24; 6:6;
7:5, 24; 8:13: Colossians 3:5), and with sanctification (Romans 12:1; 1 Corinthians 6:19 sq.; compare 1 Thessalonians 4:4; 5:23). It is represented as mortal, Romans
8:11; 2 Corinthians 10:10; and as capable of life, 1 Corinthians 13:3; 2 Corinthians 4:10.

In common with me>lh members, it is the instrument of feeling and willing rather than sa>rx, because the object in such cases is to designate the body not definitely as
earthly, but generally as organic, Romans 6:12, 13, 19; 2 Corinthians 5:10. Hence, wherever it is viewed with reference to sin or sanctification, it is the outward organ
for the execution of the good or bad resolves of the will.

The phrase body of sin denotes the body belonging to, or ruled by, the power of sin, in which the members are instruments of unrighteousness (ver. 13). Not the body
as containing the principle of evil in our humanity, since Paul does not regard sin as inherent in, and inseparable from, the body (see ver. 13; 2 Corinthians 4:10-12; 7:1.
Compare Matthew 15:19), nor as precisely identical with the old man, an organism or system of evil dispositions, which does not harmonize with vers. 12, 13, where
Paul uses body in the strict sense. "Sin is conceived as the master, to whom the body as slave belongs and is obedient to execute its will. As the slave must perform his
definite functions, not because he in himself can perform no others, but because of His actually subsistent relationship of service he may perform no others, while of
himself he might belong as well to another master and render other services; so the earthly sw~ma body belongs not of itself to the aJmarti>a sin, but may just as well
belong to the Lord (1 Corinthians 6:13), and doubtless it is de facto enslaved to sin, so long as a redemption from this state has not set in by virtue of the divine
Spirit" (Romans 7:24: Dickson).

Destroyed. See on Romans 3:3.

He that is dead (oJ ajpoqanw). Rev., literally, he that hath died. In a physical sense. Death and its consequences are used as the general illustration of the spiritual truth.
It is a habit of Paul to throw in such general illustrations. See Romans 7:2.

7. Is freed (dedikai>wtai). Lit., as Rev., is justified; i.e., acquitted, absolved; just as the dead person sins no more, being released from sin as from a legal claim. "As a
man that is dead is acquitted and released from bondage among men, so a man that has died to sin is acquitted from the guilt of sin and released from its
bondage" (Alford).

8. We be dead (ajpeqa>nomen). The aorist. Rev., correctly, we died. The death is viewed as an event, not as a state.

We believe (pisteu>omen). Dogmatic belief rather than trust, though the latter is not excluded.

Shall live with (sunzh>somen). Participation of the believer's sanctified life with the life of Christ rather than participation in future glory, which is not the point
emphasized. Compare ver. 11.

10. In that He died (o{ gaqanen). Lit.. what he died; the death which he died. Compare sin a sin, 1 John 5:16; the life which I live, literally, what I live, Galatians 2:20.

Once (ejfa>pax). More literally, as Rev., in margin, once for all. Compare Hebrews 7:27; 9:12; 10:10.

12. Reign (basileue>tw). The antithesis implied is not between reigning and existing, but between reigning and being deposed.

Body. Literal, thus according with members, ver: 13.

13. Yield (parista>nete). Put at the service of; render. Rev., present. Compare Luke 2:22; Acts 9:41; Romans 12:1. See on Acts 1:3.

Members (me>lh). Physical; though some include mental faculties. Compare Colossians 3:5 where members is expounded by fornication, uncleanness, etc., the
physical being a symbol of the moral, of which it is the instrument.

Instruments (o[pla). The word is used from the earliest times of tools or instruments generally. In Homer of a ship's tackle, smith's tools, implements of war, and in the
last sense more especially in later Greek. In the New Testament distinctly of instruments of war (John 18:3; 2 Corinthians 6:7; 10:4). Here probably with the same
meaning, the conception being that of sin and righteousness as respectively rulers of opposing sovereignties (compare reign, ver. 12, and have dominion, ver. 14), and
enlisting men in their armies. Hence the exhortation is, do not offer your members as weapons with which the rule of unrighteousness may be maintained, but offer them
to God in the service of righteousness.

Of unrighteousness (ajdiki>av). See on 2 Peter 2:13.

Yield (parasth>sate). Rev., present. The same word as before, but in a different tense. The present tense, be presenting, denotes the daily habit, the giving of the hand,
the tongue, etc., to the service of sin as temptation appeals to each. Here the aorist, as in 12:1, denotes an act of self-devotion once for all.

As those that are alive (wJv zw~ntav). The best texts read wJsei> as if alive. This brings out more clearly the figurative character of the exhortation. 37

From the dead (ejk nekrw~n). Note the preposition out of. See on Luke 16:31.

16. Servants (dou>louv). Every man must choose between two ethical principles. Whichever one he chooses is master, and he is its bond-servant. Compare Matthew
6:24; 7:18.

Sin unto death - obedience unto righteousness. The antithesis is not direct - sin unto death, obedience unto life; but obedience is the true antithesis of sin, since sin is
disobedience, and righteousness is life.
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                                                                                                                                                                      and
regarding the first as inserted by way of contrast or background to the salutary moral change: or, emphasizing were; ye were the servants of sin, but are so no more.
Rev. adopts the former, and inserts whereas.
Sin unto death - obedience unto righteousness. The antithesis is not direct - sin unto death, obedience unto life; but obedience is the true antithesis of sin, since sin is
disobedience, and righteousness is life.

17. That ye were. The peculiar form of expression is explained in two ways; either making the thanksgiving bear only on the second proposition, ye obeyed, etc., and
regarding the first as inserted by way of contrast or background to the salutary moral change: or, emphasizing were; ye were the servants of sin, but are so no more.
Rev. adopts the former, and inserts whereas.

From the heart. See on Romans 1:21.

Form of doctrine (tu>pon didach~v). Rev., form of teaching. For tu>pon, see on 1 Peter 5:3. The Pauline type of teaching as contrasted with the Judaistic forms of
Christianity. Compare my gospel, Romans 2:16; 16:25. Others explain as the ideal or pattern presented by the gospel. Form of teaching, however, seems to point to a
special and precisely defined type of christian instruction.

Was delivered unto you (eiJv dn paredo>qhte). But this rendering is impossible. Render, as Rev., whereunto ye were delivered. For the verb, see on Romans 4:25.
They had been handed over to the educative power of this form of teaching.

19. After the manner of men (ajnqrw>pinon). Lit., what is human, popularly. He seems to have felt that the figures of service, bondage, etc., were unworthy of the
subject, and apologizes for his use of the image of the slave mart to enforce such a high spiritual truth, on the ground of their imperfect spiritual comprehension.
Compare 2 Corinthians 2:6; 1 Corinthians 3:1, 2.

To iniquity unto iniquity (th|~ ajnomi>a| eijv than). Iniquity issuing in an abiding iniquitous state. Lit., lawlessness. It is used by John as the definition of sin, 1 John 3:4.

Holiness (aJgiasmo>n). Rev., sanctification. For the kindred adjective a[giov holy, see on saints, Acts 26:10. r>v is used in the New Testament both of a process - the
inauguration and maintenance of the life of fellowship with God, and of the resultant state of sanctification. See 1 Thessalonians 4:3, 7; 2 Thessalonians 2:13; 1 Timothy
2:15; 1 Peter 1:2; Hebrews 12:14. It is difficult to determine which is meant here. The passages in Thessalonians, Timothy, and Hebrews, are cited by interpreters on
both sides. As in ver. 22 it appears that sanctification contemplates a further result (everlasting life), it is perhaps better to understand it as the process. Yield your
members to righteousness in order to carry on the progressive work of sanctification, perfecting holiness (1 Corinthians 7:1).

20. Free from righteousness (ejleu>qeroi th|~ dikaiosu>nh|). An ambiguous translation. Better, Rev., free in regard of righteousness. Disengaged (Morison), practically
independent of its demands, having offered their service to the opposing power. They could not serve two masters.

21. Fruit. See on Romans 1:13.

Had ye (ei]cete). Imperfect tense, denoting continuance. What fruit were ye having during your service of sin?

In the things whereof (ejf' oi=v). Some change the punctuation, and read "What fruit had ye at that time? Things whereof ye are now ashamed." But the majority of the
best texts reject this, and besides, the question is of having fruit, not of the quality of the fruit.

23. Wages (ojyw>nia). From o]yon cooked meat, and later, generally, provisions. At Athens especially fish. Hence ojyw>nion is primarily provision-money, and is
used of supplies for an army, see 1 Corinthians 9:7. The figure of ver. 13 is carried out: Sin, as a Lord to whom they tender weapons and who pays wages.

Death. "Sin pays its serfs by punishing them. Its wages is death, and the death for which its counters are available is the destruction of the weal of the soul" (Morison).

Gift (ca>risma). Rev., rightly, free gift (compare Romans 5:15). In sharp contrast with wages.

CHAPTER 7

1. Brethren. All Christians, not only Jews but Gentiles who are assumed to be acquainted with the Old Testament.

2. That hath a husband (u[pandrov). Lit., under or subject to a husband. The illustration is selected to bring forward the union with Christ after the release from the law,
as analogous to a new marriage (ver. 4).

Is loosed (kath>rghtai). Rev., discharged. See on Romans 3:3, Lit., she has been brought to nought as respects the law of the husband.

The law of the husband. Her legal connection with him She dies to that law with the husband's death. There is an apparent awkwardness in carrying out the figure. The
law, in vers. 1, 2, is represented by the husband who rules (hath dominion). On the death of the husband the woman is released. In ver. 4, the wife (figuratively) dies.
"Ye are become dead to the law that ye should be married to another." But as the law is previously represented by the husband, and the woman is released by the
husband's death, so, to make the figure consistent, the law should be represented as dying in order to effect the believer's release. The awkwardness is relieved by
taking as the middle term of comparison the idea of dead in a marriage relation. When the husband dies the wife dies (is brought to nought) so far as the marriage
relation is concerned. The husband is represented as the party who dies because the figure of a second marriage is introduced with its application to believers (ver. 4).
Believers are made dead to the law as the wife is maritally dead - killed in respect of the marriage relation by her husband's death.

3. She shall be called (crhmati>sei). See on Acts 11:26.

4. Are become dead (ejqanatw>qhte). Rev., more accurately, ye were made dead, put to death; because this ethical death is fellowship with Christ's death, which was
by violence.

Who was raised. An important addition, because it refers to the newness of life which issues from the rising with Christ. See Romans 6:3, 11, 13, 22.

Bring forth fruit. The figure of marriage is continued, but the reference is not to be pressed. The real point of analogy is the termination of relations to the old state.

5. In the flesh (ejn th|~ sarki>). Sa>rx flesh, occurs in the classics in the physical sense only. Homer commonly uses it in the plural as denoting all the flesh or muscles of
the body. Later the singular occurs in the same sense. Paul's use of this and other psychological terms must be determined largely by the Old-Testament usage as it
appears in the Septuagint. 38

1.In the physical sense. The literal flesh. In the Septuagint taa flesh (plural) is used where the reference is to the parts of animals slain, and aiJ sa>rkev, flesh (plural)
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                                 as the covering  of the living body. Hence Paul uses kre>a in Romans 14:21; 1 Corinthians 8:13 of the flesh of sacrificed   Page     34 / 567
                                                                                                                                                                 animals.
Compare also the adjective sa>rkimov fleshy 2 Corinthians 3:3; and Ezekiel 11:19; 36:26 Sept.
appears in the Septuagint. 38

1.In the physical sense. The literal flesh. In the Septuagint taa flesh (plural) is used where the reference is to the parts of animals slain, and aiJ sa>rkev, flesh (plural)
where the reference is to flesh as the covering of the living body. Hence Paul uses kre>a in Romans 14:21; 1 Corinthians 8:13 of the flesh of sacrificed animals.
Compare also the adjective sa>rkimov fleshy 2 Corinthians 3:3; and Ezekiel 11:19; 36:26 Sept.

2.Kindred. Denoting natural or physical relationship, Romans 1:3; 9:3-8; 11:14; Galatians 4:23, 29; 1 Corinthians 10:18; Philemon 1:16. This usage forms a transition
to the following sense: the whole human body. Flesh is the medium in and through which the natural relationship of man manifests itself. Kindred is conceived as based
on community of bodily substance. Therefore:

3.The body itself. The whole being designated by the part, as being its main substance and characteristic, 1 Corinthians 6:16; 7:28; 2 Corinthians 4:11; 7:5; 10:3; 12:7.
Romans 2:28; Galatians 6:13 etc. Paul follows the Septuagint in sometimes using sw~ma body, and sometimes sa>rx flesh, in this sense, so that the terms occasionally
seem to be practically synonymous. Thus 1 Corinthians 6:16, 17 where the phrase one body is illustrated and confirmed by one flesh. See Genesis 2:24; Ephesians
5:28, 31 where the two are apparently interchanged. Compare 2 Corinthians 4:10, 11; 1 Corinthians 5:3 and Colossians 2:5. Sa>rx, however, differs from sw~ma in
that it can only signify the organism of an earthly, living being consisting of flesh and bones, and cannot denote "either an earthly organism that is not living, or a living
organism that is not earthly" (Wendt, in Dickson). Sw~ma not thus limited. Thus it may denote the organism of the plant (1 Corinthians 15:37, 38) or the celestial
bodies (ver. 40). Hence the two conceptions are related as general and special: sw~ma body, being the material organism apart from any definite matter (not from any
sort of matter), sa>rx, flesh, the definite, earthly, animal organism. The two are synonymons when sw~ma is used, from the context, of an earthly, animal body.
Compare Philippians 1:22; 2 Corinthians 5:1-8.

Sw~ma body, and not sa>rx flesh, is used when the reference is to a metaphorical organism, as the church, Romans 12:4 sqq.; 1 Corinthians 10:16; 12:12-27;
Ephesians 1:23; 2:16; Colossians 1:18 etc.

The sa>rx is described as mortal (2 Corinthians 4:11); subject to infirmity (Galatians 4:13; 2 Corinthians 12:7); locally limited (Colossians 2:15); an object of fostering
care (Ephesians 5:29).

4.Living beings generally, including their mental nature, and with a correlated notion of weakness and perishableness. Thus the phrase pa~sa sa>rx all flesh (Genesis
6:12; Isaiah 49:26; 49:23). This accessory notion of weakness stands in contrast with God. In Paul the phrase all flesh is cited from the Old Testament (Romans 3:20;
Galatians 2:16) and is used independently (1 Corinthians 1:29). In all these instances before God is added. So in Galatians 1:16flesh and blood implies a contrast of
human with divine wisdom. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:50; Ephesians 6:12. This leads up to

5.Man "either as a creature in his natural state apart from Christ, or the creaturely side or aspect of the man in Christ." Hence it is correlated with a]nqrwpov man, 1
Corinthians 3:3; Romans 6:19; 2 Corinthians 5:17. Compare Romans 6:6; Ephesians 4:22; Colossians 3:9; Galatians 5:24. Thus the flesh would seem to be
interchangeable with the old man.

It has affections and lusts (Galatians 5:24); willings (Ephesians 2:3; Romans 8:6, 7); a mind (Colossians 2:18); a body (Colossians 2:11).

It is in sharp contrast with pneu~ma spirit (Galatians 3:3, 19; 5:16, 17, 19-24; 6:8; Romans 8:4). The flesh and the spirit are thus antagonistic. Sa>rx flesh, before or in
contrast with his reception of the divine element whereby he becomes a new creature in Christ: the whole being of man as it exists and acts apart from the influence of
the Spirit. It properly characterizes, therefore, not merely the lower forms of sensual gratification, but all - the highest developments of the life estranged from God,
whether physical, intellectual, or aesthetic.

It must be carefully noted:

1.That Paul does not identify flesh and sin. Compare, flesh of sin, Romans 8:3. Sec Romans 7:17, 18; 2 Corinthians 7:1; Galatians 2:20.

2.That Paul does not identify sa>rx with the material body nor associate sin exclusively and predominantly with the body. The flesh is the flesh of the living man
animated by the soul (yuch>) as its principle of life, and is distinctly used as coordinate with a]nqrwpov man. As in the Old Testament, "it embraces in an emphatic
manner the nature of man, mental and corporeal, with its internal distinctions." The spirit as well as the flesh is capable of defilement (2 Corinthians 7:1; compare 1
Corinthians 7:34). Christian life is to be transformed by the renewing of the mind (Romans 12:2; compare Ephesians 4:23).

3.That Paul does not identify the material side of man with evil. The flesh is not the native seat and source of sin. It is only its organ, and the seat of sin's manifestation.
Matter is not essentially evil. The logical consequence of this would be that no service of God is possible while the material organism remains. See Romans 12:1. The
flesh is not necessarily sinful in itself; but as it has existed from the time of the introduction of sin through Adam, it is recognized by Paul as tainted with sin. Jesus
appeared in the flesh, and yet was sinless (2 Corinthians 5:21).

The motions of sins (tamata tw~n aJmartiw~n). Motions used in earlier English for emotions or impulses. Thus Bacon: "He that standeth at a stay where others rise, can
hardly avoid motions of envy" ("Essay" 14.). The word is nearly synonymous with pa>qov passion (ch. i., 26, note). From pa>qein to suffer; a feeling which the mind
undergoes, a passion, desire. Rev., sinful passions: which led to sins.

Did work (ejnhrgei~to). Rev., wrought. See 2 Corinthians 1:6; 4:12; Ephesians 3:20; Galatians 5:6; Philippians 2:13; Colossians 1:29. Compare Mark 6:14 and see on
power, John 1:12.

6. We are delivered (kathrgh>qhmen). Rev., have been discharged, as the woman, ver. 2. See on Romans 3:3.

We were held. Lit., held down. See on Romans 1:18.

7. I had not known (oujk e]gnwn). Rev., correctly, I did not know. See on John 2:24. The I refers to Paul himself. He speaks in the first person, declaring concerning
himself what is meant to apply to every man placed under the Mosaic law, as respects his relation to that law, before and after the revolution in his inner life brought
about through his connection with that law. His personal experience is not excluded, but represents the universal experience. 39

Lust (ejpiqumi>an). Rev., coveting. See on Mark 4:19.

8. Sin. Personified.

Occasion (ajformh). Emphatic, expressing the relation of the law to sin. The law is not sin, but sin found occasion in the law. Used only by Paul. See 2 Corinthians 5:12;
Galatians 5:13; 1 Timothy 5:14. The verb ajforma>w means to make a start from a place. > is therefore primarily a starting-point, a base of operations. The
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Lacedaemonians agreed that Peloponnesus would be ajformh a good base of operations (Thucydides, i., 90). Thus, the origin, cause, occasion, or pretext          a thing;
the means with which one begins. Generally, resources, as means of war, capital in business. Here the law is represented as furnishing sin with the material or ground of
assault, "the fulcrum for the energy of the evil principle." Sin took the law as a base of operations.
8. Sin. Personified.

Occasion (ajformh). Emphatic, expressing the relation of the law to sin. The law is not sin, but sin found occasion in the law. Used only by Paul. See 2 Corinthians 5:12;
Galatians 5:13; 1 Timothy 5:14. The verb ajforma>w means to make a start from a place. > is therefore primarily a starting-point, a base of operations. The
Lacedaemonians agreed that Peloponnesus would be ajformh a good base of operations (Thucydides, i., 90). Thus, the origin, cause, occasion, or pretext of a thing;
the means with which one begins. Generally, resources, as means of war, capital in business. Here the law is represented as furnishing sin with the material or ground of
assault, "the fulcrum for the energy of the evil principle." Sin took the law as a base of operations.

Wrought (kateirga>sato). The compound verb with kata> down through always signifies the bringing to pass or accomplishment. See Romans 2:9; 1 Corinthians 5:3; 2
Corinthians 7:10. It is used both of evil and good. See especially vers. 15, 17, 18, 20. "To man everything forbidden appears as a desirable blessing; but yet, as it is
forbidden, he feels that his freedom is limited, and now his lust rages more violently, like the waves against the dyke" (Tholuck).

Dead. Not active.

9. I was alive - once (e]zwn pote>). Referring to the time of childlike innocence previous to the stimulus imparted to the inactive principle of sin by the coming of the
law; when the moral self-determination with respect to the law had not taken place, and the sin-principle was therefore practically dead.

The commandment (ejntolh~v). The specific injunction "thou shalt not covet." See on James 2:8; John 13:34.

Revived (ajne>zhsen). Not came to life, but lived again. See Luke 15:24, 32. The power of sin is originally and in its nature living; but before the coming of the
commandment its life is not expressed. When the commandment comes, it becomes alive again. It lies dormant, like the beast at the door (Genesis 4:7), until the law
stirs it up.

The tendency of prohibitory law to provoke the will to resistance is frequently recognized in the classics. Thus, Horace: "The human race, presumptuous to endure all
things, rushes on through forbidden wickedness" (Ode, i., 3, 25). Ovid: "The permitted is unpleasing; the forbidden consumes us fiercely" ("Amores," i., 19, 3). "We
strive against the forbidden and ever desire what is denied" (Id., i., 4, 17). Seneca: "Parricides began with the law, and the punishment showed them the crime" ("De
Clementia," i., 23). Cato, in his speech on the Oppian law; says: "It is safer that a wicked man should even never be accused than that he should be acquitted; and
luxury, if it had never been meddled with, would he more tolerable than it will be now, like a wild beast, irritated by having been chained and then let loose" (Livy,
xxxiv., 4).

I found to be unto death. The A.V. omits the significant au[th this. This very commandment, the aim of which was life, I found unto death. Meyer remarks: "It has tragic
emphasis." So Rev., this I found. The surprise at such an unexpected result is expressed by I found, literally, was found (eJure>qh)

11. Deceived (ejxhpa>thsen). Rev., beguiled Only in Paul. Compare 2 Corinthians 11:3; 2 Thessalonians 2:3.

12. Holy, just, good. Holy as God's revelation of Himself; just (Rev., righteous) in its requirements, which correspond to God's holiness; good, salutary, because of its
end.

13. Exceeding (kaq' uJperbolh). An adverbial phrase. Lit., according to excess. The noun uJperbolh> means a casting beyond. The English hyperbole is a transcription.

14. We know (oi]damen). Denoting something generally conceded.

Spiritual (pneumatiko>v). The expression of the Holy Spirit.

Carnal (sa>rkinov). Lit., made of flesh. A very strong expression. "This unspiritual, material, phenomenal nature" so dominates the unrenewed man that he is described
as consisting of flesh. Others read sarkiko>v having the nature of flesh.

Sold under sin. As a slave. The preposition uJpo> under, with the accusative, implies direction; so as to be under the power of.

15. I do (katerga>zomai). See on ver. 8. Accomplish, achieve. Here appropriately used of carrying out another's will. I do not perceive the outcome of my sinful life.

I allow not (ouj ginw>skw). Allow is used by A.V. in the earlier English sense of approve. Compare Luke 11:48; Romans 14:22; 1 Thessalonians 2:4. Shakespeare:
"Thou shalt hold the opinion of Pythagoras as I will allow of thy wits" ("Twelfth Night," iv., 2). But the meaning of ginw>skw is not approve, but recognize, come to
know, perceive. Hence Rev., I know not. Paul says: "What I carry out I do not recognize in its true nature, as a slave who ignorantly performs his master's behest
without knowing its tendency or result."

I would (qe>lw). See on Matthew 1:19. Rather desire than will in the sense of full determination, as is shown by I consent (ver. 16), and I delight in (ver. 22).

Do I not (pra>ssw). See on John 3:21. Rev., correctly, practice: the daily doing which issues in accomplishment (katerga>zomai).

Do I (poiw~). See on John 3:21. More nearly akin to katerga>zomai I accomplish, realize. "When I have acted (pra>ssw) I find myself face to face with a result which
my moral instinct condemns" (Godet). I do not practice what I would, and the outcome is what I hate.

16. I consent (su>mfhmi). Lit., speak together with; concur with, since the law also does not desire what I do. Only here in the New Testament.

Good (kalo>v). See on John 10:11, 32; Matthew 26:10; James 2:7. Morally excellent.

17. Now - no more (nuni - oujke>ti). Not temporal, pointing back to a time when it was otherwise, but logical, pointing to an inference. After this statement you can no
more maintain that, etc.

I (ejgw). My personality proper; my moral self-consciousness which has approved the law (ver. 16) and has developed vague desires for something better. 40

18. In me. The entire man in whom sin and righteousness struggle, in whose unregenerate condition sin is the victor, having its domain in the flesh. Hence in me
considered as carnal (ver. 14). That another element is present appears from "to will is present with me;" but it is the flesh which determines his activity as an
unregenerate man. There is good in the I, but not in the I considered as carnal. This is brought out in ver. 25, "With the flesh (I serve) the law of sin." Hence there is
added that is, in my flesh.

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Perform (katerga>zesqai). Carry the desire into effect.
considered as carnal (ver. 14). That another element is present appears from "to will is present with me;" but it is the flesh which determines his activity as an
unregenerate man. There is good in the I, but not in the I considered as carnal. This is brought out in ver. 25, "With the flesh (I serve) the law of sin." Hence there is
added that is, in my flesh.

Is present (para>keitai). Lit., lies beside or before.

Perform (katerga>zesqai). Carry the desire into effect.

I find not (oujc euJri>skw). The best texts omit find, and read simply ouj not. So Rev., "To do that which is good is not (present)."

19. Do not - do. (poiw~ - pra>ssw). See on ver. 15.

21. A law. With the article, the law. The constant rule of experience imposing itself on the will. Thus in the phrases law of faith, works, the spirit. Here the law of moral
contradiction.

When I would (tw|~ qe>lonti ejmoi). Lit., as Rev., to me who would, or to the wishing me, thus emphasizing the I whose characteristic it is to wish, but not to do.

22. I delight in (sunh>domai). Lit., I rejoice with. Stronger than I consent unto (ver., 16). It is the agreement of moral sympathy.

The inward man (to). The rational and moral I, the essence of the man which is conscious of itself as an ethical personality. Not to be confounded with the new man
(Ephesians 4:24; Colossians 3:10). 41 It is substantially the same with the mind (ver. 23).

23. I see (ble>pw). See on John 1:29. Paul is a spectator of his own personality.

Another (e[teron). See on Matthew 6:24.

Warring against (ajntistrateuo>menon). Only here in the New Testament. Taking the field against.

The law of my mind (tw|~ no>mw| tou~ noo>v mou). Nou~v mind, is a term distinctively characteristic of Paul, though not confined to him. See Luke 24:45;
Revelation 13:18; 17:9.

Paul's usage of this term is not based, like that of spirit and flesh, on the Septuagint, though the word occurs six times as the rendering of lebh heart, and once of ruach
spirit.

He uses it to throw into sharper relief the function of reflective intelligence and moral judgment which is expressed generally by kardi>a heart.

The key to its Pauline usage is furnished by the contrast in 1 Corinthians 14:14-19 between speaking with a tongue and with the understanding (tw|~ noi`>), and
between the spirit and the understanding (ver. 14). There it is the faculty of reflective intelligence which receives and is wrought upon by the Spirit. It is associated with
gnwmh> opinion, resulting from its exercise, in 1 Corinthians 1:10; and with kri>nei judgeth in Romans 14:5.

Paul uses it mainly with an ethical reference - moral judgment as related to action. See Romans 12:2 where the renewing of the nou~v mind is urged as a necessary
preliminary to a right moral judgment ("that ye may prove," etc.,). The nou~v which does not exercise this judgment is ajdo>kimov not approved, reprobate. See note
on reprobate, 1:28, and compare on 2 Timothy 3:8; Titus 1:15 where the nou~v is associated with the conscience. See also on Ephesians 4:23.

It stands related to pneu~ma spirit, as the faculty to the efficient power. It is "the faculty of moral judgment which perceives and approves what is good, but has not the
power of practically controlling the life in conformity with its theoretical requirements." In the portrayal of the struggle in this chapter there is no reference to the
pneu~ma spirit, which, on the other hand, distinctively characterizes the christian state in Romans 8. In this chapter Paul employs only terms pertaining to the natural
faculties of the human mind, and of these nou~v mind is in the foreground.

Bringing into captivity (aijcmalwti>zonta). Only here, 2 Corinthians 10:5 and Luke 21:24. See on captives, Luke 4:18. The warlike figure is maintained. Lit., making me
prisoner of war.

Law of sin. The regime of the sin-principle. sin is represented in the New Testament as an organized economy. See Ephesians 6.

The conflict between the worse and the better principle in human nature appears in numerous passages in the classics. Godet remarks that this is the passage in all
Paul's epistles which presents the most points of contact with profane literature. Thus Ovid: "Desire counsels me in one direction, reason in another." "I see and approve
the better, but I follow the worse." Epictetus: "He who sins does not what he would, and does what he would not." Seneca: "What, then, is it that, when we would go in
one direction, drags us in the other?" See also the passage in Plato ("Phaedrus," 246), in which the human soul is represented as a chariot drawn by two horses, one
drawing up and the other down.

24. Wretched (talai>pwrov). Originally, wretched through the exhaustion of hard labor.

Who (ti>v). Referring to a personal deliverer.

Body of this death (tou~ sw>matov tou~ qana>tou tou>tou). The body serving as the seat of the death into which the soul is sunk through the power of sin. The body
is the literal body, regarded as the principal instrument which sin uses to enslave and destroy the soul. In explaining this much-disputed phrase, it must be noted:

1.That Paul associates the dominion and energy of sin prominently with the body, though not as if sin were inherent in and inseparable from the body.

2.That he represents the service of sin through the body as associated with, identified with, tending to, resulting in, death. And therefore,

3.That he may properly speak of the literal body as a body of death - this death, which is the certain issue of the abject captivity to sin.

4.That Paul is not expressing a desire to escape from the body, and therefore for death.

Meyer paraphrases correctly: "Who shall deliver me out of bondage under the law of sin into moral freedom, in which my body shall no longer serve as the seat of this
shameful death?" Ignatius, in his letter to the Smyrnaeans, speaks of one who denies Christ's humanity, as nekrofo>rov one who carries a corpse.
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I myself. The man out of Christ. Looking back and summing up the unregenerate condition, preparatory to setting forth its opposite in Romans 8. Paul says therefore,
that, so far as concerns his moral intelligence or reason, he approves and pays homage to God's law; but, being in bondage to sin, made of flesh, sold under sin, the
flesh carries him its own way and commands his allegiance to the economy of sin.
4.That Paul is not expressing a desire to escape from the body, and therefore for death.

Meyer paraphrases correctly: "Who shall deliver me out of bondage under the law of sin into moral freedom, in which my body shall no longer serve as the seat of this
shameful death?" Ignatius, in his letter to the Smyrnaeans, speaks of one who denies Christ's humanity, as nekrofo>rov one who carries a corpse.

I myself. The man out of Christ. Looking back and summing up the unregenerate condition, preparatory to setting forth its opposite in Romans 8. Paul says therefore,
that, so far as concerns his moral intelligence or reason, he approves and pays homage to God's law; but, being in bondage to sin, made of flesh, sold under sin, the
flesh carries him its own way and commands his allegiance to the economy of sin.

CHAPTER 8

1. Therefore now. Connecting with Romans 7:25. Being freed through Jesus Christ, there is therefore no condemnation now.

Condemnation (kata>krima). As Romans 5:16, sentence of condemnation.

Who walk not, etc. The best texts omit to the end of the verse.

2. The law of the Spirit of life (oJ no>mov tou~ pneu>matov th~v zwh~v). The law, the regulative principle; the Spirit, the divine Spirit who inspires the law (compare
Romans 7:14). Of life, proceeding from the life of Jesus and producing and imparting life. Compare John 16:15.

In Christ Jesus. Construe with hath made me free. Compare John 8:36.

3. What the law could not do (tonaton tou~ no>mou). Lit., the impossible (thing) of the law. An absolute nominative in apposition with the divine act - condemned sin.
God condemned sin which condemnation was an impossible thing on the part of the law. The words stand first in the Greek order for emphasis.

In the likeness of sinful flesh. Lit., of the flesh of sin. The choice of words is especially noteworthy. Paul does not say simply, "He came in flesh" (1 John 4:2; 1 Timothy
3:16), for this would not have expressed the bond between Christ's manhood and sin. Not in the flesh of sin, which would have represented Him as partaking of sin.
Not in the likeness of flesh, since He was really and entirely human; but, in the likeness of the flesh of sin: really human, conformed in appearance to the flesh whose
characteristic is sin, yet sinless. "Christ appeared in a body which was like that of other men in so far as it consisted of flesh, and was unlike in so far as the flesh was
not flesh of sin" (Dickson). 42

For sin (periav). The preposition expresses the whole relation of the mission of Christ to sin. The special relation is stated in condemned. For sin - to atone, to destroy,
to save and sanctify its victims.

Condemned. Deposed from its dominion, a thing impossible to the law, which could pronounce judgment and inflict penalty, but not dethrone. Christ's holy character
was a condemnation of unholiness. Construe in the flesh with condemned.

4. Righteousness (dikai>wma). Rev., ordinance. Primarily that which is deemed right, so as to have the force of law; hence an ordinance. Here collectively, of the moral
precepts of the law: its righteous requirement. Compare Luke 1:6; Romans 2:26; Hebrews 9:1. See on Romans 5:16.

The Spirit (pneu~ma). From pne>w to breathe or blow. The primary conception is wind or breath. Breath being the sign and condition of life in man, it comes to signify
life. In this sense, physiologically considered, it is frequent in the classics. In the psychological sense, never. In the Old Testament it is ordinarily the translation of ruach.
It is also used to translate chai life, Isaiah 38:12; n'shamah breath, 1 Kings 17:17.

In the New Testament it occurs in the sense of wind or breath, John 3:8; 2 Thessalonians 2:8; Hebrews 1:7. Closely related to the physiological sense are such
passages as Luke 8:55; James 2:26; Revelation 13:15.

PAULINE USAGE:

1.Breath, 2 Thessalonians 2:8.

2.The spirit or mind of man; the inward, self-conscious principle which feels and thinks and wills (1 Corinthians 2:11; 5:3; 7:34; Colossians 2:5).

In this sense it is distinguished from sw~ma body, or accompanied with a personal pronoun in the genitive, as my, our, his spirit (Romans 1:9; 8:16; 1 Corinthians 5:4;
16:18 etc.). It is used as parallel with yuch> soul, and kardi>a heart. See 1 Corinthians 5:3; 1 Thessalonians 2:17; and compare John 13:21 and 12:27; Matthew 26:38
and Luke 1:46, 47. But while yuch> soul, is represented as the subject of life, pneu>ma spirit, represents the principle of life, having independent activity in all
circumstances of the perceptive and emotional life, and never as the subject. Generally, pneu>ma spirit, may be described as the principle, yuch> soul, as the subject,
and kardi>a heart, as the organ of life.

3.The spiritual nature of Christ. Romans 1:4; 1 Corinthians 15:45; 1 Timothy 3:16.

4.The divine power or influence belonging to God, and communicated in Christ to men, in virtue of which they become pneumatikoi> spiritual - recipients and organs of
the Spirit. This is Paul's most common use of the word. Romans 8:9; 1 Corinthians 2:13; Galatians 4:6; 6:1; 1 Thessalonians 4:8. In this sense it appears as:

a.Spirit of God. Romans 8:9, 11, 14; 1 Corinthians 2:10, 11, 12, 14; 3:16; 6:11; 7:40; 2 Corinthians 3:3; Ephesians 3:16.

b.Spirit of Christ. Romans 8:9; 2 Corinthians 3:17, 18; Galatians 4:6; Philippians 1:19.

c.Holy Spirit. Romans 5:5; 1 Corinthians 6:19; 12:3; Ephesians 1:13; 1 Thessalonians 1:5, 6; 4:8 etc.

d.Spirit. With or without the article, but with its reference to the Spirit of God or Holy Spirit indicated by the context. Romans 8:16, 23, 26, 27; 1 Corinthians 2:4, 10;
12:4, 7, 8, 9; Ephesians 4:3; 2 Thessalonians 2:13 etc.

5.A power or influence, the character, manifestations, or results of which are more peculiarly defined by qualifying genitives. Thus spirit of meekness, faith, power,
wisdom. Romans 8:2, 15; 1 Corinthians 4:21; 2 Corinthians 4:13; Galatians 6:1; Ephesians 1:17; 2 Timothy 1:7 etc.

These combinations with the genitives are not mere periphrases for a faculty or disposition of man. By the spirit of meekness or wisdom, for instance, is not meant
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                                                                                                                                                          Compare
Exodus 28:3; 31:3; 35:31; Isaiah 11:2.
wisdom. Romans 8:2, 15; 1 Corinthians 4:21; 2 Corinthians 4:13; Galatians 6:1; Ephesians 1:17; 2 Timothy 1:7 etc.

These combinations with the genitives are not mere periphrases for a faculty or disposition of man. By the spirit of meekness or wisdom, for instance, is not meant
merely a meek or wise spirit; but that meekness, wisdom, power, etc., are gifts of the Spirit of God. This usage is according to Old Testament analogy. Compare
Exodus 28:3; 31:3; 35:31; Isaiah 11:2.

6.In the plural, used of spiritual gifts or of those who profess to be under spiritual influence, 1 Corinthians 12:10; 14:12.

7.Powers or influences alien or averse from the divine Spirit, but with some qualifying word. Thus, the spirit of the world; another spirit; spirit of slumber. Romans 11:8;
1 Corinthians 2:12; 2 Corinthians 11:4; Ephesians 2:2; 2 Timothy 1:7. Where these expressions are in negative form they are framed after the analogy of the positive
counterpart with which they are placed in contrast. Thus Romans 8:15: "Ye have not received the spirit of bondage, but of adoption. In other cases, as Ephesians 2:2
where the expression is positive, the conception is shaped according to Old-Testament usage, where spirits of evil are conceived as issuing from, and dependent upon,
God, so far as He permits their operation and makes them subservient to His own ends. See Judges 9:23; 1 Samuel 16:14-16, 23; 18:10; 1 Kings 22:21 sqq.; Isaiah
19:4.

Spirit is found contrasted with letter, Romans 2:29; 7:6; 2 Corinthians 3:6. With flesh, Romans 8:1-13; Galatians 5:16, 24.

It is frequently associated with the idea of power (Romans 1:4; 15:13, 19; 1 Corinthians 2:4; Galatians 3:5; Ephesians 3:16; 2 Timothy 1:7); and the verb ejnergei~n,
denoting to work efficaciously, is used to mark its special operation (1 Corinthians 12:11; Ephesians 3:20; Philippians 2:13; Colossians 1:29). It is also closely
associated with life, Romans 8:2, 6, 11, 13; 1 Corinthians 15:4, 5; 2 Corinthians 3:6; Galatians 5:25; 6:8.

It is the common possession of the Church and its members; not an occasional gift, but an essential element and mark of the christian life; not appearing merely or
mainly in exceptional, marvelous, ecstatic demonstrations, but as the motive and mainspring of all christian action and feeling. It reveals itself in confession (1.
Corinthians 12:3); in the consciousness of sonship (Romans 8:16); in the knowledge of the love of God (Romans 5:5); in the peace and joy of faith (Romans 14:17; 1
Thessalonians 1:6); in hope (Romans 5:5; 15:13). It leads believers (Romans 8:14; Galatians 5:18): they serve in newness of the Spirit (Romans 7:6) They walk after
the Spirit (Romans 8:4, 5; Galatians 5:16-25. Through the Spirit they are sanctified (2 Thessalonians 2:13). It manifests itself in the diversity of forms and operations,
appearing under two main aspects: a difference of gifts, and a difference of functions. See Romans 8:9; 1 Corinthians 3:16; 5:1, 11; 12:13; Ephesians 1:13; 4:3, 4, 30;
Philippians 2:1; 1 Corinthians 12:4, 7, 11.

As compared with the Old-Testament conception, Paul's pneu~ma "is the ruach of the Old Testament, conceived as manifesting itself after a manner analogous to, but
transcending, its earlier forms. It bears the same characteristic marks of divine origin, of supernatural power, of motive energy in active exercise - standing in intimate
relation to the fuller religious life and distinctive character and action of its recipients. But while in the Old Testament it is partial, occasional, intermittent, here it is
general, constant, pervading. While in the Old Testament, as well as in the New, its forms of manifestation are diverse, they are expressly referred under the New to
one and the same Spirit. While in the Old Testament they contemplate mainly the official equipment of men for special work given them to perform, they include under
the New the inward energy of moral action in the individual, no less than the gifts requisite for the edification of the Church; they embrace the whole domain of the
religious life in the believer, and in the community to which he belongs. The pneu~ma of the apostle is not the life-breath of man as originally constituted a creature of
God; but it is the life-spirit of "the new creation" in which all things have become new" (Dickson).

With the relation of this word to yuch> soul is bound up the complicated question whether Paul recognizes in the human personality a trichotomy, or threefold division
into body, soul, and spirit. On the one side it is claimed that Paul regards man as consisting of body, the material element and physical basis of his being; soul, the
principle of animal life; and spirit, the higher principle of the intellectual nature. On the other side, that spirit and soul represent different sides or functions of the one
inner man; the former embracing the higher powers more especially distinctive of man, the latter the feelings and appetites. The threefold distinction is maintained chiefly
on the basis of 1 Thessalonians 5:23. Compare Hebrews 4:12. 43 On the distinction from yuch> soul, see, further, on Romans 11:3.

5. They that are (oiJ o]ntev). Wider in meaning than walk, which expresses the manifestation of the condition expressed by are.

Do mind (fronou~sin). The verb primarily means to have understanding; then to feel or think (1 Corinthians 13:11); to have an opinion (Romans 12:3). Hence to judge
(Acts 28:22; Galatians 5:10; Philippians 3:15). To direct the mind to something, and so to seek or strive for (Matthew 16:23 note; Philippians 3:19; Colossians 3:2). So
here. The object of their thinking and striving is fleshly.

6. To be carnally minded (tonhma th~v sarko). Lit., as Rev., the mind of the flesh. Fleshly thinking and striving. Similarly the mind of the Spirit for to be spiritually
minded.

7. Is not subject (oujc uJpota>ssetai). See on James 4:7. Originally to arrange under. Possibly with a shade of military meaning suggested by enmity. It is marshaled
under a hostile banner.

10. The body. The believer's natural body.

The spirit. The believer's human spirit. 44

13. Ye shall die (me>llete ajpoqnh>skein). The expression is stronger than the simple future of the verb. It indicates a necessary consequence. So Rev., ye must.

Mortify (qanatou~te). Put to death.

Deeds (pra>xeiv). Habitual practices. See on Romans 7:15; John 3:21.

14. Sons (uiJoi>). See on John 1:12; Matthew 1:1. There is an implied contrast with the Jewish idea of sonship by physical descent.

15. Spirit of bondage (pneu~ma doulei>av) The Holy Spirit, as in Spirit of adoption. The Spirit which ye received was not a spirit of bondage. See ver. 4, under
pneu~ma, 7.

Spirit of adoption (pneu~ma uiJoqesi>av). The Spirit of God, producing the condition of adoption. Uioqesi>a adoption, is from uiJo>v son, and qe>siv a setting or
placing: the placing one in the position of a son. Mr. Merivale, illustrating Paul's acquaintance with Roman law, says: "The process of legal adoption by which the
chosen heir became entitled not only to the reversion of the property but to the civil status, to the burdens as well as the rights of the adopter - became, as it were, his
other self, one with him... this too is a Roman principle, peculiar at this time to the Romans, unknown, I believe, to the Greeks, unknown, to all appearance, to the
Jews, as it certainly is not found in the legislation of Moses, nor mentioned anywhere as a usage among the children of the covenant. We have but a faint conception of
the force with which such an illustration would speak to one familiar with the Roman practice; how it would serve to impress upon him the assurance that the adopted
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son of God becomes, in a peculiar and intimate sense, one with the heavenly Father" ("Conversion of the Roman Empire").

We cry (kra>zomen). Of a loud cry or vociferation; expressing deep emotion.
chosen heir became entitled not only to the reversion of the property but to the civil status, to the burdens as well as the rights of the adopter - became, as it were, his
other self, one with him... this too is a Roman principle, peculiar at this time to the Romans, unknown, I believe, to the Greeks, unknown, to all appearance, to the
Jews, as it certainly is not found in the legislation of Moses, nor mentioned anywhere as a usage among the children of the covenant. We have but a faint conception of
the force with which such an illustration would speak to one familiar with the Roman practice; how it would serve to impress upon him the assurance that the adopted
son of God becomes, in a peculiar and intimate sense, one with the heavenly Father" ("Conversion of the Roman Empire").

We cry (kra>zomen). Of a loud cry or vociferation; expressing deep emotion.

Abba (~). Compare Mark 14:36. A Syrian term, to which Paul adds the Greek Father. The repetition is probably from a liturgical formula which may have originated
among the Hellenistic Jews who retained the consecrated word Abba. Some find here a hint of the union of Jew and Gentile in God. 45

16. Beareth witness with our spirit (summarturei~ tw~ pneu>mati hJmw~n). This rendering assumes the concurrent testimony of the human spirit with that of the divine
Spirit. Others, however, prefer to render to our spirit, urging that the human spirit can give no testimony until acted upon by the Spirit of God.

Children (te>kna). See on John 1:12.

17. Joint-heirs. Roman law made all children, including adopted ones, equal heritors. Jewish law gave a double portion to the eldest son. The Roman law was naturally
in Paul's mind, and suits the context, where adoption is the basis of inheritance.

If so be that (ei]per). The conditional particle with the indicative mood assumes the fact. If so be, as is really the case.

Suffer with Him. Mere suffering does not fulfill the condition. It is suffering with Christ. Compare with Him - all things, ver. 32.

18. I reckon (logi>zomai). See on 1 Peter 5:12. It implies reasoning. "I judge after calculation made" (Godet). Compare 3:28; 2 Corinthians 11:5; Philippians 3:13.

19. Earnest expectation (ajpokaradoki>a). Only here and Philippians 1:20. From ajpo> away ka>ra the head, dokei~n to watch. A watching with the head erect or
outstretched. Hence a waiting in suspense.'Apo> from, implies abstraction, the attention turned from other objects. The classical student will recall the watchman in the
opening of Aeschylus'"Agamemnon," awaiting the beacon which is to announce the capture of Troy.

Creature (kti>sewv). The word may signify either the creative act (as 1:20), or the thing created (Mark 10:6; 13:19; 16:15; Colossians 1:23; Hebrews 4:13). See on 1
Peter 2:13. Here in the latter sense. The interpretations vary: 1. The whole unredeemed creation, rational and irrational. 2. All creation, except humanity. The point of
difference is the inclusion or exclusion of humanity. The second explanation is preferable, the non-rational creation viewed collectively, animate and inanimate.
Equivalent to all nature.

Waiteth (ajpekde>cetai). Only in Paul and Hebrews 9:28. The whole passage, with the expressions waiting, sighing, hoping, bondage, is poetical and prophetic.
Compare Psalms 19:2; Isaiah 11:6; 14:8; 55:12; 65:17; Ezekiel 31:15; 37.; Habakkuk 2:11.

20. Vanity (mataio>thti). Only here, Ephesians 4:17; 2 Peter 2:18. Compare the kindred verb became vain (Romans 1:21 note), and the adjective vain (1 Corinthians
3:20; 1 Peter 1:18). Vain is also used to render keno>v (1 Corinthians 15:14, 58; Ephesians 5:6; James 2:20). Keno>v signifies empty; ma>taiov idle, resultless.
Keno>v, used of persons, implies not merely the absence of good, but the presence of evil. So James 2:20. The Greek proverb runs. "The empty think empty things."
Ma>taiov expresses aimlessness. All which has not God for the true end of its being is ma>taiov. Pindar describes the vain man as one who hunts bootless things with
fruitless hopes. Plato ("Laws," 735) of labor to no purpose. Ezekiel 13:6"prophesying vain things (ma>taia)," things which God will not bring to pass. Compare Titus
3:9. Here, therefore, the reference is to a perishable and decaying condition, separate from God, and pursuing false ends.

By reason of Him who hath subjected (diaxanta). God, not Adam nor Satan. Paul does not use the grammatical form which would express the direct agency of God,
by Him who hath subjected, but that which makes God's will the occasion rather than the worker - on account of Him. Adam's sin and not God's will was the direct
and special cause of the subjection to vanity. The supreme will of God is thus removed "to a wider distance from corruption and vanity" (Alford).

21. In hope because (ejp' ejlpi>di o[ti), The best texts transfer these words from the preceding verse, and construe with was made subject, rendering o[ti that instead
of because. "The creation was subjected in the hope that," etc. In hope is literally on hope, as a foundation. The hope is that of the subjected, not of the subjector.
Nature "possesses in the feeling of her unmerited suffering, a sort of presentiment of her future deliverance" (Godet). Some adopt a very suggestive connection of in
hope with waiteth for the manifestation.

Glorious liberty (ejleuqeri>an th~v do>xhv). Better, and more literally, as Rev., liberty of the glory. Liberty is one of the elements of the glorious state and is dependent
upon it. The glory is that in ver. 18. The Greek student will note the accumulation of genitives, giving solemnity to the passage.

22. For. Introducing the proof of the hope, not of the bondage.

Groaneth - travaileth together (sustena>zei - sunwdi>nei). Both only here in the New Testament. The simple verb wjdi>nw to travail, occurs Galatians 4:19, 27;
Revelation 12:2; and the kindred noun wjdi>n birth-pang, in Matthew and Mark, Acts, and 1 Thessalonians 5:3. See on Mark 13:9; Acts 2:24. Together refers to the
common longing of all the elements of the creation, not to its longing in common with God's children. "Nature, with its melancholy charm, resembles a bride who, at the
very moment when she was fully attired for marriage, saw the bridegroom die. She still stands with her fresh crown and in her bridal dress, but her eyes are full of
tears" (Schelling, cited by Godet).

24. By hope (th|~ ejlpi>di). Better in hope. We are saved by faith. See on 1 Peter 1:3.

Hope - not hope. Here the word is used of the object of hope. See Colossians 1:5; 1 Timothy 1:1; Hebrews 6:18.

26. Helpeth (sunantilamba>netai). Only here and Luke 10:40 on which see note. "Lamba>netai taketh. Precisely the same verb in precisely the same phrase, which is
translated 'took our infirmities'," Matthew 8:17 (Bushnell).

As we ought (kaqo). Not with reference to the form of prayer, but to the circumstances: in proportion to the need. Compare 2 Corinthians 8:12; 1 Peter 4:13.

Maketh intercession for (uJperentugca>nei). Only here in the New Testament. The verb ejntugca>nw means to light upon or fall in with; to go to meet for consultation,
conversation, or supplication. So Acts 25:24 "dealt with," Rev., "made suit." Compare Romans 8:34; 11:2; Hebrews 7:25.

Which cannot be uttered (ajlalh>toiv). This may mean either unutterable or unuttered..
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28. Work together (sunergei~). Or, are working together, now, while the creation is in travail. Together refers to the common working of all the elements included in
pa>nta all things.
conversation, or supplication. So Acts 25:24 "dealt with," Rev., "made suit." Compare Romans 8:34; 11:2; Hebrews 7:25.

Which cannot be uttered (ajlalh>toiv). This may mean either unutterable or unuttered..

28. Work together (sunergei~). Or, are working together, now, while the creation is in travail. Together refers to the common working of all the elements included in
pa>nta all things.

For good. Jacob cried, all these things are against me. Paul, all things are working together for good.

29. Did foreknow (proe>gnw). Five times in the New Testament. In all cases it means foreknow. Acts. 26:5; 1 Peter 1:20; 2 Peter 3:17; Romans 11:2. It does not
mean foreordain. It signifies prescience, not preelection. "It is God's being aware in His plan, by means of which, before the subjects are destined by Him to salvation,
He knows whom He has to destine thereto" (Meyer). 46

It is to be remarked:

1.That proe>gnw foreknew is used by the apostle as distinct and different from predestinated (prow>risen).

2.That, strictly speaking, it is coordinate with foreordained. "In God is no before." All the past, present, and future are simultaneously present to Him. In presenting the
two phases, the operation of God's knowledge and of His decretory will, the succession of time is introduced, not as metaphysically true, but in concession to human
limitations of thought. Hence the coordinating force of kai also.

3.That a predetermination of God is clearly stated as accompanying or (humanly speaking) succeeding, and grounded upon the foreknowledge.

4.That this predetermination is to the end of conformity to the image of the Son of God, and that this is the vital point of the passage.

5.That, therefore, the relation between foreknowledge and predestination is incidental, and is not contemplated as a special point of discussion. God's foreknowledge
and His decree are alike aimed at holy character and final salvation.

"O thou predestination, how remote

Thy root is from the aspect of all those

Who the First Cause do not behold entire!

And you, O mortals! hold yourselves restrained

In judging; for ourselves, who look on God,

We do not known as yet all the elect;

And sweet to us is such a deprivation,

Because our good in this good is made perfect,

That whatsoe'er God wills, we also will"

DANTE, "Paradiso," xx., 130-138.

To be conformed (summo>rfouv). With an inner and essential conformity. See on transfigured, Matthew 17:2.

To the image (th~v eijko>nov). See on Romans 1:23. In all respects, sufferings and moral character no less than glory. Compare vers. 18, 28, 31, and see Philippians
3:21; 1 Corinthians 15:49; 2 Corinthians 3:18; 1 John 3:2, 3. "There is another kind of life of which science as yet has taken little cognizance. It obeys the same laws. It
builds up an organism into its own form. It is the Christ-life. As the bird-life builds up a bird, the image of itself, so the Christ-life builds up a Christ, the image of
Himself, in the inward nature of man.... According to the great law of conformity to type, this fashioning takes a specific form. It is that of the Artist who fashions. And
all through life this wonderful, mystical, glorious, yet perfectly definite process goes on 'until Christ be formed' in it" (Drummond, "Natural Law in the Spiritual World").

First-born (prwto>tokon). See on Revelation 1:5. Compare Colossians 1:15, 18 note.

32. Spared (ejfei>sato). Mostly in Paul. Elsewhere only Acts 20:29; 2 Peter 2:4, 5. Compare Genesis 22:16 which Paul may have had in mind.

His own (ijdi>ou). See on Acts 1:7; 2 Peter 1:3, 20.

With Him. Not merely in addition to Him, but all gifts of God are to be received, held, and enjoyed in communion with Christ.

Freely give. In contrast with spared.

33. Shall lay - to the charge (ejgkale>sei). Only here by Paul. Frequent in Acts. See Acts 19:38, 40; 23:28, 29; 26:2, 7. Lit., "to call something in one." Hence call to
account; bring a charge against.

The following clauses are differently arranged by expositors. I prefer the succession of four interrogatives: Who shall lay? etc. Is it God? etc. Who is He that
condemneth? Is it Christ? etc. 47

34. Rather (ma~llon). "Our faith should rest on Christ's death. but it should rather also so far progress as to lean on His resurrection, dominion, and second
coming" (Bengel). "From the representations of the dead Christ the early believers shrank as from an impiety. To them He was the living, not the dead Christ - the
triumphant, the glorified, the infinite, - not the agonized Christ in that one brief hour and power of darkness which was but the spasm of an eternal glorification" (Farrar,
"Lives of the Fathers," 1. 14).
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37.        (c) 2005-2009,
    We are more           Infobase
                than conquerors     Media Corp. A victory which is more than a victory. "A holy arrogance of victory in the might of Christ" (Meyer).
                                (uJpernikw~men).                                                                                               Page 41 / 567

38. Powers (ajrcai>). Angelic, higher than mere angels.
coming" (Bengel). "From the representations of the dead Christ the early believers shrank as from an impiety. To them He was the living, not the dead Christ - the
triumphant, the glorified, the infinite, - not the agonized Christ in that one brief hour and power of darkness which was but the spasm of an eternal glorification" (Farrar,
"Lives of the Fathers," 1. 14).

37. We are more than conquerors (uJpernikw~men). A victory which is more than a victory. "A holy arrogance of victory in the might of Christ" (Meyer).

38. Powers (ajrcai>). Angelic, higher than mere angels.

Things present (ejnestw~ta). Only in Paul and Hebrews 9:9. The verb literally means to stand in sight. Hence to impend or threaten. So 2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Timothy
3:1; 1 Corinthians 7:26. Used of something that has set in or begun. So some render here. 48 Bengel says: "Things past are not mentioned, not even sins, for they have
passed away."

CHAPTER 9

Luther says: "Who hath not known passion, cross, and travail of death, cannot treat of foreknowledge (election of grace) without injury and inward enmity toward God.
Wherefore take heed that thou drink not wine while thou art yet a sucking babe. Each several doctrine hath its own reason and measure and age."

1. In Christ. Not by Christ, as the formula of an oath, Christ being never used by the apostles in such a formula, but God. Romans 1:9; 2 Corinthians 1:23; 11:31;
Philippians 1:8. For this favorite expression of Paul, see Galatians 2:17; 1 Corinthians 1:2; 2 Corinthians 2:14, 17; 12:19 etc.

Conscience. See on 1 Peter 3:16.

Bearing me witness. Rev., bearing witness with me. See on Romans 8:16. Concurring with my testimony. Morison remarks that Paul speaks of conscience as if it were
something distinct from himself, and he cites Adam Smith's phrase, "the man within the breast."

In the Holy Ghost. So Rev. The concurrent testimony of his declaration and of conscience was "the echo of the voice of God's Holy Spirit" (Morison). 49

2. Heaviness, sorrow (lu>ph ojdu>nh). Heaviness, so Wyc. and Tynd., in the earlier sense of sorrow. So Chaucer:

"Who feeleth double sorrow and heaviness

But Palamon?"

"Knight's Tale," 1456

Shakespeare:

"I am here, brother, full of heaviness."

2 "Henry IV.," iv., 5, 8

Rev., sorrow. >nh is better rendered pain. Some derive it from the root ed eat, as indicating, consuming pain. Compare Horace, curae edares devouring cares. Only
here and 1 Timothy 6:10

Heart. See on Romans 1:21.

3. I could wish (hjuco>mhn). Or pray as 2 Corinthians 13:7, 9; James 5:16. Lit., I was wishing; but the imperfect here has a tentative force, implying the wish begun,
but stopped at the outset by some antecedent consideration which renders it impossible, so that, practically, it was not entertained at all. So Paul of Onesimus: "Whom I
could have wished (ejboulo>mhn) to keep with me," if it had not been too much to ask (Philemon 1:13). Paul would wish to save his countrymen, even at such
sacrifice, if it were morally possible. Others, however, explain the imperfect as stating an actual wish formerly entertained. 50

Accursed from Christ (ajna>qema ajpo). Compare Galatians 1:8, 9; 1 Corinthians 12:3; 16:22. See on offerings, Luke 21:5. Set apart to destruction and so separated
from Christ (Philippians 1:21; 3:8, 20). An expression of deep devotion. "It is not easy to estimate the measure of love in a Moses and a Paul. For our limited reason
does not grasp it, as the child cannot comprehend the courage of warriors" (Bengel). Compare Moses, Exodus 32:32.

4. Who (oi[tinev). The double relative characterizes the Israelites with their call and privileges as such that for them he could even wish himself accursed.

Israelites. See on Acts 3:12.

Adoption. See on Romans 8:15. Israel is always represented as the Lord's son or first-born among all peoples. Exodus 4:22; Deuteronomy 14:1; Hosea 11:1.

The glory. The visible, luminous appearance of the divine presence was called by the Israelites the glory of Jahveh, or, in rabbinical phrase, the Shekinah. See Exodus
24:16; 40:34, 35; Ezekiel 1:28; Hebrews 9:5. Not the final glory of God's kingdom; for this belongs to the Gentiles as well as to the Jews.

The covenants (aiJ diaqh~kai). See on Matthew 26:28. Those concluded with the patriarchs since Abraham. See Galatians 3:16, 17; Ephesians 2:12. The plural never
occurs in the Old Testament. See on Hebrews 9:16.

The giving of the law (hJ nomoqesi>a). The act of giving, with a secondary reference to the substance of the law; legislation.

The service (hJ latrei>a). See on John 16:2; Luke 1:74; Revelation 22:3; Philippians 3:3. Here the sum total of the Levitical services instituted by the law.

The promises. The collective messianic promises on which the covenants were based. The word originally means announcement. See on Acts 1:4.

5. Of whom (ejx w=n). From the midst of whom. But in order to guard the point that the reference is only to Christ's human origin, he adds, as concerning the flesh.

Who is over all, God blessed for ever (oJ w{n ejpintwn Qeo). Authorities differ as to the punctuation; some placing a colon, and others a comma after flesh. This
difference indicates the difference in the interpretation; some rendering as concerning the flesh Christ came. God who is over all be blessed for ever; thus making the
 Copyright
words  God,(c)
             etc.,2005-2009,
                   a doxology:Infobase   Media
                                others, with the Corp.
                                                 comma, the Christ, who is over all, God blessed forever; i.e., Christ is God (For minor variations see Page   42Rev.)
                                                                                                                                                        margin of  / 56751

Amen. See on Revelation 1:6.
5. Of whom (ejx w=n). From the midst of whom. But in order to guard the point that the reference is only to Christ's human origin, he adds, as concerning the flesh.

Who is over all, God blessed for ever (oJ w{n ejpintwn Qeo). Authorities differ as to the punctuation; some placing a colon, and others a comma after flesh. This
difference indicates the difference in the interpretation; some rendering as concerning the flesh Christ came. God who is over all be blessed for ever; thus making the
words God, etc., a doxology: others, with the comma, the Christ, who is over all, God blessed forever; i.e., Christ is God (For minor variations see margin of Rev.) 51

Amen. See on Revelation 1:6.

6. Not as though (oujc oi+on de). Rev., but it is not as though. The thought is abruptly introduced. I am not speaking of a matter of such a nature as that the doctrine of
faith involves the failure of God's promises to Israel.

Hath taken none effect (ejkpe>ptwken). Lit., has fallen out. Rev., come to nought.

7. In Isaac. Not in Ishmael, though Ishmael also was the seed of Abraham. The saying of Genesis 21:12 is directly added without it is written or it was said, because it
is assumed to be well known to the readers as a saying of God. The Hebrew is: "in Isaac shall posterity be named to thee." In the person of Isaac the descendant of
Abraham will be represented and recognized. The general principle asserted is that the true sonship of Abraham does not rest on bodily descent.

Shall be called (klhqh>setai). Named. See on Romans 4:17. Others, called from nothing. But the promise was made after Isaac was born.

8. That is. The Old-Testament saying amounts to this.

Children of the promise. Originating from the divine promise. See Galatians 4:23.

9. This is the word of promise. The A.V. obscures the true sense. There is no article, and the emphasis is on promise. "I say 'a word of promise,' for a word of promise
is this which follows." Or, as Morison, "this word is one of promise."

At this time (kata). Rev., according to this season. The reference is to Genesis 18:14 where the Hebrew is when the season is renewed or revives; i.e., next year at this
time. The season is represented as reviving periodically.

10. And not only so. The thought to be supplied is: Not only have we an example of the election of a son of Abraham by one woman, and a rejection of his son by
another, but also of the election and rejection of the children of the same woman.

By one. Though of one father, a different destiny was divinely appointed for each of the twins. Hence only the divine disposal constitutes the true and valid succession,
and not the bodily descent.

11. Evil (fau~lon). See on John 3:20; James 3:16.

Purpose according to election (hJ kat' ejkloghqesiv) For pro>qesiv purpose, see on the kindred verb proe>qeto, Romans 3:25 and compare Romans 8:28. The phrase
signifies a purpose so formed that in it an election was made. The opposite of one founded upon right or merit. For similar phrases see Acts 19:20; katatov according
to might, mightily; Romans 7:13 kaq' uJperbolh according to excess, exceedingly See note

Might stand (me>nh|). Lit., abide, continue: remain unchangeable. This unchangeableness of purpose was conveyed in His declaration to Rebecca. Contrast with come
to nought (ver. 6).

Of works (ejx). Lit., out of By virtue of.

Calleth (kalou~ntov). Eternal salvation is not contemplated. "The matter in question is the part they play regarded from the theocratic stand-point" (Godet).

12. Elder - younger (mei>zwn - ejla>ssoni). Lit., greater - smaller. Compare Genesis 27:1 here the Hebrew is: "Esau his great son;" Sept., presbu>teron elder. Genesis
29:16 Sept., "The name of the greater was Leah, and the name of the younger (th|~ newte>ra|) Rachel." See a similar use in Aeschylus, "Agamemnon," 349, "Neither
old (me>gan) nor young (nearw~n) could escape the great net of slavery." While in these cases "greater" and "smaller" are evidently used as older and younger, yet the
radical meaning is greater and less, and the reference is not to age, but to their relative position in the theocratic plan. Mei>zwn greater, occurs in forty-four passages in
the New Testament, and in no case with the meaning elder. Compare Genesis 25:23 be stronger; Sept., uJpe>rexei; shall surpass. The reference, if to the persons of
Jacob and Esau, is to them as representatives of the two nations. See Genesis 25:23.

Historically the Edomites, represented by Esau, were for a time the greater, and surpassed the Israelites in national and military development. Moses sent envoys to the
king of Edom from Kadesh, asking permission to pass through his country, which was refused, and the Edomite army came out against Israel (Numbers 20:14-21.
Later they were "vexed" by Saul (1 Samuel 14:47), and were conquered and made tributary by David (2 Samuel 8:14). Their strength was shown in their subsequent
attempts to recover independence (2 Kings 8:20, 21; 14:7; 2 Chronicles 28:17). Their final subjugation was effected by John Hyrcanus, who incorporated them into
the Jewish nation and compelled them to be circumcised.

13. Jacob - Esau. See Genesis 25:23. Representing their respective nations, as often in the Old Testament. Numbers 23:7, 10, 23; 24:5; Jeremiah 49:10; compare also
the original of the citation, Malachi 1:2, 3 the burden of the word of the Lord to Israel. Compare also Edom in ver. 4, synonymous with Esau in ver. 3; and Israel, ver.
5, synonymous with Jacob, ver. 2.

Hated (ejmi>shsa). The expression is intentionally strong as an expression of moral antipathy. Compare Matthew 6:24; Luke 14:26. No idea of malice is implied of
course.

15. I will have mercy - compassion (ejleh>sw - oijkteirh>sw), See Exodus 33:19. For mercy see on 2 John 1:3; Luke 1:50. The former verb emphasizes the sense of
human wretchedness in its active manifestation; the latter the inward feeling expressing itself in sighs and tears. Have mercy therefore contemplates, not merely the
sentiment in itself, but the determination of those who should be its objects. The words were spoken to Moses in connection with his prayer for a general forgiveness of
the people, which was refused, and his request to behold God's glory, which was granted. With reference to the latter, God asserts that His gift is of His own free
grace, without any recognition of Moses' right to claim it on the ground of merit or service.

16. It is not of him that willeth nor of him that runneth. It, the participation in God's mercy. Of him, i.e., dependent upon. Runneth, denoting strenuous effort. The
metaphor from the foot-race is a favorite one with Paul. See 1 Corinthians 9:24, 26; Galatians 2:2; 5:7; Philippians 2:16; 2 Thessalonians 3:1. God is laid under no
obligation by a human will or a human work.
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17. Saith. Present tense. "There is an element of tirelessness in the utterance. If the scripture ever spoke at all, it continued and continues to speak. It has never been
struck dumb" (Morison).
16. It is not of him that willeth nor of him that runneth. It, the participation in God's mercy. Of him, i.e., dependent upon. Runneth, denoting strenuous effort. The
metaphor from the foot-race is a favorite one with Paul. See 1 Corinthians 9:24, 26; Galatians 2:2; 5:7; Philippians 2:16; 2 Thessalonians 3:1. God is laid under no
obligation by a human will or a human work.

17. Saith. Present tense. "There is an element of tirelessness in the utterance. If the scripture ever spoke at all, it continued and continues to speak. It has never been
struck dumb" (Morison).

Pharaoh. The original meaning of the word is now supposed to be the double house or palace. Compare the Sublime Porte.

Raised thee up (ejxh>geira). Hebrew, caused thee to stand. Sept., diethrh>qhv thou wast preserved alive. Only once elsewhere in the New Testament, 1 Corinthians
6:14 of raising from the dead. The meaning here is general, allowed thee to appear; brought, thee forward on the stage of events, as Zechariah 11:16. So the simple
verb in Matthew 11:11; John 7:52. Other explanations are, preserved thee alive, as Sept., excited thee to opposition, as Habakkuk 1:6; creded thee.

Might be declared (diaggelh|~). Published abroad, thoroughly (dia>). So Rev. See on Luke 9:60. "Even to the present day, wherever throughout the world Exodus is
read, the divine intervention is realized" (Godet).

18. He will (qe>lei). In a decretory sense. See on Matthew 1:19.

Hardeneth (sklhru>nei). Only here by Paul. See on hard, Matthew 25:24; Jude 1:14; James 3:4. Three words are used in the Hebrew to describe the hardening of
Pharaoh's heart. The one which occurs most frequently, properly means to be strong, and therefore represents the hardness as foolhardiness, infatuated insensibility to
danger. See Exodus 14. The word is used in its positive sense, hardens, not merely permits to become hard. In Exodus the hardening is represented as self-produced
(Romans 8:15, 32; 9:34), and as produced by God (Romans 4:21; 7:3; 9:12; 10:20, 27; 11:10). Paul here chooses the latter representation.

19. Hath resisted (ajnqe>sthken). Rev., more correctly, with-standeth. The idea is the result rather than the process of resistance. A man may resist God's will, but
cannot maintain his resistance. The question means, who can resist him?

20. O man. Man as man, not Jew.

That repliest (oJ ajntapokrino>menov). Only here and Luke 14:6. Lit., to contradict in reply: to answer by contradicting. Thus, in the case of the dropsical man (Luke
14.), Jesus answered (ajpokriqei) the thought in the minds of the lawyers and Pharisees by asking, "Is it lawful to heal on the Sabbath?" Then He asked, "Who of you
would refuse on the Sabbath to extricate his beast from the pit into which it has fallen?" And they were unable to answer Him in reply: to answer by contradicting Him.
So here, the word signifies to reply to an answer which God had already given, and implies, as Godet observes, the spirit of contention.

21. Power (ejxousi>an). Or right. See on Mark 2:10; John 1:12.

Lump (fura>matov). From fura>w to mix so as to make into dough. Hence any substance mixed with water and kneaded. Philo uses it of the human frame as
compounded. By the lump is here meant human nature with its moral possibilities, "but not yet conceived of in its definite, individual, moral stamp" (Meyer). 52 The
figure of man as clay molded by God carries us back to the earliest traditions of the creation of man (Genesis 2:7). According to primitive ideas man is regarded as
issuing from the earth. The traditions of Libya made the first human being spring from the plains heated by the sun. The Egyptians declared that the Nile mud, exposed
to the heat of the sun, brought forth germs which sprang up as the bodies of men. A subsequent divine operation endowed these bodies with soul and intellect, and the
divine fashioner appears upon some monuments molding clay, wherewith to form man, upon a potter's wheel. The Peruvians called the first man "animated earth;" and
the Mandans of North America related that the Great Spirit molded two figures of clay, which he dried and animated with the breath of his mouth, one receiving the
name of First Man, the other that of Companion. The Babylonian account, translated by Berosus, represents man as made of clay after the manner of a statue. See
Francois Lenormant, "Beginnings of History."

To make one vessel unto honor and another unto dishonor (poih~sai o{ men eijv timhan). Rev., more correctly, to make one part a vessel unto honor, and another
part, etc. For vessel, see on 1 Peter 3:7; compare Matthew 12:29; Acts 9:15. The vessel here is the one which has just come from the potter's hand. Those in ver. 22
have been in household use.

22. Willing (qe>lwn). Although willing, not because. Referring not to the determinate purpose of God, but to His spontaneous will growing out of His holy character. In
the former sense, the meaning would be that God's long-suffering was designed to enhance the final penalty. The emphatic position of willing prepares the way for the
contrast with long-suffering. Though this holy will would lead Him to show His wrath, yet He withheld His wrath and endured.

Vessels of wrath (skeu>h ojrgh~v). Not filled with wrath, nor prepared to serve for a manifestation of divine wrath; but appertaining to wrath. Such as by their own
acts have fallen under His wrath. Compare Psalms 2:9.

Fitted (kathrtisme>na). Lit., adjusted. See on mending, Matthew 4:21; perfect, Matthew 21:16; Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10. Not fitted by God for destruction, but in an
adjectival sense, ready, ripe for destruction, the participle denoting a present state previously formed, but giving no hint of how it has been formed. An agency of some
kind must be assumed. That the objects of final wrath had themselves a hand in the matter may be seen from 1 Thessalonians 2:15, 16. That the hand of God is also
operative may be inferred from the whole drift of the chapter. "The apostle has probably chosen this form because the being ready certainly arises from a continual
reciprocal action between human sin and the divine judgment of blindness and hardness. Every development of sin is a net-work of human offenses and divine
judgments"

23. And that He might make known. The connection is variously explained. Some make and that dependent on He endured: "If, willing to show His wrath.... God
endured... and also that." Others make that dependent on fitted: "Vessels fitted to destruction and also that He might make known," etc. Godet supplies He called from
ver. 24: "And called that He might make known," etc. The difficulty is resolved by the omission of kai and. So Westcott and Hort, on the single authority of B. See
Rev., in margin.

His glory. See on Romans 3:23. Godet thinks the phrase was suggested by Moses' request, "Show me thy glory," Exodus 33:18.

Afore prepared (prohtoi>masen). Only here and Ephesians 2:10. The studied difference in the use of this term instead of katarti>zw to fit (ver. 22), cannot be
overlooked. The verb is not equivalent to foreordained (proori>zw). Fitted, by the adjustment of parts, emphasizes the concurrence of all the elements of the case to
the final result. Prepared is more general. In the former case the result is indicated; in the latter, the previousness. Note before prepared, while before is wanting in ver.
22. In this passage the direct agency of God is distinctly stated; in the other the agency is left indefinite. Here a single act is indicated; there a process. The simple verb
eJtoima>zw often indicates, as Meyer remarks, to constitute qualitatively; i.e., to arrange with reference to the reciprocal quality of the thing prepared, and that for
which it is prepared. See Luke 1:17; John 14:2; 1 Corinthians 2:9; 2 Timothy 2:21. "Ah, truly," says Reuss, "if the last word of the christian revelation is contained in the
image   of the(c)
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                  2005-2009,         it is aMedia
                                Infobase    bitter derision
                                                    Corp. of all the deep needs and legitimate desires of a soul aspiring toward its God. This would be atPageonce a satire
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reason upon herself and the suicide of revelation. But it is neither the last word nor the only word; nor has it any immediate observable bearing on the concrete
development of our lives. It is not the only word, because, in nine-tenths of Scripture, it is as wholly excluded from the sphere of revelation as though it had been never
revealed at all; and it is not the last word, because, throughout the whole of Scripture, and nowhere more than in the writings of the very apostle who has faced this
the final result. Prepared is more general. In the former case the result is indicated; in the latter, the previousness. Note before prepared, while before is wanting in ver.
22. In this passage the direct agency of God is distinctly stated; in the other the agency is left indefinite. Here a single act is indicated; there a process. The simple verb
eJtoima>zw often indicates, as Meyer remarks, to constitute qualitatively; i.e., to arrange with reference to the reciprocal quality of the thing prepared, and that for
which it is prepared. See Luke 1:17; John 14:2; 1 Corinthians 2:9; 2 Timothy 2:21. "Ah, truly," says Reuss, "if the last word of the christian revelation is contained in the
image of the potter and the clay, it is a bitter derision of all the deep needs and legitimate desires of a soul aspiring toward its God. This would be at once a satire of
reason upon herself and the suicide of revelation. But it is neither the last word nor the only word; nor has it any immediate observable bearing on the concrete
development of our lives. It is not the only word, because, in nine-tenths of Scripture, it is as wholly excluded from the sphere of revelation as though it had been never
revealed at all; and it is not the last word, because, throughout the whole of Scripture, and nowhere more than in the writings of the very apostle who has faced this
problem with the most heroic inflexibility, we see bright glimpses of something beyond. How little we were intended to draw logical conclusions from the metaphor, is
shown by the fact that we are living souls, not dead clay; and St. Paul elsewhere recognized a power, both within and without our beings, by which, as by an
omnipotent alchemy, mean vessels can become precious, and vessels of earthenware be transmuted into vessels of gold" (Farrar). See note at end of Romans 11.

24. Called - of. Compare Romans 8:30. For of, read from (ejx), as Rev. From among.

25. That my people which was not my people (ton mou~, lao>n mou~). The Greek is much more condensed. "I will call the not-my-people my-people." See Hosea
1:6-9. The reference is to the symbolical names given by the prophet to a son and daughter: Lo Ammi not my people, and Lo Ruhama not having obtained mercy. The
new people whom God will call my people will be made up from both Jews and Gentiles. Hosea, it is true, is speaking of the scattered Israelites only, and not of the
Gentiles; but the ten tribes, by their lapse into idolatry had put themselves upon the same footing with the Gentiles, so that the words could be applied to both. A
principle of the divine government is enunciated "which comes into play everywhere when circumstances reappear similar to those to which the statement was originally
applied. The exiled Israelites being mingled with the Gentiles, and forming one homogeneous mass with them, cannot be brought to God separately from them. Isaiah
49:22 represents the Gentiles as carrying the sons of Israel in their arms, and their daughters on their shoulders, and consequently as being restored to grace along with
them" (Godet).

27. Crieth (kra>zei). An impassioned utterance. See on Luke 18:39; compare John 7:28, 37; Acts 19:28; 23:6. Mostly of an inarticulate cry. "The prophet in awful
earnestness, and as with a scream of anguish, cries over Israel" (Morison).

Concerning (uJpe>r). Lit., over, as proclaiming a judgment which hangs over Israel.

28. For the reading of the A.V. read as Rev. The Lord will execute His word upon the earth, finishing and cutting it short. Difficulty arises on account of the variation in
the Greek text and the difference between the reading adopted by the best authorities and the Septuagint, and again on account of the variation of the latter from the
Hebrew. The Hebrew reads: Extirpation is decided, flowing with righteousness, for a consumption and decree shall the Lord of hosts make in the midst of all the land.
The Rev. adopts the shorter reading of the Septuagint.

Work (lo>gon). It does not mean work, but word, utterance, doctrine; not decree, which lo>gov never means, though the idea may underlie it. Better reckoning.

Finish - cut short (suntelw~n - sunte>mnwn). The preposition su>n together signifies summarily; bringing to an end at the same time. Compare the peculiar word
ejkolobw>qhsan should be shortened, in Matthew 24:22 and see note. Omit in righteousness.

29. Said before (proei>rhken). Not in a previous passage, but by way of prediction.

Seed. Following the Septuagint, which thus renders the Hebrew remnant. See ver. 27. Like the remnant of corn which the farmer leaves for seed.

30. Attained (kate>laben). See on perceived, Acts 4:13 and taketh, Mark 9:18; John 1:5. Compare attained (e]fqasen, ver. 31). Rev., arrive at. See on Matthew
12:28. The meaning is substantially the same, only the imagery in the two words differs; the former being that of laying hold of a prize, and the latter of arriving at a goal.
The latter is appropriate to following after, and is carried out in stumbling (ver. 32).

Even (de) or and that. Subjoining something distinct and different from what precedes, though not sharply opposed to it. Attained righteousness, that is not that arising
from these works, but from faith.

32. Not by faith (oujk ejk pi>stewv). A.V. and Rev. supply the ellipsis, they sought it not.

They stumbled (prose>koyan). "In their foolish course Israel thought they were advancing on a clear path, and lo! all at once there was found in this way an obstacle
upon which they were broken; and this obstacle was the very Messiah whom they had so long invoked in all their prayers" (Godet).

33. Offense (skanda>lou). See on Matthew 5:29; 16:23.

Shall not be ashamed (ouj kataiscunqh>setai). The Hebrew in Isaiah 28:16 is, shall not make haste, or flee hastily. The quotation combines Isaiah 8:4; 28:16.

CHAPTER 10

1. Brethren. See on 1 John 2:9. An expression of affectionate interest and indicating emotion.

My heart's desire (hJ eujdoki>a th~v ejmh~v kardi>av). More literally, the good will of my heart. See on Luke 2:14. Compare Philippians 1:15; 2:13; Ephesians 1:5,
9; 2 Thessalonians 1:11.

Prayer (de>hsiv). See on Luke 5:33.

To God (pro>v). Implying communion. See on with God, John 1:1.

For Israel. The best texts substitute aujtw~n for them; those described in the last three verses of Romans 9. Bengel remarks that Paul would not have prayed had they
been utterly reprobate.

That they may be saved (eijv swthri>an). Lit., unto (their) salvation.

2. I bear them record (marturw~). Rev. witness. "He seems to be alluding to his conduct of former days, and to say, 'I know something of it, of that zeal'" (Godet).

Zeal of God (zh~lon Qeou~). Rev., zeal for God. Like the phrase "faith of Christ" for "faith in Christ" (Philippians 3:9); compare Colossians 2:12; Ephesians 3:12; John
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Knowledge (ejpi>gnwsin). Full or correct and vital knowledge. See on Romans 1:28; 3:20.
2. I bear them record (marturw~). Rev. witness. "He seems to be alluding to his conduct of former days, and to say, 'I know something of it, of that zeal'" (Godet).

Zeal of God (zh~lon Qeou~). Rev., zeal for God. Like the phrase "faith of Christ" for "faith in Christ" (Philippians 3:9); compare Colossians 2:12; Ephesians 3:12; John
2:17"the zeal of thine house," i.e., "for thy house."

Knowledge (ejpi>gnwsin). Full or correct and vital knowledge. See on Romans 1:28; 3:20.

3. God's righteousness. That mentioned in 9:30. Compare Philippians 3:9; Romans 1:16, 17; 3:20-22.

To establish (sth~sai). Or set up, indicating their pride in their endeavor. They would erect a righteousness of their own as a monument to their own glory and not to
God's.

4. The end of the law (te>lov no>mou). First in the sentence as the emphatic point of thought. Expositors differ as to the sense. 1. The aim. Either that the intent of the
law was to make men righteous, which was accomplished in Christ, or that the law led to Him as a pedagogue (Galatians 3:24). 2. The fulfillment, as Matthew 5:17. 3.
The termination. To believers in Christ the law has no longer legislative authority to say, "Do this and live; do this or die" (Morison). The last is preferable. Paul is
discussing two materially exclusive systems, the one based on doing, the other on believing. The system of faith, represented by Christ, brings to an end and excludes
the system of law; and the Jews, in holding by the system of law, fail of the righteousness which is by faith. Compare Galatians 2:16; 3:2-14.

5. Describeth the righteousness - that (gra>fei thnhn - o[ti). The best texts transfer o[ti that, and read gra>fei o[ti, etc. Moses writeth that the man, etc. See Leviticus
18:5.

Those things - by them (aujta - ejn aujtoi~v). Omit those things, and read for ejn aujtoi~v by them, ejn aujth|~ by it, i.e., the righteousness which is of the law. The
whole, as Rev., Moses writeth that the man that doeth the righteousness which is of the law shall live thereby.

6. The righteousness which is of faith (hJ ejk pi>stewv dikaiosu>nh). The of-faith righteousness. Righteousness is personified. Paul makes the righteousness of faith
describe itself. Of faith, ejk from. Marking the source.

Speaketh on this wise (ou[twv le>gei). The quotation in 6-8 is a free citation from Deuteronomy 30:11-14. Paul recognizes a secondary meaning in Moses' words, and
thus changes the original expressions so as to apply them to the Christian faith-system. His object in the change is indicated by the explanatory words which he adds.
He does not formally declare that Moses describes the righteousness of faith in these words, but appropriates the words of Moses, putting them into the mouth of the
personified faith-righteousness.

Say not in thy heart. In thy heart is added by Paul. The phrase say in the heart is a Hebraism for think, compare Psalms 14:1; 36:1; 10:11. Usually of an evil thought.
Compare Matthew 3:9; 24:48; Revelation 18:7.

Who shall ascend into heaven? The Septuagint adds for us, and bring it to us, and hearing it we will do it.

To bring down. Interpreting the Septuagint, and bring it to us.

7. Descend into the deep. Rev., abyss. Septuagint, Who shall pass through to beyond the sea? See on Luke 8:31. Paul changes the phrase in order to adapt it to the
descent of Christ into Hades. The two ideas may be reconciled in the fact that the Jew conceived the sea as the abyss of waters on which the earth rested. Compare
Exodus 20:4. Thus the ideas beyond the sea and beneath the earth coincide in designating the realm of the dead. Compare Homer's picture of the region of the dead
beyond the Ocean-stream:

"As soon as thou shalt cross.

Oceanus, and come to the low shore

And groves of Proserpine, the lofty groups

Of poplars, and the willows that let fall

Their withered fruit, moor thou thy galley there

In the deep eddies of Oceanus,

And pass to Pluto's comfortless abode."

"Odyssey," 10. 508-513.

"Our bark

Reached the far confines of Oceanus.

There lies the land and there the people dwell

Of the Cimmerians, in eternal cloud

And darkness."

"Odyssey," 11. 13-15.

To bring up. There is no need. He is already risen.

8. The word is nigh thee. Septuagint, Very nigh thee is the word. The word is the whole subject-matter of the Gospel. See ver. 9. Moses used it of the law. See on
Luke 1:37. The whole quotation in the Hebrew is as follows: "It (the commandment) is not in heaven, that ye should say, Who will ascend for us to heaven, and bring it
to us, and make us hear it that we may do it? And it is not beyond the sea, that ye should say, Who will go over for us beyond the sea, and bring it to us, and make us
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hear it that we may do it? But the word is very near thee, in thy mouth and in thy heart, to do it." The object of the passage is to contrast the system of    faith with
system of law, and that, especially, with reference to the remoteness and difficulty of righteousness. Moses says that the commandment of God to Israel is not incapable
of accomplishment, nor is it a distant thing to be attained only by long and laborious effort. The people, on the contrary, carries it in its mouth, and it is stamped upon its
8. The word is nigh thee. Septuagint, Very nigh thee is the word. The word is the whole subject-matter of the Gospel. See ver. 9. Moses used it of the law. See on
Luke 1:37. The whole quotation in the Hebrew is as follows: "It (the commandment) is not in heaven, that ye should say, Who will ascend for us to heaven, and bring it
to us, and make us hear it that we may do it? And it is not beyond the sea, that ye should say, Who will go over for us beyond the sea, and bring it to us, and make us
hear it that we may do it? But the word is very near thee, in thy mouth and in thy heart, to do it." The object of the passage is to contrast the system of faith with the
system of law, and that, especially, with reference to the remoteness and difficulty of righteousness. Moses says that the commandment of God to Israel is not incapable
of accomplishment, nor is it a distant thing to be attained only by long and laborious effort. The people, on the contrary, carries it in its mouth, and it is stamped upon its
heart. Compare Exodus 13:9; Deuteronomy 6:6-9. In applying these words to the system of faith, Paul, in like manner, denies that this system involves any painful
search or laborious work. Christ has accomplished the two great things necessary for salvation. He has descended to earth and has risen from the dead. All that is
necessary is to accept by faith the incarnate and risen Christ, instead of having recourse to the long and painful way of establishing one's own righteousness by
obedience to the law.

Word of faith. The phrase occurs only here. "Which forms the substratum and object of faith" (Alford). Others, the burden of which is faith.

We preach (khru>ssomen). See on Matthew 4:17 and preacher, 2 Peter 2:5.

9. That (o[ti). So rendered as expressing the contents of the word of faith; but better because, giving a proof that the word is nigh. Confess and believe, correspond to
mouth and heart.

The Lord Jesus (ku>rion x~n). Others, however, read to sou o[ti ku>riov x~v If thou shalt confess with thy mouth the word that Jesus is Lord. Rev., Jesus as Lord.

10. With the heart (kardi>a|). As the seat of the energy of the divine Spirit (pneu~ma see on Romans 8:4); mediating the personal life (of the soul yuch>, see on
Romans 11:3), which is conditioned by the Spirit. It is not the affections as distinguished from the intellect. Believing with the heart is in contrast with oral confession, not
with intellectual belief. "Believing is a mode of thinking not of feeling. It is that particular mode of thinking that is guided to its object by the testimony of another, or by
some kind of inter-mediation. It is not intuitive" (Morison).

Man believeth (pisteu>etai). The verb is used impersonally. Lit., it is believed. Believing takes place.

Confession is made (oJmologei~tai). Also impersonal. It is confessed. "Confession is just faith turned from its obverse side to its reverse... When faith comes forth from
its silence to announce itself, and to proclaim the glory and the grace of the Lord, its voice is confession" (Morison).

11. The scripture saith. The quotation from Isaiah 28:16 is repeated (see Romans 9:33) with the addition of everyone, whosoever.

12. For. Explaining the whosoever of ver. 11.

Difference. Better, as Rev., distinction. See on Romans 3:22.

Jew and Greek. On Greek, see on Acts 6:1. Greeks here equivalent to Gentiles.

Lord (ku>riov). See on Matthew 21:3. The reference is disputed: some Christ, others God. Probably Christ. See ver. 9, and compare Acts 10:36. The hearing which
is necessary to believing comes through the word of Christ (ver. 17, where the reading is Christ instead of God).

That call upon (ejpikaloume>nouv). See on appeal, Acts 25:11; James 2:7. That invoke Him as, Lord: recalling vers. 9, 10. Compare Joel 2:32.

15. Be sent (ajpostalw~sin). See on Matthew 10:16; Mark 4:29.

Beautiful (wJrai~oi). From w[ra the time of full bloom or development. Hence the radical idea of the word includes both blooming maturity and vigor. Appropriate here
to the swift, vigorous feet. Plato ("Republic," 10. 601) distinguishes between faces that are beautiful (kalw~n) and blooming (wJrai>wn). In Genesis 2:9 (Sept.) of the
trees of Eden. Compare Matthew 23:27; Acts 3:2, 10.

Feet. Emphasizing the rapid approach of the messenger. "In their running and hastening, in their scaling obstructing mountains, and in their appearance and descent from
mountains, they are the symbols of the earnestly-desired, winged movement and appearance of the Gospel itself" (Lange). Compare Nahum 1:15; Ephesians 6:15;
Romans 3:15; Acts 5:9. Paul omits the mountains from the citation. Omit that preach the gospel of peace.

Bring glad tidings. See on Gospel, Matthew, superscription.

16 Obeyed (uJph>kousan). See on obedience and disobedience, Romans 5:19. Also on Acts 5:29. Obeyed as the result of listening, and so especially appropriate
here. Compare head and hear, ver. 14. For the same reason hearken (Rev.) is better than obeyed.

Report (ajkoh|~). Lit., hearing. Similarly, Matthew 14:1; Mark 13:7. Compare the phrase word of hearing, 1 Thessalonians 2:13; Hebrews 4:2 (Rev.); and hearing of
faith, i.e., message of faith, Galatians 3:2.

17. By hearing (ejx ajkoh~v). The same word as report, above, and in the same sense, that which is heard.

Word of God (rJh>matov Qeou~). The best texts read of Christ. Probably not the Gospel, but Christ's word of command or commission to its preachers; thus taking
up except they be sent (ver. 15), and emphasizing the authority of the message. Belief comes through the message, and the message through the command of Christ.

18. Did they not hear? (mh). A negative answer is implied by the interrogative particle. "Surely it is not true that they did not hear."

Sound (fqo>ggov). Only here and 1 Corinthians 14:7 on which see note. Paul uses the Septuagint translation of Psalms 19:4 where the Hebrew line or plummet-line
(others musical chord) is rendered sound. The voice of the gospel message is like that of the starry sky proclaiming God's glory to all the earth. The Septuagint sound
seems to be a free rendering in order to secure parallelism with words. 53

Of the world (th~v oijkoume>nhv). See on Luke 2:1; John 1:9.

19. Did Israel not know? As in ver. 18, a negative answer is implied. "It is surely not true that Israel did not know." Did not know what? That the Gospel should go
forth into all the earth. Moses and Isaiah had prophesied the conversion of the Gentiles, and Isaiah the opposition of the Jews thereto.
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First Moses. First in order; the first who wrote.

I will provoke you to jealousy (ejgwsw uJma~v). From Deuteronomy 32:21. See Romans 11:11, 14; 1 Corinthians 10:22. Used only by Paul. The Septuagint has them
Of the world (th~v oijkoume>nhv). See on Luke 2:1; John 1:9.

19. Did Israel not know? As in ver. 18, a negative answer is implied. "It is surely not true that Israel did not know." Did not know what? That the Gospel should go
forth into all the earth. Moses and Isaiah had prophesied the conversion of the Gentiles, and Isaiah the opposition of the Jews thereto.

First Moses. First in order; the first who wrote.

I will provoke you to jealousy (ejgwsw uJma~v). From Deuteronomy 32:21. See Romans 11:11, 14; 1 Corinthians 10:22. Used only by Paul. The Septuagint has them
instead of you.

By them that are no people (ejp' oujk e]qnei). Lit., upon a no-people. The relation expressed by the preposition is that of the no-people as forming the basis of the
jealousy. The prediction is that Israel shall be conquered by an apparently inferior people. No-people as related to God's heritage, not that the Gentiles were inferior or
insignificant in themselves. For people render nation, as Rev. See on 1 Peter 2:9.

By a foolish nation (ejpitw|). Lit., upon a foolish nation as the basis of the exasperation. For foolish, see on Romans 1:21.

I will anger (parorgiw+). Or provoke to anger. The force of the compounded preposition para> in this verb and in parazhlw>sw provoke to jealousy, seems to be
driving to the side of something which by contact or comparison excites jealousy or anger.

20. Is very bold (ajpotolma|~). Only here in the New Testament. Plato, "Laws," 701, uses it of liberty as too presumptuous (ajpotetolmhme>nhv). The force of the
preposition is intensive, or possibly pointing to him from whom the action proceeds; bold of himself: The simple verb means primarily to dare, and implies the
manifestation of that boldness or confidence of character which is expressed by qarjrJe>w. See 2 Corinthians 5:6, 8; 7:16; 10:2 note.

Saith. Isaiah 65:1. Following the Septuagint, with the inversion of the first two clauses. Hebrew: "I have offered to give answers to those who asked not. I have put
myself in the way of those who sought me not. I have spread out my hand all the day to a refractory people." The idea in the Hebrew is, "I have endeavored to be
sought and found." Compare the clause omitted in Paul's quotation: "I have said 'Here am I' to a people who did not call upon my name."

21. Disobedient - gainsaying (ajpeiqou~nta - ajntile>gonta). See on John 3:36; Jude 1:11. Disobedience is the manifestation of the refractoriness expressed in
gainsaying. Some explain gainsaying as contradicting. Compare Luke 13:34, 35.

CHAPTER 11

1. I say then (le>gw ou+n). Then introduces the question as an inference from the whole previous discussion, especially vers. 19-21.

Hath God cast away (mhsato oJ Qeo). A negative answer required. "Surely God has not, has He?" The aorist tense points to a definite act. Hence Rev., better, did
God cast off. The verb means literally to thrust or shove. Thus Homer, of Sisyphus pushing his stone before him ("Odyssey," xi., 596). Oedipus says: "I charge you that
no one shelter or speak to that murderer, but that all thrust him (wjqei~n) from their homes" ("Oedipus Tyrannus," 241).

People (lao). See on 1 Peter 2:9; Acts 13:17.

An Israelite, etc. See on Philippians 3:5. Paul adduces his own case first, to show that God has not rejected His people en masse. An Israelite of pure descent, he is,
nevertheless a true believer.

2. Foreknew. See on Romans 8:29.

Or (h}). Compare Romans 6:3; 7:1. Confirming what precedes by presenting the only alternative in the cave. Or is omitted in the A.V.

Wot ye not (oujk oi]date). Why should the Revisers have retained the obsolete wot here, when they have rendered elsewhere, know ye not? See Romans 6:16; 1
Corinthians 3:16; 5:6, 6:2, etc. The phrase indicates that this cannot be thought of as true.

Of Elias (ejn a>a|) Wrong; though Rev. has retained it: of Elijah, with in in margin; probably in order to avoid the awkward circumlocution in the passage treating of
Elijah, or the ambiguous in Elijah. See on in the bush, Mark 12:26. Thucydides (1. 9) says: "Homer, in 'The handing down of the sceptre,' said," etc.; i.e., in the passage
describing the transmission of the sceptre in the second book of the Iliad. A common form of quotation in the rabbinical writings. The passage cited is 1 Kings 19:10,
14.

He maketh intercession (ejntugca>nei). See on Romans 8:26. Rev., pleadeth.

3. They have killed thy prophets - and digged, etc. Paul gives the first two clauses in reverse order from both Septuagint and Hebrew.

Digged down (kate>skayan). Sept., kaqei~lan pulled down.. The verb occurs only here and Acts 15:16. Compare on Matthew 6:19.

Altars (qusiasth>ria). See on Acts 17:23.

Alone (mo>nov). Sept. has the superlative monw>tatov utterly alone.

Life (yuch>n). From yu>cw to breathe or blow. In classical usage it signifies life in the distinctness of individual existence, especially of man, occasionally of brutes.
Hence, generally, the life of the individual. In the further development of the idea it becomes, instead of the body, the seat of the will, dispositions, desires, passions;
and, combined with the sw~ma body, denotes the constituent parts of humanity. Hence the morally endowed individuality of man which continues after death. 54

Scripture. In the Old Testament, answering to nephesh, primarily life, breath; therefore life in its distinct individuality; life as such, distinguished from other men and from
inanimate nature. 55 Not the principle of life, but that which bears in itself and manifests the life-principle. Hence spirit (ruach, pneu~ma) in the Old Testament never
signifies the individual. Soul (yuch>), of itself, does not constitute personality, but only when it is the soul of a human being. Human personality is derived from spirit
(pneu~ma), and finds expression in soul or life (yuch>).

The New-Testament usage follows the Old, in denoting all individuals from the point of view of individual life. Thus the phrase pa~sa yuch> every soul, i.e., every
person (Romans 2:9; 13:1), marking them off from inanimate nature. So Romans 11:3; 16:4; 2 Corinthians 1:23; 12:15; Philippians 2:30; 1 Thessalonians 2:8 illustrate
an Old-Testament usage whereby the soul is the seat of personality, and is employed instead of the personal pronoun, with a collateral notion of value as individual
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These and other passages are opposed to the view which limits the term to a mere animal life-principle. See Ephesians 6:6; Colossians 3:23; the compounds su>myucoi
The New-Testament usage follows the Old, in denoting all individuals from the point of view of individual life. Thus the phrase pa~sa yuch> every soul, i.e., every
person (Romans 2:9; 13:1), marking them off from inanimate nature. So Romans 11:3; 16:4; 2 Corinthians 1:23; 12:15; Philippians 2:30; 1 Thessalonians 2:8 illustrate
an Old-Testament usage whereby the soul is the seat of personality, and is employed instead of the personal pronoun, with a collateral notion of value as individual
personality.

These and other passages are opposed to the view which limits the term to a mere animal life-principle. See Ephesians 6:6; Colossians 3:23; the compounds su>myucoi
with one soul; ijsoyu>con like-minded (Philippians 1:27; 2:20), where personal interest and accord of feeling are indicated, and not lower elements of personality. See,
especially 1 Thessalonians 5:23.

As to the distinction between yuch> soul and pneu~ma spirit, it is to be said:

1.That there are cases where the meanings approach very closely, if they are not practically synonymous; especially where the individual life is referred to. See Luke
1:47; John 11:33 and 12:27; Matthew 11:29 and 1 Corinthians 16:18.

2.That the distinction is to be rejected which rests on the restriction of yuch> to the principle of animal life. This cannot be maintained in the face of 1 Corinthians 15:45;
2:14 in which latter the kindred adjective yuciko>v natural has reference to the faculty of discerning spiritual truth. In both cases the antithesis is pneu~ma spirit in the
ethical sense, requiring an enlargement of the conception of yuciko>v natural beyond that of sarkiko>v fleshly.

3.That yuch> soul must not be distinguished from pneu~ma; spirit as being alone subject to the dominion of sin, since the pneu~ma is described as being subject to such
dominion. See 2 Corinthians 7:1. So 1 Thessalonians 5:23; 1 Corinthians 7:34 imply that the spirit needs sanctification. Compare Ephesians 4:23.

4.Yuch> soul is never used of God like pneu~ma spirit. It is used of Christ, but always with reference to His humanity.

Whatever distinction there is, therefore, is not between a higher and a lower element in man. It is rather between two sides of the one immaterial nature which stands in
contrast with the body. Spirit expresses the conception of that nature more generally, being used both of the earthly and of the non-earthly spirit, while soul designates it
on the side of the creature. In this view yuch> soul is akin to sa>rx, flesh, "not as respects the notion conveyed by them, but as respects their value as they both stand at
the same stage of creatureliness in contradistinction to God." Hence the distinction follows that of the Old Testament between soul and spirit as viewed from two
different points: the soul regarded as an individual possession, distinguishing the holder from other men and from inanimate nature; the spirit regarded as coming directly
from God and returning to Him. "The former indicates the life-principle simply as subsistent, the latter marks its relation to God." Spirit and not soul is the point of
contact with the regenerating forces of the Holy Spirit; the point from which the whole personality is moved round so as to face God.

Yuch> soul is thus:

1. The individual life, the seat of the personality.

2. The subject of the life, the person in which it dwells.

3. The mind as the sentient principle, the seat of sensation and desire.

4. Answer (crhmatismo>v). Only here in the New Testament. For the kindred verb crhmati>zw warn, see on Matthew 2:12; Luke 2:26; Acts 12:26. Compare
Romans 8:3. The word means an oracular answer. In the New Testament the verb is commonly rendered warn.

I have reserved (kate>lipon). Varying from both Septuagint and Hebrew. Heb., I will reserve; Sept., thou wilt leave.

To Baal (th|~ Ba>al). The feminine article is used with the name instead of the masculine (as in Septuagint in this passage). It occurs, however, in the Septuagint with
both the masculine and the feminine article. Various reasons are given for the use of the feminine, some supposing an ellipsis, the image of Baal; others that the deity was
conceived as bisexual; others that the feminine article represents the feminine noun hJ aijscu>nh shame Heb., bosheth, which was used as a substitute for Baal when this
name became odious to the Israelites.

6. Otherwise (ejpei). Lit., since. Since, in that case.

Grace is no more, etc. (gi>netai). Lit., becomes. No longer comes into manifestation as what it really is. "It gives up its specific character" (Meyer).

But if of works, etc. The best texts omit to the end of the verse.

7 Obtained (ejpetucen). The simple verb tugca>nw means originally to hit the mark; hence to fall in with, light upon, attain.

The election (hJ ejklogh). Abstract for concrete. Those elected; like hJ peritomh> the circumcision for those uncircumcised (Ephesians 2:11. Compare thn the
concision, Philippians 3:3).

Were blinded (ejpwrw>qhsan). Rev., correctly, hardened, though the word is used of blindness when applied to the eyes, as Job 17:7 Sept. See on hardness, Mark
3:5. Compare sklhru>nei hardeneth, Romans 9:18.

8. It is written. Three quotations follow, two of which we blended in this verse: Isaiah 29:10; Deuteronomy 29:3. 55

Hath given (o]dwken). Heb., poured out. Sept., given to drink.

Slumber (katanu>xewv). Heb., deep sleep. Only here in the New Testament. Lit., pricking or piercing, compunction. Compare the kindred verb katenu>ghsan were
pricked, Acts 2:37. Rev. renders stupor, the secondary meaning; properly the stupefaction following a wound or blow.

9. David saith. Psalms 69:23, 24. It is doubtful whether David was the author. Some high authorities are inclined to ascribe it to Jeremiah. David here may mean nothing
more than the book of Psalm. 56

Table. Representing material prosperity: feasting in wicked security. Some explain of the Jews' presumptuous confidence in the law.

Snare (pagi>da), From ph>gnumi to make fast. The anchor is called pagi the maker-fast of the ships.
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Trap (qh>ran). Lit., a hunting. Only here in the New Testament, and neither in the Hebrew nor Septuagint. Many render net, following Psalms 35:8 where the word is
used for the Hebrew resheth net. No kind of snare will be wanting. Their presumptuous security will become to them a snare, a hunting, a stumbling-block.
Table. Representing material prosperity: feasting in wicked security. Some explain of the Jews' presumptuous confidence in the law.

Snare (pagi>da), From ph>gnumi to make fast. The anchor is called pagi the maker-fast of the ships.

Trap (qh>ran). Lit., a hunting. Only here in the New Testament, and neither in the Hebrew nor Septuagint. Many render net, following Psalms 35:8 where the word is
used for the Hebrew resheth net. No kind of snare will be wanting. Their presumptuous security will become to them a snare, a hunting, a stumbling-block.

A recompense (ajntapo>doma). Substituted by the Septuagint for the Hebrew, to them at ease. It carries the idea of a just retribution.

10. Bow down (su>gkamyon). Lit., bend together. Hebrew, shake the loins.

12. Diminishing (h[tthma). The literal translation. Rev. renders loss. Referring apparently to the diminution in numbers of the Jewish people. Other explanations are
defeat, impoverishment, injury, minority.

Fullness (plh>rwma). See on John 1:16. The word may mean that with which anything is filled (1 Corinthians 10:26, 28; Matthew 9:16; Mark 6:43); that which is filled
(Ephesians 1:23); possibly the act of filling (Romans 13:10), though this is doubtful. 57 Here in the first sense: the fullness of their number contrasted with the diminution.
They will belong as an integral whole to the people of God.

13. For I speak. The best texts read de but instead of ga>r for. The sentence does not state the reason for the prominence of the Gentiles asserted in ver. 12, but
makes a transition from the statement of the divine plan to the statement of Paul's own course of working on the line of that plan. He labors the more earnestly for the
Gentiles with a view to the salvation of his own race.

Inasmuch as I am. The best texts insert ou+n then. So Rev.; thus disconnecting the clause from the preceding, and connecting it with what follows.

I magnify mine office (than mou doxa>zw). Lit., I glorify my ministry, as Rev. Not I praise, but I honor by the faithful discharge of its duties. He implies, however, that
the office is a glorious one. The verb, which occurs about sixty times in the New Testament, most frequently in John, is used, with very few exceptions, of glorifying
God or Christ. In Romans 8:30, of God's elect. In 1 Corinthians 12:26 of the members of the body. In Revelation 18:7 of Babylon. For ministry, see on minister,
Matthew 20:26.

14. Some of them. A modest expression which recalls Paul's limited success among his own countrymen.

15. The casting away (hJ ajpobolh). In contrast with receiving. Only here and Acts 27:22 where it means loss. Here exclusion from God's people.

Reconciling of the world (katallaghsmou). See on Romans 5:10, 11. Defining the phrase riches of the world in ver. 12.

Life from the dead. The exact meaning cannot be determined. Some refer it to the resurrection to follow the conversion of Israel, including the new life which the
resurrection will inaugurate. Others, a new spiritual life. Others combine the two views.

16. For (de). Better but, or now. A new paragraph begins.

The first-fruit - holy. See on James 1:18; Acts 26:10. Referring to the patriarchs.

Lump. See on Romans 9:21. The whole body of the people. The apparent confusion of metaphor, first-fruit, lump, is resolved by the fact that first-fruit does not apply
exclusively to harvest, but is the general term for the first portion of every thing which was offered to God. The reference here is to Numbers 15:18-21; according to
which the Israelites were to set apart a portion of the dough of each baking of bread for a cake for the priests. This was called ajparch>, first-fruits.

Root - branches. The same thought under another figure. The second figure is more comprehensive, since it admits an application to the conversion of the Gentiles. 58
The thought of both figures centres in holy. Both the first-fruits and the root represent the patriarchs (or Abraham singly, compare ver. 28). The holiness by call and
destination of the nation as represented by its fathers (first-fruits, root) implies their future restoration, the holiness of the lump and branches.

17. Branches were broken off (kla>dwn ejxekla>sqhsan). See on Matthew 24:32; Mark 11:8. The derivation of kla>dwn branches, from kla>w to break, is exhibited
in the word-play between the noun and the verb: kladon, exeklasthesan.

A wild olive-tree (ajgrie>laiov). To be taken as an adjective, belonging to the wild olive. Hence Rev., correctly, rejects tree, since the Gentiles are addressed not as a
whole but as individuals. Meyer says: "The ingrafting of the Gentiles took place at first only partially and in single instances; while the thou addressed cannot represent
heathendom as a whole, and is also not appropriate to the figure itself; because, in fact, not whole trees, not even quite young ones are ingrafted, either with the stem or
as to all their branches. Besides, ver. 24 contradicts this view."

Wert graffed in among them (ejnekentri>sqhv ejn aujtoi~v). The verb occurs only in this chapter. From ke>ntpon a sting, a goad. See on Revelation 9:9. Thus, in the
verb to graft the incision is emphasized. Some render in their place, instead of among them; but the latter agrees better with partakest. Hence the reference is not to
some of the broken off branches in whose place the Gentiles were grafted, but to the branches in general.

With them partakest (sugkoinwnonou). Lit., as Rev., didst become partaker with them. See on Revelation 1:9; and partners, Luke 5:10. With them, the natural
branches.

Of the root and fatness (th~v rJi>zhv kaithtov). The best texts omit kai and, and render of the root of the fatness: the root as the source of the fatness.

Paul's figure is: The Jewish nation is a tree from which some branches have been cut, but which remains living because the root (and therefore all the branches
connected with it) is still alive. Into this living tree the wild branch, the Gentile, is grafted among the living branches, and thus draws life from the root. The insertion of
the wild branches takes place in connection with the cutting off of the natural branches (the bringing in of the Gentiles in connection with the rejection of the Jews). But
the grafted branches should not glory over the natural branches because of the cutting off of some of the latter, since they derive their life from the common root. "The
life-force and the blessing are received by the Gentile through the Jew, and not by the Jew through the Gentile. The spiritual plan moves from the Abrahamic covenant
downward, and from the Israelitish nation outward" (Dwight).

The figure is challenged on the ground that the process of grafting is the insertion of the good into the inferior stock, while here the case is reversed. It has been
suggested in explanation that Paul took the figure merely at the point of inserting one piece into another; that he was ignorant of the agricultural process; that he was
emphasizing the process of grace as contrary to that of nature. References to a custom of grafting wild upon good trees are not sufficiently decisive to warrant the belief
 Copyright
that         (c) 2005-2009,
     the practice was common.Infobase   Media says:
                                Dr. Thomson    Corp."In the kingdom of nature generally, certainly in the case of the olive, the process referred to by thePage     50never
                                                                                                                                                              apostle  / 567
succeeds. Graft the good upon the wild, and, as the Arabs say, 'it will conquer the wild;' but you cannot reverse the process with success.... It is only in the kingdom of
grace that a process thus contrary to nature can be successful; and it is this circumstance which the apostle has seized upon to magnify the mercy shown to the Gentiles
The figure is challenged on the ground that the process of grafting is the insertion of the good into the inferior stock, while here the case is reversed. It has been
suggested in explanation that Paul took the figure merely at the point of inserting one piece into another; that he was ignorant of the agricultural process; that he was
emphasizing the process of grace as contrary to that of nature. References to a custom of grafting wild upon good trees are not sufficiently decisive to warrant the belief
that the practice was common. Dr. Thomson says: "In the kingdom of nature generally, certainly in the case of the olive, the process referred to by the apostle never
succeeds. Graft the good upon the wild, and, as the Arabs say, 'it will conquer the wild;' but you cannot reverse the process with success.... It is only in the kingdom of
grace that a process thus contrary to nature can be successful; and it is this circumstance which the apostle has seized upon to magnify the mercy shown to the Gentiles
by grafting them, a wild race, contrary to the nature of such operations, into the good olive tree of the church, and causing them to flourish there and bring forth fruit
unto eternal life. The apostle lived in the land of the olive, and was in no danger of falling into a blunder in founding his argument upon such a circumstance in its
cultivation" ("Land and Book, Lebanon, Damascus and Beyond Jordan," p. 35). Meyer says: "The subject-matter did not require the figure of the ordinary grafting, but
the converse - the grafting of the wild scion and its ennoblement thereby. The Gentile scion was to receive, not to impart, fertility."

18. The branches, Of the olive-tree generally, Jewish Christians and unbelieving Jews. Not those that are broken off, who are specially indicated in ver. 19.

20. Well (kalw~v). Admitting the fact. Thou art right. Compare Mark 12:32. Some take it as ironical.

22. Goodness and severity (crhsto>thta kaian). For goodness, see on Romans 3:12. >a severity, only here in the New Testament. The kindred adverb, ajpoto>mwv
sharply, occurs 2 Corinthians 13:10; Titus 1:13. From ajpote>mnw to cut off. Hence that which is abrupt, sharp.

Thou shalt be cut off (ejkkoph>sh|). Lit., cut out. See on Luke 13:7.

23. Able (dunato). See on Romans 4:21.

24. Contrary to nature. See remarks on ver. 17.

25. Mystery (musth>rion). In the Septuagint only in Daniel. See Romans 2:18, 19, 27, 28, 30, of the king's secret. It occurs frequently in the apocryphal books, mostly
of secrets of state, or plans kept by a king in his own mind. This meaning illustrates the use of the word in passages like Matthew 13:11"mysteries of the kingdom of
heaven" - secret purposes or counsels which God intends to carry into effect in His kingdom. So here; Romans 16:25; Ephesians 1:9; 3:9; Colossians 1:26, 27; 2:2;
4:3; Revelation 10:7. In Justin Martyr (second century) it is commonly used in connection with su>mbolon symbol, tu>pov type, parabolh> parable, and so is evidently
closely related in meaning to these words. Compare Revelation 1:20; 17:7 This meaning may possibly throw light on Ephesians 5:32. In early ecclesiastical Latin
musth>rion was rendered by sacramentum, which in classical Latin means the military oath. The explanation of the word sacrament, which is so often founded on this
etymology, is therefore mistaken, since the meaning of sacrament belongs to musth>rion and not to sacramentum in the classical sense.

In Ephesians 3:3-6 Paul uses the word as here, of the admission of the Gentiles.

Wise (fro>nimoi). See on the kindred noun fro>nhsiv wisdom, Luke 1:17. Mostly in the New Testament of practical wisdom, prudence; thus distinguished from sofi>a
which is mental excellence in its highest and fullest sense; and from su>nesiv intelligence, which is combinative wisdom; wisdom in its critical applications. See
Colossians 1:9 and compare Ephesians 1:8.

Blindness (pw>rwsiv). See on ver. 7. Rev., hardening.

In part (ajporouv). Me>rov part is never used adverbially in the Gospels, Acts, and Revelation. In the Epistles it is rarely used in any other way. The only exceptions
are 2 Corinthians 3:10; 9:3; Ephesians 4:9, 16. Paul employs it in several combinations. With ajpo> from (1 Corinthians 1:14; 2:5), and ejk out of (1 Corinthians 12:27;
13:9, 10, 12), in which a thing is conceived as looked at from the part, either (ajpo) as a simple point of view, or (ejk) as a standard according to which the whole is
estimated. Thus 1 Corinthians 12:27"members ejk me>rouv severally, i.e., members from a part of the whole point of view. Also with ejn in, as Colossians 2:16with
respect to, literally, in the matter of. With ajna> up, the idea being of a series or column of parts reckoned upward, part by part. Me>rov ti with regard to some part,
partly, occurs 1 Corinthians 11:18; and katarov, reckoning part by part downward; according to part, particularly, Hebrews 9:5.

Construe here with hath happened: has partially befallen. Not partial hardening, but hardening extending over a part.

26. The deliverer (oJ rJuo>menov). The Hebrew is goel redeemer, avenger. The nearest relative of a murdered person, on whom devolved the duty of avenger, was
called goel haddam avenger of blood. So the goel was the nearest kinsman of a childless widow, and was required to marry her (Deuteronomy 25:5-10. It is the word
used by Job in the celebrated passage Job 19:25. See, also, Ruth 3:12, 13; 4:1-10. 59

29. Without repentance (ajmetame>lhta). Only here and 2 Corinthians 7:10. See on repented, Matthew 21:29. Not subject to recall.

32. Concluded (sune>kleisen). Only here, Luke 5:6; Galatians 3:22, 23. A very literal rendering, etymologically considered; con together, claudere to shut. The A.V.
followed the Vulgate conclusit. So Hooker: "The person of Christ was only touching bodily substance concluded within the grave." The word has lost this sense. Rev.,
hath shut up. Some explain in the later Greek sense, to hand over to a power which holds in ward.

All (tountav). Lit., the all. The totality, Jews and Gentiles, jointly and severally.

33. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge. So both A.V. and Rev., making depth govern riches, and riches govern wisdom and knowledge.
Others, more simply, make the three genitives coordinate, and all governed by depth: the depth of the riches and wisdom and knowledge. "Like a traveler who has
reached the summit of an Alpine ascent, the apostle turns and contemplates. Depths are at his feet, but waves of light illumine them, and there spreads all around an
immense horizon which his eye commands" (Godet). Compare the conclusion of ch 8.

"Therefore into the justice sempiternal

The power of vision which your world receives

As eye into the ocean penetrates;

Which, though it see the bottom near the shore,

Upon the deep perceives it not, and yet

'Tis there, but
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There is no light but comes from the serene
Which, though it see the bottom near the shore,

Upon the deep perceives it not, and yet

'Tis there, but it is hidden by the depth.

There is no light but comes from the serene

That never is o'ercast, nay, it is darkness

Or shadow of the flesh, or else its poison."

DANTE, "Paradio," xix. 59-62.

Compare also Sophocles:

"In words and deeds whose laws on high are set

Through heaven's clear ether spread,

Whose birth Olympus boasts,

Their one, their only sire,

Whom man's frail flesh begat not,

Nor in forgetfulness

Shall lull to sleep of death;

In them our God is great,

In them he grows not old forevermore."

"Oedipus Tyrannus," 865-871.

Wisdom - knowledge (sofi>av - gnw>sewv). Used together only here, 1 Corinthians 12:8; Colossians 2:3. There is much difference of opinion as to the precise
distinction. It is agreed on all hands that wisdom is the nobler attribute, being bound up with moral character as knowledge is not. Hence wisdom is ascribed in scripture
only to God or to good men, unless it is used ironically. See 1 Corinthians 1:20; 2:6; Luke 10:21. Cicero calls wisdom "the chief of all virtues." The earlier distinction, as
Augustine, is unsatisfactory: that wisdom is concerned with eternal things, and knowledge with things of sense; for gnw~siv knowledge, is described as having for its
object God (2 Corinthians 10:5); the glory of God in the face of Christ (2 Corinthians 4:6); Christ Jesus (Philippians 3:8).

As applied to human acquaintance with divine things, gnw~siv knowledge, is the lower, sofi>a wisdom, the higher stage. Knowledge may issue in self-conceit. It is
wisdom that builds up the man (1 Corinthians 8:1). As attributes of God, the distinction appears to be between general and special: the wisdom of God ruling everything
in the best way for the best end; the knowledge of God, His wisdom as it contemplates the relations of things, and adopts means and methods. The wisdom forms the
plan; the knowledge knows the ways of carrying it out. 60

Past finding out (ajnexicni>astoi). Only here and Ephesians 3:8. Appropriate to ways or paths. Lit., which cannot be tracked.

34. Who hath known, etc. From Isaiah 40:13. Heb., Who hath measured the Spirit? Though measured may be rendered tried, proved, regulated. Compare the same
citation in 1 Corinthians 2:16. This is the only passage in the Septuagint where ruach spirit is translated by nou~v mind. Known (e]gnw) may refer to God's gnw~siv
knowledge and ways in ver. 33; counselor to His wisdom and judgments. No one has counseled with Him in forming His decisions.

35. Who hath first given, etc. From Job 41:3. Heb., Who has been beforehand with me that I should repay him? Paul here follows the Aramaic translation. The
Septuagint is: Who shall resist me and abide?

36. Of - through - to (ejx - dia> - eijv). Of, proceeding from as the source: through, by means of, as maintainer, preserver, ruler: to or unto, He is the point to which all
tends. All men and things are for His glory (1 Corinthians 15:28). Alford styles this doxology "the sublimest apostrophe existing even in the pages of inspiration itself."

NOTE

PAUL'S ARGUMENT IN ROMANS 9; 10; 11

These chapters, as they are the most difficult of Paul's writings, have been most misunderstood and misapplied. Their most dangerous perversion is that which draws
from them the doctrine of God's arbitrary predestination of individuals to eternal life or eternal perdition.

It can be shown that such is not the intent of these chapters. They do not discuss the doctrine of individual election and reprobation with reference to eternal destiny.
The treatment of this question is subordinate to a different purpose, and is not, as it is not intended to be, exhaustive.

At the time when the epistle was written, this question was not agitating the Church at large nor the Roman church in particular. Had this been the case, we may be
sure, from the analogy of other epistles of Paul, that he would have treated it specifically, as he does the doctrine of justification by faith, in this epistle, and the questions
of idol-meats and the resurrection in first Corinthians.

Such a discussion would not have been germane to the design of this epistle, which was to unfold the Christian doctrine of justification by faith, as against the Jewish
doctrine of justification by works.

The great question which was then agitating the Church was the relation of Judaism to Christianity. Paul declared that Christianity had superseded Judaism. The Jew
maintained, either,
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Messiah, He had come to maintain the law and the institutions of Judaism: that, therefore, entrance into the messianic kingdom was possible only through the gate of
Judaism; and that the true Christian must remain constant to all the ordinances and commandments of the law of Moses.
doctrine of justification by works.

The great question which was then agitating the Church was the relation of Judaism to Christianity. Paul declared that Christianity had superseded Judaism. The Jew
maintained, either, that the Messiah had not come in the person of Jesus Christ, and that Christianity was therefore an imposture, or that, admitting Jesus to be the
Messiah, He had come to maintain the law and the institutions of Judaism: that, therefore, entrance into the messianic kingdom was possible only through the gate of
Judaism; and that the true Christian must remain constant to all the ordinances and commandments of the law of Moses.

According to the Jewish idea, all Gentiles were excluded from the kingdom of God unless they should enter it as Jewish proselytes. Paul himself, before his conversion,
had undertaken to stamp out Christianity as heresy, verily thinking that he "ought to do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth" (Acts 26:9). Hence the
Jew "compassed sea and land to make one proselyte" (Matthew 23:15). Every Gentile who should resist the conquest of the world by Israel would be destroyed by
Messiah. The Jew had no doubts as to the absoluteness of the divine sovereignty, since its fancied application flattered his self-complacency and national pride. All
Jews were elect, and all others were reprobate. Paul's proclamation of Messianic privilege to the Gentiles did, perhaps, quite as much to evoke Jewish hatred against
himself, as his allegiance to the Jesus whom the Jews had crucified as a malefactor.

The discussion in these three chapters fits perfectly into this question, It is aimed at the Jews' national and religious conceit. It is designed to show them that,
notwithstanding their claim to be God's elect people, the great mass of their nation has been justly rejected by God; and further, that God's elective purpose includes the
Gentiles. Hence, while maintaining the truth of divine sovereignty in the strongest and most positive manner, it treats it on a grander scale, and brings it to bear against
the very elect themselves.

WHAT IS THE PLACE OF THESE CHAPTERS IN

THE ORDER OF THE ARGUMENT?

Early in the discussion, Paul had asserted that the messianic salvation had been decreed to the Jew first (Romans 1:16; 2:10: compare John 1:11). In the face of this
stood the fact that the Jewish people generally had rejected the offer of God in Christ. Paul himself, after offering the Gospel to the Jews at Antioch in Pisidia, had said:
"It was necessary that the word of God should first have been spoken to you; but seeing ye put it from you, and judge yourselves unworthy of everlasting life, lo, we
turn to the Gentiles" (Acts 13:46; compare Acts 18:6). The Jew had fallen under the judgment of God (Romans 2:1, 2). Resting in the law, making his boast of God,
claiming to be a guide of the blind, a light of them which are in darkness, an instructor of the foolish, and having the form of knowledge and of the truth in the law, he
had made him self a scandal in the eyes of the Gentiles by his notorious depravity, and had proved himself to be not a Jew, since his circumcision was not of the heart
(Romans 2:17-29

Notwithstanding these facts, the Jew claimed that because he was a Jew God could not reject him consistently with His own election and covenant promise. If the
Gospel were true, and Jesus really the Messiah, the promises made to the Jewish people, who rejected the Messiah, were nullified. Or, if the election of God held,
Israel was and forever remained the people of God, in which case the Gospel was false, and Jesus an impostor. "Thus the dilemma seemed to be: either to affirm God's
faithfulness to His own election and deny the Gospel, or to affirm the Gospel, but give the lie to the divine election and faithfulness." (Godet.)

Paul must face this problem. It lies in the straight line of his argument. Hints of it have already appeared in Romans 3:1 sqq; Romans 4:1. The discussion necessarily
involves the truth of the divine sovereignty and election.

In studying Paul's treatment of this question, mistake and misconstruction are easy, because the truths of divine sovereignty and elective freedom require to be
presented in their most absolute aspect as against man's right to dictate to God. The parallel facts of man's free agency and consequent responsibility, which are equally
patent in these chapters, are, at certain points, thrown into the shade; so that, if the attention is fastened upon particular passages or groups of passages, the result will
be a one-sided and untruthful conception of the divine economy, which may easily run into a challenge of God's justice and benevolence. The assertion God must act
according to my construction of His promise and decree, can be met only by the bare, hard, crushing counter-statement God is supreme and does as He will, and has
the right to do as He will. This assertion, we repeat, does not exclude the element of individual freedom; it does not imply that God will do violence to it; it is consistent
with the assumption of the most impartial justice, the most expansive benevolence, the tenderest mercy, the purest love on God's part. The argument merely sets these
elements aside for the time being and for a purpose, only to emphasize them at a later stage. As Meyer aptly says:

"As often as we treat only one of the two truths: God is absolutely free and all-efficient,' and 'Man has moral freedom, and is, in virtue of his proper self-determination
and responsibility as a free agent, the author of his salvation or perdition,' and carry it out in a consistent theory, and therefore in a one-sided method, we are compelled
to speak in such a manner that the other truth appears to be annulled. Only appears, however, for, in fact, all that takes place in this case is a temporary and conscious
withdrawing of attention from the other. In the present instance Paul found himself in this case, and be expresses himself according to this mode of view, not merely in a
passing reference, but in the whole reasoning of 9:6-29. In opposition to the Jewish conceit of descent and works, he desired to establish the free and absolute
sovereign power of the divine will and action, and that the more decisively and exclusively, the less he would leave any ground for the arrogant illusion of the Jews that
God must be gracious to them. The apostle has here wholly taken his position on the absolute stand-point of the theory of pure dependence upon God, and that with all
the boldness of clear consistency; but only until he has done justice to the polemical object which he has in view. He then returns (vers. 30 sqq.) from that abstraction to
the human moral stand point of practice, so that he allows the claims of both modes of consideration to stand side by side, just as they exist side by side within the limits
of human thought. The contemplation - which lies beyond these limits - of the metaphysical relations of essential interdependence between the two - namely, objectively
divine and subjectively human, freedom and activity of will - necessarily remained outside and beyond his sphere of view; as he would have had no occasion at all in this
place to enter upon this problem, seeing that it was incumbent upon him to crush the Jewish pretensions with the one side only of it - the absoluteness of God."

That the factor of human freedom has full scope in the divine economy is too obvious to require proof. It appears in numerous utterances of Paul himself, and in the
entire drift of Scripture, where man's power of moral choice is both asserted, assumed, and appealed to; where the punishment of unbelief and disobedience is clearly
shown to be due to man's own obstinacy and perverseness. Were this not the case, if human destiny were absolutely and unchangeably fixed by an arbitrary decree, the
exhortations to carry out our own salvation, to obedience and perseverance in rightdoing, the cautions against moral lapse, the plain suggestions of the possibility of
forfeiting divine blessings, the use of the divine promises themselves as appeals to repentance and holiness, the recognitions of the possibility of moral transformation,
would assert themselves as a stupendous farce, a colossal and cruel satire.

It must suffice for us that these two factors of divine sovereignty and human freedom are both alike distinctly recognized in Scripture. Their interplay and mutual
adjustment in the divine administration carry us out of our depth. That matter must be left with God, and faced by man with faith, not with knowledge. That there is a
divine election - the act of God's holy will in selecting His own methods, instruments, and times for carrying out His own purposes - is a fact of history and of daily
observation. It appears in the different natural endowments of men; in the distribution of those natural advantages which minister to the strength or weakness of nations;
in the inferiority of the Ethiopian to the Caucasian; in the intellectual superiority of a Kant or a Descartes to a Chinese coolie.

"It is true, and no argument can gainsay it, that men are placed in the world unequally favored, both in inward disposition and outward circumstances. Some children are
born with temperaments which make a life of innocence and purity natural and easy to them; others are born with violent passions, or even with distinct tendencies to
evil, inherited from their ancestors and seemingly unconquerable; some are constitutionally brave, others are constitutionally cowards; some are born in religious families
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                                                others draw their first breath in an atmosphere of crime, and cease to inhale it only when they pass intoPage    53 / 567
                                                                                                                                                          their graves. Only
a fourth part of mankind are born Christians. The remainder never hear the name of Christ except as a reproach." (Froude, "Calvinism.")
"It is true, and no argument can gainsay it, that men are placed in the world unequally favored, both in inward disposition and outward circumstances. Some children are
born with temperaments which make a life of innocence and purity natural and easy to them; others are born with violent passions, or even with distinct tendencies to
evil, inherited from their ancestors and seemingly unconquerable; some are constitutionally brave, others are constitutionally cowards; some are born in religious families
and are carefully educated and watched over; others draw their first breath in an atmosphere of crime, and cease to inhale it only when they pass into their graves. Only
a fourth part of mankind are born Christians. The remainder never hear the name of Christ except as a reproach." (Froude, "Calvinism.")

Such election must needs be arbitrary; not as not having good and sufficient reasons behind it, but as impelled by such reasons as are either beyond human
apprehension or are withheld from it in God's good pleasure. All that we can say in our ignorance of these reasons is: God did thus because it pleased Him. Certain it is
that, could we penetrate to these reasons, we should come, in every case, at last, upon perfect wisdom. and perfect love, working out along hidden lines to such results
as will fill heaven with adoring joy and wonder.

THE COURSE OF THE ARGUMENT.

This we shall follow in detail through Romans 9, and in general outlines through Romans 10; 11.

(vers. 1-3.) I have great sorrow of heart for my Jewish kinsmen because of their spiritual condition arising from their rejection of Jesus, and their consequent exclusion
from the blessings of Messiah's kingdom.

(4, 5.) This condition is the more lamentable because of their original privileges involved in God's election of them to be His chosen people - adoption, visible
manifestations of God, covenants, a divine legislation, a divinely arranged order of worship, messianic promises, descent from the revered fathers, selection as the race
from whom the Christ was to spring (compare Isaiah 45:3, 4).

(6.) There is, however, no inconsistency between their possession of these original privileges and their present exclusion. The case does not stand so as that God's
word has failed of fulfillment. Those who make this charge, assuming that they are entitled to acceptance with God on the mere ground of descent, are to remember the
general principle that messianic blessing is not conditioned by mere descent; that not all who are physically descended from Israel are the true, ideal Israel of God
(compare Romans 3:28).

(7-9.) This appears from the history of the patriarchal lineage. Though Abraham had two sons, Ishmael and Isaac, Isaac was selected as the channel of the messianic
seed of Abraham, according to the promise, "In Isaac shall thy seed be called" (compare Galatians 4:23), and not Ishmael, who was the child of Abraham in a physical
sense merely, and not the child of the promise which is recorded in Genesis 18:10.

(10-13.) Not only have we an example of divine selection in the case of children of different mothers, but we have an example in the case of the children of the same
mother. Between Jacob and Esau, representatives of the two nations of Israel and Edom (Genesis 25:23), a divine choice was made, and it was declared by God that
the elder should serve the younger. This choice was not based upon purity of descent, since both children were by the same father and lawful mother. Nor was it based
upon moral superiority, since it was made before they had done either good or evil. The choice was made according to God's sovereign will, so that His messianic
purpose might remain intact; the characteristic of which purpose was that it was according to election; that is, not determined by merit or descent, but by the sovereign
pleasure of God.

(14.) If it be asked, therefore, "Is there unrighteousness with God? Does God contradict Himself in His rejection of unbelieving Israel?" - it must be answered, "No!" If
there was no unrighteousness in the exclusion of Ishmael and Edom from the temporal privileges of the chosen people, there is none in the exclusion of the persistently
rebellious Israelites from the higher privileges of the kingdom of heaven. If not all the physical descendants of Abraham and Isaac can claim their father's name and
rights, it follows that God's promise is not violated in excluding from His kingdom a portion of the descendants of Jacob. Descent cannot be pleaded against God's right
to exclude, since He has already excluded from the messianic line without regard to descent. This choice Israel approved and cannot, therefore, repudiate it when the
same choice and exclusion are applied to unbelieving Israel. God is not restricted to the Hebrew race, nor bound by the claims of descent. As He chose between the
children of the flesh and the children of the promise, so He may choose between mere descendants and true believers, whether Jew or Gentile.

It is to be remarked on this passage that the matter of eternal, individual salvation or preterition is not contemplated in the argument, as it is not in Malachi 1:2, 3 from
which the words "Jacob have I loved," etc., are quoted. The matter in question is the part played by the two nations regarded from the theocratic standpoint.

(15.) God cannot be unrighteous. This is apparent from your own Scriptures, which, as you admit, glorify God's righteousness, and which give you God's own
statements concerning Himself in the cases of Moses and Pharaoh. There can, therefore, be no discrepancy between God's righteousness and the principle for which I
am contending, since God represents Himself as acting on this very principle: Divine choice is not founded upon human desert. Man has no right to God's favors. For
when Moses asked God to show him His glory, God, in complying, assured him that He did not grant the request on the ground of Moses' merit or services, but solely
of His own free mercy. He would have mercy and compassion upon whom He would. Moses had no claim upon that revelation.

(16.) Thus it appears that the divine bestowment proceeds from sovereign grace, and not from the will or the effort of the recipient. Hence the Jew cannot claim it on
the ground of race or of moral striving.

It is right to wish and right to run. Paul elsewhere says, "So run that ye may obtain" (1 Corinthians 9:24). But that is not now the point in view. The point is to emphasize
the fact of God's sovereign right to dispense His favors as He will, in opposition to the Jew's claim that God must dispense His favors to him on the ground of his
descent. Hence the argument bears also on the divine dealing with the Gentiles. The Jew says, "The Jews alone are subjects of the divine mercy; the Gentiles are
excluded." Paul replies, "Your own Scriptures show you that God has the right to show mercy to whom He will. The fact that He originally did not choose the Gentile,
but chose the Jew, does not exclude Him from extending His salvation to the Gentile if He so will. The fact that He did so choose the Jew, does not save the Jew from
the peril of exclusion and rejection."

(17.) Again, God is vindicated against the charge of injustice by His declaration of the same principle applied to the matter of withholding mercy in the case of Pharaoh.
The one statement implies the other. The right to bestow at will implies the right to withhold at will. Thus He says to Pharaoh that He has raised him up in order to show
His power through his defeat and destruction.

(18.) Hence the conclusion. God has the absolute right to dispense or to withhold mercy at pleasure. "He hath mercy upon whom He will have mercy, and whom He
will He hardeneth."

This last statement, on its face, appears to be the assertion of a rigid, inexorable predeterminism. But let it be at once said that Paul commits himself to no such theory.
For to interpret this passage as meaning that God takes deliberate measures to harden any man against holy and gracious influences, so as to encourage him to sin in
order that He may show His power in destroying him, is:

1.To ascribe(c)
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2.To make God the author and promoter of sin.
This last statement, on its face, appears to be the assertion of a rigid, inexorable predeterminism. But let it be at once said that Paul commits himself to no such theory.
For to interpret this passage as meaning that God takes deliberate measures to harden any man against holy and gracious influences, so as to encourage him to sin in
order that He may show His power in destroying him, is:

1.To ascribe to God the most monstrous cruelty and injustice, according to the standard of His own revealed character and law.

2.To make God the author and promoter of sin.

3.To contradict other declarations of Scripture, as 1 Timothy 2:4; James 1:13; 2 Peter 3:9.

4.To contradict the facts in Pharaoh's own case, since God gave Pharaoh abundant warning, instruction, and call and inducement to repentance.

The key-note of the discussion must be kept clearly in mind as shaping this particular form of statement. To repeat: Paul is striking sharply at the assumption of the Jew
that God must dispense messianic blessing to him, and must not exclude him, because he is a Jew. Paul meets this with the bare statement of God's sovereign right to
dispose of men as He will. He does not ignore the efforts which God makes to save men from blindness and hardness of heart, but the attitude of the Jew does not call
for the assertion of these: only for the assertion of God's absolute sovereignty against an insolent and presumptuous claim.

Bearing this in mind, we are here confronted with a class of facts which we cannot explain - certain arrangements the reasons for which lie back in the sovereign will of
God. Moses was placed under circumstances which promoted his becoming the leader and lawgiver of God's people. Pharaoh was born to an inheritance of despotic
power and inhaled from his birth the traditions of Oriental tyranny. These influences went to harden him against God's command. Apparently the circumstances favored
Pharaoh's becoming a cruel tyrant. Why the difference? We cannot tell. These causes operated according to their natural law. There was also the operation of a
psychological and moral law, according to which the indulgence of any evil passion or impulse confirms it and fosters its growth. Pride begets pride; resistance
intensifies obstinacy, encourages presumption, blunts susceptibility to better influences. Again, the penal element entered into the case. Persistent disobedience and
resistance, working their natural result of inflated pride and presumptuous foolhardiness, wrought out a condition of heart which invited and insured judgment. A parallel
is found in the first chapter of this epistle, where it is said that the heathen, having a certain revelation of God, refused to improve it; wherefore, as they did not like to
retain God in their knowledge, God gave them up to uncleanness, vile passions, and a reprobate mind (Romans 1:24, 26, 28).

"It is psychologically impossible that such determined impenitence could be cherished by the monarch, and yet produce no effects in the sensibilities of his heart. In such
necessary working the hand of God must needs be immanent. When we impersonally say 'must and speak impersonally of 'necessity' in reference to the conditions of
the human sensibility, we either expressly or implicitly point to the operation of God. God did harden of old, and still He hardens when sin is cherished." (Morison.)

And yet the operation of these forces did not exclude moral agency or moral freedom. No irresistible constraint compelled Pharaoh to yield to this pressure toward evil.
His power of choice was recognized, assumed, and appealed to. He could not plead ignorance, for God instructed him through Moses. He could not plead doubt of
God's power, for God wrought before his eyes an unexampled series of wonders. If any "visitings of nature" could have power over him, the misery of his slave
population was before his eyes. Only when all these influences had been repelled, and all opportunities for yielding scornfully rejected, did God have recourse to
judgment. God raised up Pharaoh in order to show His power; but two opposite exhibitions of God's power in Pharaoh were possible. If he had yielded, he would
have been a co-worker with God in the evolution of the Jewish commonwealth. God's power would have been displayed in the prosperity of his kingdom, as it was
through the presence of Joseph. He resisted, and God's power was terribly manifested in his torment and final destruction.

"No one," as Muller observes, "can withdraw himself from the range and influence of God's revelations, without altering his moral status." 61 Hence, though it is
affirmed that God hardened Pharaoh's heart - the side of the statement which best suits the immediate purpose of Paul's argument - it is also affirmed that Pharaoh
hardened his own heart (compare Exodus 4:21; 7:3; 9:12; 10:20, 27; 11:10; 8:15, 32; 9:34) 62 The divine and the human agencies work freely side by side.

The cases of both Moses and Pharaoh make against the charge of God's injustice toward the unbelieving Jews, since they show that He acts consistently on the
principle of exercising His divine sovereignty according to His supreme will; but they also furnish another argument to the same effect, by showing that He exercises His
sovereignty with long-suffering and mercy. The God who acts with mercy and forbearance cannot be unrighteous. God's revelation to Moses was a display of His great
mercy. In it He revealed "the Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth, keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity,
transgression, and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty" (Exodus 34:6, 7). God's dealing with Pharaoh was marked by forbearance, opportunities for
repentance, instruction, and chastisement.

Verses 19, 20, 21 are not properly part of the proof, but are introduced by way of rebuke to a presumptuous question or challenge; so that, in the regular line of the
argument, we may proceed directly from the close of ver. 18 to ver. 22.

(19.) The objector now catches at the words, "whom He will He hardeneth," as an opportunity for shifting the responsibility from himself to God. If God hardens, why
blame the hardened? If God ordains, who can resist His will?

The fault of interpretation at this point lies in construing Paul's answer as a counter-argument; whereas Paul does not entertain the objector's words as an argument at
all. He neither admits, denies, nor answers them as an argument. His reply is directed solely at the objector's attitude as a challenger of God. It is a rebuke of the
creature for charging his sin upon the Creator. Paul is not dealing with the objector's logic, but with the sublime impudence of the objector himself. He is not vindicating
God against the charge, nor exposing the falsity of the charge itself.

For if this answer of Paul, with the similitude of the potter and the clay, is to be taken as an argument for God's right to harden men at His arbitrary pleasure, then Paul
is open to rebuke quite as much as his opponent. For, in the first place, the answer is a tacit admission of the Jew's premise, and, in the second place, regarded as an
answer to an argument, it is a specimen of the most brutal dogmatism, and of the most fallacious and shallow logic, if it can be called logic at all. This is the case, in
brief. The Jew. "God hardens at His arbitrary will and pleasure. If, therefore, He hardened me so that I could not believe, He is to blame, not I. Why does He find fault
with me for not believing? If He is supreme, who can resist His will?" Paul. "Suppose He did harden you so that you could not believe, what have you to say about it?
Shut your mouth! God does as He pleases with you. You are simply a lump of clay in the hands of a potter, and must be content to be what the potter makes you."

From this point of view it must be said that the objector has the best of it, and that Paul's answer is no answer. Regarded as an argument, it is an argument from an
analogy which is no analogy. Man, on God's own showing, is not a lump of senseless clay. He is a sentient, reasoning being, endowed by God with the power of self-
determination. God Himself cannot and does not treat him as a lump of clay; and to assert such a relation between God and man made in God's image, is to assert what
is contrary to common sense and to God's own declarations and assumptions in Scripture. The objector might well turn upon Paul and say, "Well, then, if man is only a
lump of clay, and therefore without right or power to reply, who, pray, art thou that repliest for God? Thou art, on thine own showing, a lump of clay like myself. If clay
cannot and must not reason nor answer, what is the peculiar quality of thy clay which entitles thee to speak as God's advocate?"

It is quite safe to say that Paul is too good a reasoner, and too well acquainted with the character, the word, and the economy of God as displayed in the history of his
own race, to be betrayed into any such logical absurdity as this; too thoroughly humane, too mindful of his own deep doubts and questionings, too transparently candid
toCopyright
    meet even(c)a conceited
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Jew sin. He does not admit that God made the Jew incapable of believing. He does not admit that the responsibility for the Jew's rejection lies anywhere but with
himself.
cannot and must not reason nor answer, what is the peculiar quality of thy clay which entitles thee to speak as God's advocate?"

It is quite safe to say that Paul is too good a reasoner, and too well acquainted with the character, the word, and the economy of God as displayed in the history of his
own race, to be betrayed into any such logical absurdity as this; too thoroughly humane, too mindful of his own deep doubts and questionings, too transparently candid
to meet even a conceited and presumptuous argument with a counter-argument consisting of a bare dogma and a false analogy. Paul does not admit that God made the
Jew sin. He does not admit that God made the Jew incapable of believing. He does not admit that the responsibility for the Jew's rejection lies anywhere but with
himself.

Yet even the figure of the potter and the clay, properly understood, might have suggested to the angry Jew something beside the thought of sovereign power and will
arbitrarily molding helpless matter.

THE POTTER AND THE CLAY

The illustration is a common one in the Old Testament, and it is reasonable that Paul's use of it should be colored by its usage there.

It occurs in Jeremiah 18:1-10. Jeremiah, in great despondency over the demoralization of Israel was bidden to go down to the potter's house. The potter shaped a
vessel on the wheel, but, owing to some defect in the clay, the vessel was marred. So the potter made, of the same lump, another vessel different from that which he
had at first designed. He did not throw away the clay, but his skill prevailed to triumph over the defect, and to make a vessel, perhaps inferior to the first, yet still
capable of use. So God had designed Israel for a high destiny, a royal nation, a peculiar people; but Israel defeated this destiny by its idolatries and rebellions. Hence
God made it another and baser vessel. "The pressure of the potter's hand was to be harder. Shame and suffering and exile - their land left desolate, and they themselves
weeping by the waters of Babylon - this was the process to which they were now called on to submit." The potter exercised his power by making the vessel unto
dishonor which he originally designed unto honor. Side by side with the potter's power over the clay, there goes, figuratively speaking, in the prophet's representation,
the power of change and choice in the lump. "Ye are in my hand as this clay in the hand of the potter. If, when I am about to degrade the nation, they turn from their
evil, I will repent of the evil. On the contrary, when I am planning for an honorable and powerful kingdom, if the people turn to evil, then I will repent of the good
wherewith I said that I would benefit them." Israel has a power of choice. If it is made into a vessel unto dishonor, the fault is its own, but repentance and submission
may change the issue.

Look again at Isaiah 29:16. This passage occurs in the prophecy concerning Jerusalem under the name of Ariel. The prophet predicts siege, thunder, and earthquake.
He says that the Lord hath poured on the people the spirit of deep sleep, and hath closed their eyes and covered their heads, so that the prophetic vision appeals to
them as a sealed letter to a man who can read, or as a writing to one who cannot read.

This is on the same line with the hardening of Pharaoh's heart. It is ascribed to the direct agency of God. But immediately there follows the statement of their own
responsibility for their sin. The people have removed their heart from the Lord and worship Him with the lips only. Therefore, God will proceed to do marvelous and
terrible works among them. O your perverseness! Think you can hide your counsel from God? "Surely your turning of things upside down shall be esteemed as the
potter's clay, for shall the work say of him that made it, 'He made me not?' or shall the thing framed say of him that framed it, 'He hath no understanding?'" In other
words, why do men think that they can escape God by hiding their purposes from Him? Shall God (the potter) be accounted as clay (the man)? Shall man ignore the
fact that he was made by God, and act as if God had no understanding? The parallel between this utterance and that in Romans 9 will be evident at a glance.

Isaiah 45:9. The prophecy concerning Cyrus. God calls him, though a heathen, for the sake of Jacob His servant, and Israel His elect. In this call God asserts His
sovereignty: "I am Jehovah and there is none else. I girded thee when thou knewest me not." This idea is further carried out by the figure of the potter and the clay.
"Woe to him that striveth with his maker. Let the potsherd strive with the potsherds of the earth. Shall the clay say to him that fashioned it, 'What makest thou?' or thy
work, 'He hath no hands?'" The same thought appears in ver. 10. Shall a child remonstrate with its parents because they have brought into the world a being weak,
ugly, or deformed? And again, in ver. 11: "Concerning the things to come will ye question me? Concerning my children and the work of my hands will ye lay commands
upon me? It was I that made the earth and created the men upon it," etc.

Along with these declarations of absolute sovereignty, which silence the lips of men, stand exhortations which assume the power of free choice. "I said not unto the seed
of Jacob 'Seek ye me in vain.'" "Assemble yourselves and come." "Let them take counsel together." "Turn ye unto me and be ye saved."

Isaiah 64:8. "And now Jehovah, thou art our Father. We are the clay, and thou art our fashioner, and the work of thy hands are we all." But ver. 5, "Behold thou wast
wroth, and we sinned, and we went astray: our iniquities as the wind have carried us away. Thou hast delivered us into the hand of our iniquities." "Since thou art our
fashioner, and we are the clay, look upon us: remember not iniquity forever."

By all these Old-Testament passages the idea of God dealing with men as lifeless clay, shaping them to eternal life or death according to His arbitrary will, is
contradicted. The illustration points away from God's causing unbelief, to God's bearing with man's voluntary and persistent disobedience, and to His making of him the
best that can be made consistently with divine justice and holiness. So far from accentuating rigid narrowness of purpose, arbitrary and inexorable destination of
individuals to honor or dishonor, the illustration opens a vast range and free play of divine purpose to turn evil to good, and to shape men into obedient and faithful
servants through divine chastisements. The potter does not make vessels in order to shiver them. God does not make men in order to destroy them. God ordains no
man to eternal death. He desires to honor humanity, not to dishonor it; and the fact that men do become vessels unto dishonor, merely proves the power which God
has lodged in the human will of modifying, and in a sense defeating, His sovereign purpose of love. He "will have all men to be saved and come to a knowledge of the
truth;" yet Christ comes to His own, and His own receive Him not, and He weeps as He exclaims, "Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life."

(22.) The argument now proceeds in regular course from ver. 18, showing that the exercise of God's sovereign right is marked by mercy even toward those who
deserve His wrath. Are you disposed to construe the words "whom He will. He hardeneth" into an assertion of the arbitrary, relentless, and unjust severity of God?
Suppose it can be shown that God, though the spontaneous recoil of His holy nature from sin moved Him to display His wrath and make known His power against men
who were fit for destruction - endured these with much long-suffering.

This could easily be shown from the case of the Israelites them selves and of Pharaoh.

Did not this endurance imply opportunity to repent, and assume that destruction was not God's arbitrary choice, but theirs?

Still further, what if God, through this same endurance, was working, not only to save the Jewish people if possible, but also to carry out a larger purpose toward a
people which, in His eternal counsels, He had destined for the glory of the messianic kingdom?

Here He introduces the subject of the inclusion of the Gentiles in the messianic kingdom. God is merciful in carrying out His will, but in His mercy He none the less
carries out His will. Both His sovereignty and His mercy will be vindicated in His making a people for Himself from the Gentiles and from the believing Jews. What has
Israel to say? The word of God has not been brought to nought by his rejection. The principle of divine selection which operated in Abraham and Jacob is carried out
in the selection of believing Israel from the unbelieving mass, and in the call of the Gentiles. The elective purpose of God was broader than Israel thought. In choosing
Israel God was
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With this should be compared the discourse of Jesus in John 6 After having given a sign of His divine power and commission by the feeding of the multitudes, His
announcement of Himself as the bread from heaven, the true and only life of the world, is met with a stupid, materialistic construction of His words, and with obstinate
Here He introduces the subject of the inclusion of the Gentiles in the messianic kingdom. God is merciful in carrying out His will, but in His mercy He none the less
carries out His will. Both His sovereignty and His mercy will be vindicated in His making a people for Himself from the Gentiles and from the believing Jews. What has
Israel to say? The word of God has not been brought to nought by his rejection. The principle of divine selection which operated in Abraham and Jacob is carried out
in the selection of believing Israel from the unbelieving mass, and in the call of the Gentiles. The elective purpose of God was broader than Israel thought. In choosing
Israel God was contemplating the salvation of the world, and did not abdicate His liberty to reject unbelievers, or to call others not Jews.

With this should be compared the discourse of Jesus in John 6 After having given a sign of His divine power and commission by the feeding of the multitudes, His
announcement of Himself as the bread from heaven, the true and only life of the world, is met with a stupid, materialistic construction of His words, and with obstinate
incredulity; whereupon He says, "Ye also have seen me and believe not" (ver. 36). At this point He seems to pause and contemplate His failure to reach the Jews, and
to ask Himself if His mission is indeed for nought. It is the answer to this inward question which explains the apparent disconnection of ver. 37 with what precedes.
Though the Jews reject, yet God will have a people for Himself. "All that the Father giveth me shall come to me." There is a clear foreshadowing here of the call of the
Gentiles.

(25, 26.) But not only is God's word not annulled; it is fulfilled. For He says, by the prophet Hosea, that He will call by the name my people those who are not His
people, and that nation beloved which was not beloved; and in the Gentile lands, where God, by the punishment of exile, said to Israel, "Ye are not my people," there
God would visit them and recall them along with the Gentiles.

Here the apostle applies to the Gentiles what Hosea said of the Jews only. The tribes, by their lapse into idolatry, had placed themselves on the same footing with the
Gentiles (not His people), so that the general truth could be applied to both. In Isaiah 49:22 the Gentiles are represented as restored to grace along, with the Jews.

(27-29.) But this people shall not consist of Gentiles only; for God says by Isaiah that a remnant shall be preserved out of Israel, a small number out of the great
unbelieving mass, which shall attain to the salvation and privileges of the messianic kingdom: a remnant, for God in His righteous judgment will make a summary
reckoning with the Jewish nation, and the great body of it shall be cut off; but a remnant shall be left as a seed by which the true people of God shall be perpetuated.
This preservation of a remnant is a mark of divine mercy. But for this, the whole nation would have been destroyed like Sodom.

(30.) Paul now turns to the facts of human agency, moral freedom, and consequent responsibility, which, up to this point, have been kept in the shadow of the truth of
divine sovereignty. There is a correspondence between God's freedom in His government and the freedom of men in their faith and unbelief. He summarily states the
truth which he develops in Romans 10; namely, that Israel was the cause of its own rejection, alluding at the same time incidentally to the cause of the Gentiles'
reception.

The reason why the Jews were rejected was because they did not seek after the righteousness which is by faith, but clung to the law, and sought to be justified by its
works. The Gentiles, who had no revelation, and who therefore did not seek after righteousness in the New-Testament sense, nevertheless attained it, accepting it when
it was offered, 63 and not being hindered by the legal bigotry and pretension of the Jew; but Israel, following after the law, which, in itself, is holy and just and good,
and which was intended to lead to Christ, pursued it only as an external standard of righteousness, and on the side of legal observance, and so found a stumbling-block
in the very Messiah to whom it. led them.

Chapter 10.

The general statement in Romans 9:30-33 is developed.

(1-3.) Israel was zealous for God, but without discernment of the true meaning and tendency of the law. Hence, in the endeavor to establish its own legal righteousness,
it missed the righteousness of faith, the nature of which is expounded in this epistle.

(4-11.) They did not perceive that Christ brings the legal dispensation to an end in introducing Himself as the object of faith and the source of justifying righteousness.
They accepted only the declaration of Moses concerning righteousness, that the man who keeps the law shall live by it, and did not see that the law, properly
understood, implied also the work of grace and dependence on God. They regarded righteousness as something remote and to be attained only by laborious effort;
whereas even Moses would have told them that Jehovah's help was near at hand to assist them in the daily understanding and keeping of the law. No one need be sent
to heaven nor beyond the sea to bring back the explanation of its commandments, or to enable them to fulfill them. Still more plainly, to the same effect, spoke the
righteousness of faith in Christ. No need to ascend to heaven to bring Him down. He has already descended to earth. No need to dive into the depths of the earth to
bring Him up. He has already risen from the dead. They have only to accept by faith His death and his resurrection, and to confess Him who has accomplished in
Himself the two great things which needed to be done. Such faith shall not put them to shame. They shall be saved as if they had fulfilled all the necessary conditions
themselves.

(12, 13.) Not only is this salvation free. It is also universal, to whosoever shall believe. Thus it appeals to the Gentile no less than to the Jew. It strikes at the notion that
the Jew alone is the subject of messianic salvation; that the Gentile must enter the kingdom through the gate of Judaism. Both Jew and Gentile enter through faith only.
There is no difference between the Jew and the Gentile. The Lord, who is Lord of both alike, dispenses His riches to all of both nations who call upon Him.

(14-21.) The Jew cannot plead in excuse for rejecting this salvation, either that he has not heard it announced, or that its universality is inconsistent with Old-Testament
teaching. Both excuses are shattered upon Old-Testament declarations. It was prophesied by Isaiah that Israel would not all submit themselves to the Gospel. The
good tidings has been proclaimed, but they have not believed the report. Faith comes by hearing, and they have heard the Gospel in their cities and synagogues. 64
Had Israel any reason to be surprised at the universality of the Gospel - its proclamation to the Gentiles? On the contrary, did not Israel know? Had not Moses and
Isaiah prophesied that God would manifest His grace to the Gentiles, and that the Gentiles would receive it - yea, that through the Gentiles Israel should be brought
back to God? Did not Isaiah prophesy that, notwithstanding God's long-suffering and entreaty, Israel would prove a disobedient and gainsaying nation?

Thus the argument is, Israel is responsible for its own rejection. In blind reliance on its original election, it has claimed a monopoly of divine favor, has made a stand for
legal righteousness, and has rejected the gospel message of salvation by faith. It has thus repelled the offer of a free and universal salvation. For this it is without excuse.
It was warned by its own Scriptures of the danger of being superseded by the Gentiles, and the salvation of Christ was offered to it along with the Gentiles by Christ's
ministers.

Chapter 11.

In Romans 9 it is shown that when God elected Israel He did not abjure the right to reject them for good reason.

In Romans 10 this reason is shown to be their unbelief.

The question now arises: Is this rejection complete and forever? Paul proceeds to show that the rejection is not total, but partial; not eternal, but temporary; and that it
shall subserve the salvation of mankind and of the Israelitish nation itself.
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(2-6.) From the history of Elijah he shows how, in the midst of general moral defection and decline, God preserved a remnant of faithful ones; and declares that the
same is true at the present time.
In Romans 10 this reason is shown to be their unbelief.

The question now arises: Is this rejection complete and forever? Paul proceeds to show that the rejection is not total, but partial; not eternal, but temporary; and that it
shall subserve the salvation of mankind and of the Israelitish nation itself.

(2-6.) From the history of Elijah he shows how, in the midst of general moral defection and decline, God preserved a remnant of faithful ones; and declares that the
same is true at the present time.

In virtue of His free grace displayed in His original election, God has not left the nation without a believing remnant. The elective purpose holds, though operating in a
way different from Israel's vain and narrow conception of its nature and extent. The preservation of this remnant is a matter of God's free grace, not of Israel's merit.

(7-10.) The case then stands that Israel has not attained the righteousness which it sought (in the wrong way), but the chosen remnant has attained it, while the great
mass of the nation was blinded according to the prophesy in Isaiah 29 and Psalms 69.

It is to be observed that, in those very chapters, the full responsibility of those who are punished is asserted; and that, in citing the Psalm, Paul renders the Hebrew for
those who are in security by the words for a recompense, thus indicating a just retribution.

(11, 12.) The rejection of the Jews, however, is not total nor final, and it works for two ulterior ends: first, the conversion of the Gentile; second, the restoration of the
Jews by means of the converted Gentiles.

(13-15.) Hence Paul labors the more earnestly for the Gentiles, with a view to promote the salvation of his own race.

(16-24.) The Gentiles, however, are warned against entertaining contempt for the Jews on account of their own position in the messianic kingdom. However lapsed,
Israel still retains the character of God's holy nation impressed in its original call; and this original call, represented in the fathers, implies its future restoration. So far
from despising them, the Gentiles are to remember that they themselves are not the original stock, but only a graft; and to take warning by the history of Israel, that the
called may be rejected, and that they, by unbelief, disobedience, and rebellion, may, like Israel, forfeit their high privilege. "If God spared not the natural branches, take
heed lest He also spare not thee." "Behold, therefore, the goodness and severity of God: on them which fell, severity, but toward thee goodness, if thou continue in His
goodness; otherwise thou also shalt be out off" Israel, too, shall be restored to its place in God's kingdom, graffed in again, if they continue not in unbelief; much more,
since they are natural branches, and the tree is their own native stock.

(25-32.) Thus, then, the plan of God shall work itself out: the purpose, so much of which was enshrouded in mystery, shall at last reveal its full, grand proportions.
Through the Gentile, Israel shall attain the righteousness of faith in the Deliverer out of Zion. God has made no mistake. He does not repent His original call, nor the
displays of His divine grace to Israel, nor the special aptitudes with which He endowed it, in order to make it the special vehicle of His salvation. Jew and Gentile have
alike been unbelievers and disobedient, but the unbelief of both has been overruled to the inclusion of both in God's messianic kingdom. Thus the argument which
opened at the beginning of the epistle with the condemnation of all, closes with mercy upon all.

CHAPTER 12

1. I beseech (parakalw~). See on consolation, Luke 6:24.

By the mercies (dia). By, not as an adjuration, but as presenting the motive for obedience. I use the compassion of God to move you to present, etc.

Present. See on Romans 6:13. It is the technical term for presenting the Levitical victims and offerings. See Luke 2:22. In the Levitical sacrifices the offerer placed his
offering so as to face the Most Holy Place, thus bringing it before the Lord.

Bodies. Literally, but regarded as the outward organ of the will. So, expressly, Romans 6:13, 19; 2 Corinthians 5:10. Compare Romans 7:5, 23. Hence the exhortation
to glorify God in the body (1 Corinthians 6:20; compare Philippians 1:20; 2 Corinthians 4:10). So the body is called the body of sin (Romans 6:6; compare Colossians
2:11). In later Greek usage slaves were called sw>mata bodies. See Revelation 18:13.

A living sacrifice (qusi>an zw~san). Living, in contrast with the slain Levitical offerings. Compare Romans 6:8, 11. "How can the body become a sacrifice? Let the eye
look on no evil, and it is a sacrifice. Let the tongue utter nothing base, and it is an offering. Let the hand work no sin, and it is a holocaust. But more, this suffices not,
but besides we must actively exert ourselves for good; the hand giving alms, the mouth blessing them that curse us, the ear ever at leisure for listening to
God" (Chrysostom).

Acceptable (euja>reston). Lit., well-pleasing.

Which is your reasonable service (than). Explaining the whole previous clause. Service, see on Romans 9:4. The special word for the service rendered by the Israelites
as the peculiar people of God is very significant here. Reasonable, not in the popular sense of the term, as a thing befitting or proper, but rational, as distinguished from
merely external or material. Hence nearly equivalent to spiritual. So Rev., in margin. It is in harmony with the highest reason.

2. Conformed - transformed (suschmati>zesqe - metamorfou~sqe). See on was transfigured, Matthew 17:2. For conformed to, Rev., correctly, fashioned according
to.

Mind (noo>v). See on Romans 7:23. Agreeing with reasonable service.

That good and acceptable and perfect will. Better to render the three adjectives as appositional. "May prove what is the will of God, what is good," etc. The other
rendering compels us to take well-pleasing in the sense of agreeable to men.

3. Not to think, etc. The play upon fronei~n to think and its compounds is very noticeable. "Not to be high-minded (hyperphronein) above what he ought to be minded
(phronein), but to be minded (phronein) unto the being sober-minded (sophronein). See on 1 Peter 4:7.

The measure of faith (me>tron pi>stewv). An expression which it is not easy to define accurately. It is to be noted: 1. That the point of the passage is a warning against
an undue self-estimate, and a corresponding exhortation to estimate one's self with discrimination and sober judgment. 2. That Paul has a standard by which self-
estimate is to be regulated. This is expressed by wJv as, according as. 3. That this scale or measure is different in different persons, so that the line between conceit and
sober thinking is not the same for all. This is expressed by ejme>risen hath imparted, distributed, and eJka>stw| to each one. 4. The character of this measure or
standard is determined by faith. It must be observed that the general exhortation to a proper self-estimate is shaped by, and foreshadows, the subsequent words
respecting differences of gifts. It was at this point that the tendency to self-conceit and spiritual arrogance would develop itself. Hence the precise definition of faith here
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     be affected by its relationInfobase    Media gifts
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                                                        in ver. 6. Its meaning, therefore, must not be strictly limited to the conception of justifying faith in Christ, 58 / that
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conception includes and is really the basis of every wider conception. It is faith as the condition of the powers and offices of believers, faith regarded as spiritual insight,
which, according to its degree, qualifies a man to be a prophet, a teacher, a minister, etc.; faith in its relation to character, as the only principle which develops a man's
estimate is to be regulated. This is expressed by wJv as, according as. 3. That this scale or measure is different in different persons, so that the line between conceit and
sober thinking is not the same for all. This is expressed by ejme>risen hath imparted, distributed, and eJka>stw| to each one. 4. The character of this measure or
standard is determined by faith. It must be observed that the general exhortation to a proper self-estimate is shaped by, and foreshadows, the subsequent words
respecting differences of gifts. It was at this point that the tendency to self-conceit and spiritual arrogance would develop itself. Hence the precise definition of faith here
will be affected by its relation to the differing gifts in ver. 6. Its meaning, therefore, must not be strictly limited to the conception of justifying faith in Christ, though that
conception includes and is really the basis of every wider conception. It is faith as the condition of the powers and offices of believers, faith regarded as spiritual insight,
which, according to its degree, qualifies a man to be a prophet, a teacher, a minister, etc.; faith in its relation to character, as the only principle which develops a man's
true character, and which, therefore, is the determining principle of the renewed man's tendencies, whether they lead him to meditation and research, or to practical
activity. As faith is the sphere and subjective condition of the powers and functions of believers, so it furnishes a test or regulative standard of their respective
endowments and functions. Thus the measure applied is distinctively a measure of faith. With faith the believer receives a power of discernment as to the actual
limitations of his gifts. Faith, in introducing him into God's kingdom, introduces him to new standards of measurement, according to which he accurately determines the
nature and extent of his powers, and so does not think of himself too highly. This measure is different in different individuals, but in every case faith is the determining
element of the measure. Paul, then, does not mean precisely to say that a man is to think more or less soberly of himself according to the quantity of faith which he has,
though that is true as a fact; but that sound and correct views as to the character and extent of spiritual gifts and functions are fixed by a measure, the determining
element of which, in each particular case, is faith.

4. Office (pra~xin). Lit., mode of acting.

5. Being many (oiJ polloi). Lit., the many. Rev., better, who are many.

Every one (to' ei+v). The literal phrase can only be rendered awkwardly: and as to what is true according to one; i.e., individually, severally. Compare, for a similar
phrase, Mark 14:19; John 8:9.

6. Prophecy. See on prophet, Luke 7:26. In the New Testament, as in the Old, the prominent idea is not prediction, but the inspired delivery of warning, exhortation,
instruction, judging, and making manifest the secrets of the heart. See 1 Corinthians 14:3, 24, 25. The New-Testament prophets are distinguished from teachers, by
speaking under direct divine inspiration.

Let us prophesy. Not in the Greek.

According to the proportion of faith (kataan th~v pi>stewv). >a proportion, occurs only here in the New Testament. In classical Greek it is used as a mathematical
term. Thus Plato: "The fairest bond is that which most completely fuses and is fused into the things which are bound; and proportion (ajnalogi>a) is best adapted to
effect such a fusion" ("Timaeus," 31). "Out of such elements, which are in number four, the body of the world was created in harmony and proportion" ("Timaeus," 32).
Compare "Politicus," 257 The phrase here is related to the measure of faith (ver. 3). It signifies, according to the proportion defined by faith. The meaning is not the
technical meaning expressed by the theological phrase analogy of faith, sometimes called analogy of scripture, i.e., the correspondence of the several parts of divine
revelation in one consistent whole. This would require hJ pi>stiv the faith, to be taken as the objective rule of faith, or system of doctrine (see on Acts 6:7), and is not in
harmony with ver. 3, nor with according to the grace given. Those who prophesy are to interpret the divine revelation "according to the strength, clearness, fervor, and
other qualities of the faith bestowed upon them; so that the character and mode of their speaking is conformed to the rules and limits which are implied in the proportion
of their individual degree of faith" (Meyer).

7. Ministering (diakoni>a|). Let us wait on is supplied. Lit., or ministry in our ministry. The word appears in the New Testament always in connection with the service of
the Christian Church, except Luke 10:40 of Martha's serving; Hebrews 1:14 of the ministry of angels, and 2 Corinthians 3:7 of the ministry of Moses. Within this limit it
is used, 1. Of service in general, including all forms of christian ministration tending to the good of the christian body (1 Corinthians 12:5; Ephesians 4:13; 2 Timothy
4:11). Hence, 2. Of the apostolic office and its administration; (a) generally (Acts 20:24; 2 Corinthians 4:1; 1 Timothy 1:12); or (b) defined as a ministry of
reconciliation, of the word, of the Spirit, of righteousness (2 Corinthians 5:18; Acts 6:4; 2 Corinthians 3:8, 9). It is not used of the specific office of a deacon; but the
kindred word dia>konov occurs in that sense (Philippians 1:1; 1 Timothy 3:8, 12). As the word is employed in connection with both the higher and lower ministrations
in the Church (see Acts 6:1, 4), it is difficult to fix its precise meaning here; yet as it is distinguished here from prophecy, exhortation, and teaching, it may refer to some
more practical, and, possibly, minor form of ministry. Moule says: "Almost any work other than that of inspired utterance or miracle-working may be included in it
here." So Godet: "An activity of a practical nature exerted in action, not in word." Some limit it to the office of deacon.

Teaching. Aimed at the understanding.

8. Exhortation. Aimed at the heart and will. See on consolation, Luke 6:24. Compare 1 Corinthians 14:3; Acts 4:36 where Rev. gives son of exhortation.

He that giveth (oJ metadidou). Earthly possessions. The preposition meta> indicates sharing with. He that imparteth. Compare Ephesians 4:28; Luke 3:11.

Simplicity (aJplo>thti). See on single, Matthew 6:22 and compare James 1:5 where it is said that God gives aJplw~v simply. See note there. In 2 Corinthians 8:2; 9:11,
13 the A.V. gives liberality; and in James 1:5liberally. Rev. accepts this in the last-named passage, but gives singleness in margin. In all the others liberality is, at best,
very doubtful. The sense is unusual, and the rendering simplicity or singleness is defensible in all the passages.

He that ruleth (oJ proi`sta>menov). Lit., he that is placed in front. The reference is to any position involving superintendence. No special ecclesiastical office is meant.
Compare Titus 3:8 to maintain good works; the idea of presiding over running into that of carrying on or practicing. See note there. Compare also prosta>tiv succorer,
Romans 16:2 and see note.

With diligence (ejn spoudh|~). See on Jude 1:3. In Mark 6:25; Luke 1:39 it is rendered haste. In 2 Corinthians 7:11carefulness (Rev., earnest care). In 2 Corinthians
7:12care (Rev., earnest care). In 2 Corinthians 8:8forwardness (Rev., earnestness). In 2 Corinthians 8:16earnest care.

With cheerfulness (ejn iJlaro>thti). Only here in the New Testament. It reappears in the Latin hilaritas; English, hilarity, exhilarate. "The joyful eagerness, the amiable
grace, the affability going the length of gayety, which make the visitor a sunbeam penetrating into the sick-chamber, and to the heart of the afflicted."

9. Love (hJ ajga>ph). The article has the force of your. See on loveth, John 5:20.

Without dissimulation (ajnupo>kritov). Rev., without hypocrisy. See on hypocrites, Matthew 23:13.

Abhor (ajpostugou~ntev). Lit., abhorring. The only simple verb for hate in the New Testament is mise>w. Stuge>w, quite frequent in the classics, does not occur
except in this compound, which is found only here. The kindred adjective stughto>v hateful, is found 1 Timothy 3:3. The original distinction between mise>w and
stuge>w is that the former denotes concealed and cherished hatred, and the latter hatred expressed. The preposition ajpo> away from, may either denote separation or
be merely intensive. An intense sentiment is meant: loathing.
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Cleave (kollw>menoi). See on joined himself, Luke 15:15. Compare Acts 17:34; 1 Corinthians 6:16.

10. Be kindly affectioned (filo>storgoi). Only here in the New Testament. From ste>rgw to love, which denotes peculiarly a natural affection, a sentiment innate and
Abhor (ajpostugou~ntev). Lit., abhorring. The only simple verb for hate in the New Testament is mise>w. Stuge>w, quite frequent in the classics, does not occur
except in this compound, which is found only here. The kindred adjective stughto>v hateful, is found 1 Timothy 3:3. The original distinction between mise>w and
stuge>w is that the former denotes concealed and cherished hatred, and the latter hatred expressed. The preposition ajpo> away from, may either denote separation or
be merely intensive. An intense sentiment is meant: loathing.

Cleave (kollw>menoi). See on joined himself, Luke 15:15. Compare Acts 17:34; 1 Corinthians 6:16.

10. Be kindly affectioned (filo>storgoi). Only here in the New Testament. From ste>rgw to love, which denotes peculiarly a natural affection, a sentiment innate and
peculiar to men as men, as distinguished from the love of desire, called out by circumstance. Hence of the natural love of kindred, of people and king (the relation being
regarded as founded in nature), of a tutelary God for a people. The word here represents Christians as bound by a family tie. It is intended to define more specifically
the character of filadelfi>a brotherly love, which follows, so that the exhortation is "love the brethren in the faith as though they were brethren in blood" (Farrar). Rev.,
be tenderly affectioned; but the A.V., in the word kindly gives the real sense, since kind is originally kinned; and kindly affectioned is having the affection of kindred.

In honor preferring one another (th|~ timh|~ ajllh>louv prohgou>menoi). The verb occurs only here. It means to go before as a guide. Honor is the honor due from each
to all. Compare Philippians 2:3; 1 Peter 2:17; 5:5. Hence, leading the way in showing the honor that is due. Others render antcipating and excelling.

11. Slothful (ojknhroi>). From ojkne>w to delay.

In business (th|~ spoudh|~). Wrong. Render, as Rev., in diligence; see on ver. 8. Luther, "in regard to zeal be not lazy."

Fervent (ze>ontev). See on Acts 18:25.

The Lord (tw|~ Kuri>w|). Some texts read kairw|~ the time or opportunity, but the best authorities give Lord.

12. Continuing instant (proskarterou~ntev). Compare Acts 1:4; 6:4. Rev., steadfastly for instant, which has lost its original sense of urgent (Latin, instare to press upon).
Thus Latimer: "I preached at the instant request of a curate." Compare A.V., Luke 7:4; Acts 26:7.

13. Distributing (koinwnou~ntev). Rev., communicating to. The meaning is sharing in the necessities; taking part in them as one's own. So Romans 15:27; 1 Timothy
5:22; 2 John 1:11; Hebrews 2:14; 1 Peter 4:13. See on partners, Luke 5:10; fellowship, Acts 2:42; 1 John 1:3; 2 John 1:11.

Given to hospitality (filoxeni>an diw>kontev). Lit., pursuing hospitality. For a similar use of the verb compare 1 Corinthians 14:1; 1 Thessalonians 5:15; Hebrews
12:14; 1 Peter 3:11. A necessary injunction when so many Christians were banished and persecuted. The verb indicates not only that hospitality is to be furnished when
sought, but that Christians are to seek opportunities of exercising it.

14. Bless (eujlogei~te). See on blessed, 1 Peter 1:3.

Them that persecute (toukontav). See on John 5:16. It has been suggested that the verb pursuing in ver. 13 may have suggested the persecutors here. Pursue hospitality
toward the brethren as the wicked pursue them.

Curse not. Plutarch relates that when a decree was issued that Alcibiades should be solemnly cursed by all the priests and priestesses, one of the latter declared that her
holy office obliged her to make prayers, but not execrations ("Alcibiades").

16. Condescend to men of low estate (toi~v tapeinoi~v sunapago>menoi). Rev., to things that are lowly. Toi~v tapeinoi~v to the lowly may mean either lowly men or
lowly things. The verb literally means being carried off along with; hence yielding or submitting to, and so condescending. Compare Galatians 2:13 and see on 2 Peter
3:17 in which passages it has a bad sense from the context. According to the original sense, the meaning will be, being led away with lowly things or people; i.e. being
drawn into sympathy with them. Farrar suggests letting the lowly lead you by the hand. Meyer, who maintains the neuter, explains: "The lowly things ought to have for
the Christian a force of attraction, in virtue of which he yields himself to fellowship with them, and allows himself to be guided by them in the determination of his
conduct. Thus Paul felt himself compelled to enter into humble situations." On the other hand, Godet, maintaining the masculine, says: "The reference is to the most
indigent and ignorant and least influential in the Church. It is to them the believer ought to feel most drawn. The antipathy felt by the apostle to every sort of spiritual
aristocracy, to every caste-distinction within the Church, breaks out again in the last word." Condescend is a feeble and inferential rendering, open to construction in a
patronizing sense; yet it is not easy to furnish a better in a single word. 65 The idea, then, fully expressed is, "set not your mind on lofty things, but be borne away
(ajpo>) from these by the current of your Christian sympathy along with (su>n) things which are humble."

In your own conceits (parj eJautoi~v). Lit., with yourselves; in your own opinion. See Romans 11:25, and compare Acts 26:8"incredible with you," i.e., in your
judgment.

17. Provide (pronoou>menoi). The A.V. uses provide in its earlier and more literal meaning of taking thought in advance. This has been mostly merged in the later
meaning of furnish, so that the translation conveys the sense of providing honestly for ourselves and our families. Better, as Rev., take thought for. 66 The citation is
from Proverbs 3:4 and varies from both Hebrew and Septuagint. Hebrew: And thou shalt find favor and good understanding in the eyes of God and man. Septuagint:
And thou shalt find favor and devise excellent things in the sight of the Lord and of men. Compare 2 Corinthians 8:21. Construe in the sight of all men with the verb, not
with honorable. Men's estimate of what is honorable is not the standard.

18. If it be possible. Not if you can, but if others will allow. The phrase is explained by as much as lieth in you (to), lit., as to that which proceeds from you, or depends
on you. "All your part is to be peace" (Alford).

19. Give place unto wrath (do>te to>pon th|~ ojrgh|~). Wrath has the article: the wrath, referring to the divine wrath. Give place is give room for it to work. Do not get
in its way, as you will do by taking vengeance into your own hands. Hence as Rev., in margin, and American Rev., in text, give place unto the wrath of God.

Vengeance is mine (ejmoikhsiv). Lit., unto Me is vengeance. The Rev. brings out better the force of the original: Vengeance belongeth unto Me. The quotation is from
Deuteronomy 32:35. Hebrew, To me belongs vengeance and requital. Septuagint, In the day of vengeance I will requite. The antithesis between vengeance by God and
by men is not found in Deuteronomy. Compare Hebrews 10:30. Dante, listening to Peter Damiano, who describes the abuses of the Church, hears a great cry. Beatrice
says:

"The cry has startled thee so much,

In which, if thou hadst understood its prayers,

Already would
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Which thou shalt look upon before thou diest.
"The cry has startled thee so much,

In which, if thou hadst understood its prayers,

Already would be known to thee the vengeance

Which thou shalt look upon before thou diest.

The sword above here smiteth not in haste,

Nor tardily, howe'er it seem to him

Who, fearing or desiring, waits for it."

"Paradiso," 22, 12-18.

Compare Plato: Socrates, "And what of doing evil in return for evil, which is the morality of the many - is that just or not? Crito, Not just. Socrates, For doing evil to
another is the same as injuring him? Crito, Very true. Socrates, Then we ought not to retaliate or render evil for evil to any one, whatever evil we may have suffered
from him.... This opinion has never been held, and never will be held by any considerable number of persons" ("Crito," 49). Epictetus, being asked how a man could
injure his enemy, replied, "By living the best life himself." The idea of personal vindictiveness must be eliminated from the word here. It is rather full meting out of justice
to all parties.

20. Feed (yw>mize). See on sop, John 13:26. The citation from Proverbs 25:21, 22 closely follows both Hebrew and Septuagint.

Shalt heap (swreu>seiv). Only here and 2 Timothy 3:6.

Coals of fire. Many explain: The memory of the wrong awakened in your enemy by your kindness, shall sting him with penitence. This, however, might be open to the
objection that the enemy's pain might gratify the instinct of revenge. Perhaps it is better to take it, that kindness is as effectual as coals of fire. Among the Arabs and
Hebrews the figure of "coals of fire" is common as a symbol of divine punishment (Psalms 18:13). "The Arabians call things which cause very acute mental pain, burning
coals of the heart and fire in the liver" (Thayer, "Lexicon"). Thomas De Quincey, referring to an author who calls this "a fiendish idea," says: "I acknowledge that to
myself, in one part of my boyhood, it did seem a refinement of malice. My subtilizing habits, however, even in those days, soon suggested to me that this aggravation of
guilt in the object of our forgiveness was not held out as the motive to the forgiveness, but as the result of it; secondly, that perhaps no aggravation of his guilt was the
point contemplated, but the salutary stinging into life of his remorse hitherto sleeping" ("Essays on the Poets").

CHAPTER 13

On the circumstances which are supposed to have called out the first part of this chapter, see Farrarr, "Life and Work of Paul," 2, 260 sqq.

1. Every soul. Every man. See on Romans 11:3.

Higher powers (ejxousi>aiv uJperecou>saiv). Lit., authorities which have themselves over. See on Mark 2:10; John 1:12.

The powers that be (aiJ de). Lit., the existing. Powers is not in the text, and is supplied from the preceding clause.

Are ordained (tetagme>nai eijsi>n). Perfect tense: Have been ordained, and the ordinance remains in force. See on set under authority, Luke 7:8.

2. He that resisteth (oJ ajntitasso>menov). Lit., setteth himself in array against. See on 1 Peter 5:5; Acts 18:6.

Resisteth (ajnqe>sthken). Rev., better, withstandeth. See on Romans 9:19.

Ordinance (diatagh|~). From ta>ssw to put in place, which appears in the first resisteth. He setteth himself against that which is divinely set.

Damnation (kri~ma). Judicial sentence. Rev., better, judgment.

4. Beareth (forei~). Beareth and weareth. A frequentative form of fe>rw to bear.

Sword (ma>cairan). See on Revelation 6:4. Borne as the symbol of the magistrate's right to inflict capital punishment. Thus Ulpian: "They who rule whole provinces
have the right of the sword (jus gladii)." The Emperor Trajan presented to a provincial governor, on starting for his province, a dagger, with the words, "For me. If I
deserve it, in me."

6. Pay ye tribute (fo>rouv telei~te). Telei~te ye pay is, literally, ye accomplish or fulfill carrying the sense of the fulfillment of an obligation. Fo>rouv tribute is from
fe>rw to bring something brought. Rev. makes the verb indicative, ye pay.

God's ministers (leitourgoi). See on ministration, Luke 1:23 and ministered, Acts 13:2. In ver. 4, dia>konov is used for minister. The word here brings out more fully the
fact that the ruler, like the priest, discharges a divinely ordained service. Government is thus elevated into the sphere of religion. Hence Rev., ministers of God's service.

Attending continually. The same word as continuing steadfastly in Romans 12:12.

7. To all. Probably all magistrates, though some explain all men.

Tribute - custom (fo>ron - te>lov). Tribute on persons: custom on goods.

8. Another (to). Lit., the other, or the different one, the word emphasizing more strongly the distinction between the two parties. Rev., his neighbor.

9. Thou shalt not commit adultery, etc. Omit thou shalt not bear false witness. The seventh commandment precedes the sixth, as in Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; James
2:11.

ItCopyright   (c) 2005-2009,(ajnakefalaiou~tai).
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                                                 Only here and Ephesians 1:10. Rev., it is summed up. > has the force of again in the sense of recapitulation. 61 / 567
Leviticus 19:18. The law is normally a unit in which there is no real separation between the commandments. "Summed up in one word." The verb is compounded, not
with kefalh> head, but with its derivative kefa>laion the main point.
9. Thou shalt not commit adultery, etc. Omit thou shalt not bear false witness. The seventh commandment precedes the sixth, as in Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; James
2:11.

It is briefly comprehended (ajnakefalaiou~tai). Only here and Ephesians 1:10. Rev., it is summed up. > has the force of again in the sense of recapitulation. Compare
Leviticus 19:18. The law is normally a unit in which there is no real separation between the commandments. "Summed up in one word." The verb is compounded, not
with kefalh> head, but with its derivative kefa>laion the main point.

Namely thou shalt love, etc. (ejn tw|~ ajgaph>seiv). The Greek idiom is, it is summed up in the thou shalt love, the whole commandment being taken as a substantive
with the definite article.

Neighbor (toon). See on Matthew 6:43.

11. And that knowing the time - now. Referring to the injunction of ver. 8. Knowing, seeing that ye know. The time (ton), the particular season or juncture. Rev.,
season. See on Matthew 12:1. Now (h]dh), better, already.

Our salvation (hJmw~n hJ swthri>a). Others, however, and better, as Rev., construe hJmw~n of us (salvation of us, i.e., our) with nearer, and render salvation is nearer
to us. This is favored by the order of the Greek words. The other rendering would lay an unwarranted emphasis on our. The reference is apparently to the Lord's
second coming, rather than to future glory.

12. Is far spent (proe>koyen). The A.V. gives a variety of renderings to this verb. Luke 2:52increased; Galatians 1:14profited; 2 Timothy 3:9proceed; 13, wax. The
word originally means to beat forward or lengthen out by hammering. Hence to promote, and intransitively to go forward or proceed.

Let us cast off (ajpoqw>meqa). As one puts off the garments of the night. For this use of the simple ti>qhmi, see on giveth his life, John 10:11.

13. Honestly (eujschmo>nwv). Honest is originally honorable, and so here. Compare Wyclif's version of 1 Corinthians 12:23: "And the members that be unhonest have
more honesty; for our honest members have need of none." From euj well, sch~ma fashion. See on Matthew 17:2. Hence becomingly. Compare 1 Corinthians 14:40;
1 Thessalonians 4:12. The word refers more particularly to the outward life, and thus accords with walk, and in the day the time of observation.

Rioting (kw>moiv). Lit., revellings. See on 1 Peter 4:3.

Drunkenness (me>qais). See on Luke 21:34; John 2:10.

Wantonness (ajselgei>aiv). See on lasciviousness, Mark 7:22. All these three are plural: riotings, drunkennesses, wantonnesses.

Envying (zh>lw). Rev., jealousy. See on James 3:14.

14. Provision (pro>noian). Etymologically akin to take thought for, in Romans 13:17.

Flesh. In the moral sense: the depraved nature.

CHAPTER 14

1. Weak in the faith. Probably referring to a class of Jewish Christians with Essenic tendencies. 67 Better, as Rev., in faith, the reference being to faith in Christ, not to
christian doctrine. See on Acts 6:7.

Receive ye (proslamba>nesqe). Into fellowship. See on Matthew 16:22.

Doubtful disputations (diakri>seiv dialogismw~n). Lit., judgings of thoughts. The primary meaning of dialogismo>v is a thinking-through or over. Hence of those
speculations or reasonings in one's mind which take the form of scruples. See on Mark 7:21. Dia>krisiv has the same sense as in the other two passages where it
occurs (1 Corinthians 12:10; Hebrews 5:14); discerning with a view to forming a judgment. Hence the meaning is, "receive these weak brethren, but not for the
purpose of passing judgment upon their scruples."

2. Believeth that he may eat (pisteu>ei fagei~n). The A.V. conveys the sense of having an opinion, thinking. But the point is the strength or weakness of the man's faith
(see ver. 1) as it affects his eating. Hence Rev., correctly, hath faith to eat.

Herbs (la>cana). From lacai>nw to dig. Herbs grown on land cultivated by digging: garden-herbs, vegetables. See on Mark 4:32; Luke 12:42.

3. Despise (ejxouqenei>tw). The verb means literally to throw out as nothing. Rev., better, set at nought.

Judge (krine>tw). Judgment is assigned to the weak brother, contempt to the stronger. Censoriousness is the peculiar error of the ascetic, contemptuousness of the
liberal. A distinguished minister once remarked: "The weak brother is the biggest bully in the universe!" Both extremes are allied to spiritual pride.

Hath received (prosela>beto). The aorist points to a definite time - when he believed on Christ, though there is still a reference to his present relation to God as
determined by the fact of his reception then, which may warrant the rendering by the perfect.

4. Who art thou? (suv ei=) Thou, first in the Greek order and peculiarly emphatic. Addressing the weak brother, since judgest corresponds with judge in ver. 3.

Servant (oijke>thn). Strictly, household servant. See on 1 Peter 2:18. He is a servant in Christ s household. Hence not another man's, as A.V., but the servant of
another, as Rev. x>trion of another is an adjective.

He shall be holden up (staqh>setai). Rev., shall be made to stand; better, both because the rendering is more truthful, and because it corresponds with the kindred verb
stand - he standeth, make him stand.

Is able (dunatei~). Stronger than du>natai can. The sense is, is mighty. Hence Rev., hath power.

5. Esteemeth every day alike (kri>nei pa~san hJme>ran). Alike is inserted. Lit., judgeth every day; subjects every day to moral scrutiny.
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Be fully persuaded (plhroforei~sqw). Better, Rev., assured. See on most surely believed, Luke 1:1.
Is able (dunatei~). Stronger than du>natai can. The sense is, is mighty. Hence Rev., hath power.

5. Esteemeth every day alike (kri>nei pa~san hJme>ran). Alike is inserted. Lit., judgeth every day; subjects every day to moral scrutiny.

Be fully persuaded (plhroforei~sqw). Better, Rev., assured. See on most surely believed, Luke 1:1.

In his own mind. "As a boat may pursue its course uninjured either in a narrow canal or in a spacious lake" (Bengel).

6. He that regardeth not - doth not regard it. Omit.

7. To himself. But unto Christ. See ver. 8. Hence the meaning "a Christian should live for others," so often drawn from these words, is not the teaching of the passage.

9. Might be Lord (kurieu>sh). Lit., might Lord it over. Justifying the term Lord applied to Christ in vers. 6, 8.

10. Why dost thou judge (su kri>neiv). Thou emphatic, in contrast with the Lord. So Rev., "thou, why dost thou Judge?" Referring to the weak brother. Compare
judge as in ver. 4. The servant of another is here called brother.

Judgment seat of Christ (tw|~ bh>mati tou~ Cristou~). The best texts read Qeou~ of God So Rev. For judgment-seat, see on to set his foot on, Acts 7:5.

11. As I live, etc. From Isaiah 45:23. Hebrew: By myself I swear... that to me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear. Septuagint the same, except shall swear
by God.

Shall confess (ejxomologh>setai). Primarily, to acknowledge, confess, or profess from (ejx) the heart. To make a confession to one's honor; thence to praise. So Luke
10:21 (Rev., in margin, praise for thank); Romans 15:9. Here, as Rev. in margin, shall give praise. See on Matthew 11:25.

13. Stumbling-block (pro>skomma). Compare Romans 9:32, 33; 15:20. Ska>ndalon occasion of falling is also rendered stumbling-block in other passages. Some
regard the two as synonymous, others as related to different results in the case of the injured brother. So Godet, who refers stumbling-block to that which results in a
wound, and cause of stumbling to that which causes a fall or sin.

14. I know - am persuaded (oi+da - pe>peismai). "A rare conjunction of words, but fitted here to confirm against ignorance and doubt" (Bengel). For I know, see on
John 2:4. The persuasion is not the result of his own reasoning, but of his fellowship in the Lord Jesus. So Rev, for by the Lord, etc.

Unclean (koino). Lit., common. In the Levitical sense, as opposed to holy or pure. Compare Mark 7:2"With defiled (koinai~v common), that is to say, with unwashen
hands." See Acts 10:14.

15. Be grieved (lupei~tai) The close connection with destroy indicates that the meaning falls short of be destroyed, but is stronger than made to feel pain. It is a hurt to
conscience, which, while not necessarily fatal, may lead to violation or hardening of conscience, and finally to fall. Compare 1 Corinthians 8:9-12.

Meat (brw~ma). A general term for food.

Charitably (kataphn). Lit., according to love. Rev. in love. See on 2 Peter 1:6.

Him (ejkei~non). The pronoun has a strongly defining force, explained by the following phrase.

16. Your good (uJmw~n ton). Referring, most probably, to the liberty of the strong. Others think that the whole Church is addressed, in which case good would refer
to the gospel doctrine. 68

Be evil spoken of (blasfhmei>sqw). See on blasphemy, Mark 7:22. In 1 Corinthians 10:30 it is used of evil-speaking by members of the Church, which favors the
reference of good to the strong.

17. The kingdom of God. See on Luke 6:20 and compare Matthew 3:2. "The heavenly sphere of life in which God's word and Spirit govern, and whose organ on earth
is the Church" (Lange). Not the future, messianic kingdom.

Meat and drink (brw~siv kaisiv). Rev., eating and drinking. Both words, however, occur frequently in the sense of A.V. Meat (brw~ma), that which is eaten, occurs in
ver. 15. The corresponding word for that which is drunk (pw~ma) is not found in the New Testament, though po>ma drink occurs 1 Corinthians 10:4; Hebrews 9:10
and both in classical and New-Testament Greek, po>siv the act of drinking is used also for that which is drunk. See John 6:55. A somewhat similar interchange of
meaning appears in the popular expression, such a thing is good eating; also in the use of living for that by which one lives.

Righteousness (dikaiosu>nh). On its practical, ethical side, as shown in moral rectitude toward men.

Peace (eijrh>nh). Not peace with God, reconciliation, as Romans 5:1, but mutual concord among Christians.

Joy (cara). Common joy, arising out of the prevalence of rectitude and concord in the Church. The whole chapter is concerned with the mutual relations of Christians,
rather than with their relations to God

In the Holy Ghost. Most commentators construe this with joy only. Meyer says it forms one phrase. Compare 1 Thessalonians 1:6 While this may be correct, I see no
objection to construing the words with all these terms. So Godet: "It is this divine guest who, by His presence, produces them in the Church."

19. Things which make for peace (tanhv). Lit. the things of peace. So the next clause, things of edification. See on build you up, Acts 20:32. Edification is upbuilding.

One another (th~v eijv ajllh>louv). The Greek phrase has a defining force which is lost in the translations. Lit., things of edification, that, namely, which is with reference
to one another. The definite article thus points Paul's reference to individuals rather than to the Church as a whole.

20. Destroy (kata>lue). A different word from that In ver. 15. It means to loosen down, and is used of the destruction of buildings. Hence according with edification in
ver. 19. See on Mark 13:2; Acts 5:38.

Work of God. The christian brother, whose christian personality is God's work. See 2 Corinthians 5:17; Ephesians 2:10; James 1:18.
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With offense (diammatov). Against his own conscientious scruple. Lit., through or amidst offense.
20. Destroy (kata>lue). A different word from that In ver. 15. It means to loosen down, and is used of the destruction of buildings. Hence according with edification in
ver. 19. See on Mark 13:2; Acts 5:38.

Work of God. The christian brother, whose christian personality is God's work. See 2 Corinthians 5:17; Ephesians 2:10; James 1:18.

With offense (diammatov). Against his own conscientious scruple. Lit., through or amidst offense.

21. To eat flesh - drink wine. The two points of the weak brother's special scruple. Omit or is offended or is made weak.

22. Hast thou faith (sustin e]ceiv). The best texts insert h{n which. "The faith which thou hast have thou to thyself," etc. So Rev.

Condemneth not himself (kri>nwn). Rev., better, judgeth. Who, in settled conviction of the rightness of his action, subjects himself to no self-judgment after it.

Alloweth (dokima>zei). Rev., approveth. See on 1 Peter 1:7. "Christian practice ought to be out of the sphere of morbid introspection."

23. Faith. In Christ. "So far as it brings with it the moral confidence as to what in general and under given circumstances is the right christian mode of action" (Meyer).

Some authorities insert here the doxology at Romans 16:25-27. According to some, the Epistle to the Romans closed with this chapter. Chapter 16 was a list of
disciples resident at different points on the route, who were to be greeted. Phoebe is first named because Cenchreae would be the first stage. Ephesus would be the
next stage, where Aquila and Priscilla would be found. Romans 15 was a sort of private missive to be communicated to all whom the messengers should visit on the
way. The question seems to be almost wholly due to the mention of Aquila and Priscilla in Romans 16, and to the fact that there is no account of their migration from
Ephesus to Rome, and of an after-migration again to Ephesus (2 Timothy 4:19). But see on Romans 16:14.

Others claim that Romans 1-11, 16. were the original epistle; that Phoebe's journey was delayed, and that, in the interval, news from Rome led Paul to add Romans
12-15.

Others again, that Romans 16 was written from Rome to Ephesus.

Against these theories is the stubborn fact that of the known extant MSS. of Paul (about three hundred) all the MSS. hitherto collated, including all the most important,
give these chapters in the received connection and order, with the exception of the doxology. See on the doxology, Romans 16.

CHAPTER 15

1. Infirmities (ajsqenh>mata) Only here in the New Testament.

8. Of the circumcision. Of those circumcised See on the election, Romans 11:7.

9. It is written. The citations are from Psalms 18:50 compare 2 Samuel 22:50; Deuteronomy 32:43; Psalms 117:1; Isaiah 11:10.

Confess. Rev., give praise. See on Romans 14:11.

Sing (yalw~). See on James 5:13.

10. Rejoice (eujfra>nqhte). Frequently in the New Testament of merry-making. Luke 12:19; 15:23, 24. See on fared sumptuously, Luke 16:19.

12. Root. See on Nazarene, Matthew 2:23. Root is a sprout from the root.

He that shall rise to reign. Rev., that ariseth to reign. Literally from the Septuagint. Ariseth to reign is a paraphrase of the Hebrew stands as banner. Bengel says: "There
is a pleasant contrast: the root is in the lowest place, the banner rises highest, so as to be seen even by the remotest nations."

Shall - hope. So Septuagint, which is a free rendering of the Hebrew seek or resort to.

14. Here the Epilogue of the Epistle begins. Bengel says: "As one street often leads men, leaving a large city, through several gates, so the conclusion of this Epistle is
manifold."

Goodness (ajgaqwsu>nhv). See on Romans 3:12.

To admonish (nouqetei~n). See on Acts 20:31.

15. I have written (e]graya). Rev., I write. The epistolary aorist. See on 1 John 2:13.

The more boldly (tolmhro>teron). Not too boldly, but the more boldly because you are full of goodness.

In some sort (ajporouv). See on Romans 11:25. Rev., in some measure, qualifying I write, and referring to some passage in which he had spoken with especial
plainness; as Romans 6:12, 19; 8:9; 11:17; 14:3, 4, 10, 13, 15, 20, etc.

16. Minister (leitourgo). See on Romans 13:6.

Ministering (iJerourgou~nta). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., ministering as a priest.

Offering up (prosfora). Lit., the bringing to, i.e., to the altar. Compare doeth service, John 16:2.

17. Whereof I may glory (thchsin). Rather, as Rev., my glorying, denoting the act. The ground of glorying would be kau>chma as in Romans 4:2; Galatians 6:4 etc.

Those things which pertain to God (tan). A technical phrase in Jewish liturgical language to denote the functions of worship (Hebrews 2:17; 5:1). According with the
sacerdotal ideas of the previous verse.

19. Signs - wonders.
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Round about (ku>klw|). Not, in a circuitous track to Illyricum, but Jerusalem and the regions round it. For the phrase, see Mark 3:34; 6:6, 36; Luke 9:12; Revelation
4:6. For the facts, Acts 13, 19.
Those things which pertain to God (tan). A technical phrase in Jewish liturgical language to denote the functions of worship (Hebrews 2:17; 5:1). According with the
sacerdotal ideas of the previous verse.

19. Signs - wonders. See on Matthew 11:20.

Round about (ku>klw|). Not, in a circuitous track to Illyricum, but Jerusalem and the regions round it. For the phrase, see Mark 3:34; 6:6, 36; Luke 9:12; Revelation
4:6. For the facts, Acts 13, 19.

Illyricum. Lying between Italy, Germany, Macedonia, and Thrace, bounded by the Adriatic and the Danube. The usual Greek name was Illyris. The name Illyria occurs
in both Greek and Latin. Though the shore was full of fine harbors and the coast-land fertile, Greek civilization never spread on the coast. Dyrrachium or Epidamnus
was almost the only Greek colony, and its history for centuries was a continuous conflict with the barbarous nations. In the time of the Roman Empire the name spread
over all the surrounding districts. In the division between the Eastern and Western Empire it was divided into Illyris Barbara, annexed to the Western Empires and Illyris
Graeca, to the Eastern, including, Greece, Epirus, and Macedonia. The name gradually disappeared, and the country was divided between the states of Bosnia,
Croatia, Servia, Rascia, and Dalmatia. No mention of a visit of Paul occurs in the Acts. It may have taken place in the journey mentioned Acts 20:1-3. 69

Fully preached (peplhrwke>nai). Lit., fulfilled Some explain, have given the Gospel its fall development so that it has reached every quarter.

20. Have I strived (filotimou>menon). The verb means originally to be fond of honor, and hence, from a love of honor, to strive, be ambitious. Compare 2 Corinthians
5:9; 1 Thessalonians 4:11. The correct sense is to prosecute as a point of honor.

Foundation (qeme>lion). See on settle, 1 Peter 5:10.

22. I have been hindered (ejnekopto>mhn). Imperfect tense, denoting continuousness, and implying a succession of hindrances. Rev., was hindered. Hence these many
times.

23. Place (to>pon). Scope, opportunity. So of Esau, Hebrews 12:17. Compare Romans 12:19; Ephesians 4:27.

Many (iJkanw~n). See on worthy, Luke 7:6. The primary meaning is sufficient, and hence comes to be applied to number and quantity; many, enough, as Mark 10:46;
Luke 8:32; Acts 9:23 etc. So, long, of time (Acts 8:11; 27:9). Worthy, i.e., sufficient for an honor or a place (Mark 1:7; Luke 7:6; 1 Corinthians 15:9). Adequate (2
Corinthians 2:16; 3:5). Qualified (2 Timothy 2:2). Here the sense might be expressed by for years enough.

24. Spain. The usual Greek name is Iberia. Paul adopts a modification of the Roman name, Hispania.

In my journey (diaporeuo>menov). Lit., journeying through, or as I pass through.

To be brought on my way (propemfqh~nai). Escorted. See on Acts 15:3.

Filled (ejmplhsqw~). Lit., filled full: satiated. Compare Acts 14:17; Luke 1:53. Rev., satisfied.

26. Contribution (koinwni>an). See on fellowship, Acts 2:42.

Poor saints (ptwcouwn). More literally, and better, the poor of the saints. Rev., among the saints. All the saints were not poor.

27. To minister (leitourgh~sai). See on Romans 13:6. By using this word for priestly service, Paul puts the ministry of almsgiving on the footing of a sacrificial service. It
expresses the worship of giving.

28. Sealed - this fruit. Secured to them the product of the contribution. See on John 3:33; Revelation 22:10.

29. Gospel. Omit, and read blessing of Christ.

30. Strive together (sunagwni>sasqai). The simple verb is used of contending in the games, and implies strenuous effort. Here earnest prayer.

31. Them that do not believe (tw~n ajpeiqou>ntwn). See on Romans 10:21. Better, Rev., them that are disobedient.

32. With you be refreshed (sunanapau>swmai uJmi~n). See on give rest, Matthew 11:28.

CHAPTER 16

1. I commend (suni>sthmi). See on Romans 3:5.

Phoebe. The bearer of the epistle. The word means bright. In classical Greek an epithet of Artemis (Diana) the sister of Phoebus Apollo.

Servant (dia>konon). The word may be either masculine or feminine. Commonly explained as deaconess. The term diako>nissa deaconess is found only in
ecclesiastical Greek. The "Apostolical Constitutions" 70 distinguish deaconesses from widows and virgins, prescribe their duties, and a form for their ordination. Pliny
the younger, about A.D. 104, appears to refer to them in his letter to Trajan, in which he speaks of the torture of two maids who were called minestrae (female
ministers). The office seems to have been confined mainly to widows, though virgins were not absolutely excluded. Their duties were to take care of the sick and poor,
to minister to martyrs and confessors in prison, to instruct catechumens, to assist at the baptism of women, and to exercise a general supervision over the female
church-members. Tryphaena, Tryphosa, and Persis (ver. 12) may have belonged to this class. See on 1 Timothy 5:3-16. 71 Conybeare ("Life and Epistles of St. Paul")
assumes that Phoebe was a widow, on the ground that she could not, according to Greek manners, have been mentioned as acting in the independent manner
described, either if her husband had been living or she had been unmarried. Renan says: "Phoebe carried under the folds of her robe the whole future of Christian
theology."

Cenchrea. More correctly, Cenchreae. Compare Acts 18:18 Corinth, from which the epistle was sent, was situated on an isthmus, and had three ports, Cenchreae on
the east side, and Lechaeum on the west of the isthmus, with Schoenus, a smaller port, also on the eastern side, at the narrowest point of the isthmus. Cenchreae was
nine miles from Corinth. It was a thriving town, commanding a large trade with Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Thessalonica, and the other cities of the Aegean. It
contained temples of Venus, Aesculapius, and Isis. The church there was perhaps a branch of that at Corinth.
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2. Assist (parasth~ti). See on Acts 1:3 It is used as a legal term, of presenting culprits or witnesses in a court of justice. Compare prove, Acts 24:13. From this, and
from the term prosta>tiv succorer, it has been inferred that Phoebe was going to Rome on private legal business (see Conybeare and Howson). This is a mere fancy.
Cenchrea. More correctly, Cenchreae. Compare Acts 18:18 Corinth, from which the epistle was sent, was situated on an isthmus, and had three ports, Cenchreae on
the east side, and Lechaeum on the west of the isthmus, with Schoenus, a smaller port, also on the eastern side, at the narrowest point of the isthmus. Cenchreae was
nine miles from Corinth. It was a thriving town, commanding a large trade with Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Thessalonica, and the other cities of the Aegean. It
contained temples of Venus, Aesculapius, and Isis. The church there was perhaps a branch of that at Corinth.

2. Assist (parasth~ti). See on Acts 1:3 It is used as a legal term, of presenting culprits or witnesses in a court of justice. Compare prove, Acts 24:13. From this, and
from the term prosta>tiv succorer, it has been inferred that Phoebe was going to Rome on private legal business (see Conybeare and Howson). This is a mere fancy.

Succorer (prosta>tiv). Only here in the New Testament. The word means patroness. It may refer to her official duties. The word is an honorable one, and accords with
her official position.

3. Prisca and Aquila. Priscilla is the diminutive of Prisca. See Acts 18:2, 18, 26; 1 Corinthians 16:19; 2 Timothy 4:19. It is argued by some that Aquila and Priscilla
must have been at Ephesus at this time, since they were there when Paul wrote 1 Corinthians 16:19 and again when he wrote 2 Timothy 4:19. "It is strange to find them
settled at Rome with a church in their house between these two dates" (Farrar). But, as Bishop Lightfoot remarks ("Commentary on Philippians," p. 176), "As Rome
was their headquarters, and they had been driven thence by an imperial edict (Acts 18:2), it is natural enough that they should have returned thither as soon as it was
convenient and safe to do so. The year which elapses between the two notices, allows ample time for them to transfer themselves from Ephesus to Rome, and for the
apostle to hear of their return to their old abode." Notice that the name of Priscilla precedes that of her husband. So Acts 18:2. Probably she was the more prominent
of the two in christian activity.

Fellow-workers. In christian labor, as they had been in tent-making.

4. Who (oi[tinev). The double relative, with an explanatory force: seeing that they.

Laid down their own necks (tochlon uJpe>qhkan). Laid down is, literally, placed under (the axe). Whether the expression is literal or figurative, or if literal, when the
incident occurred, cannot be determined.

5. The church that is in their house (th~n kat' oi+kon aujtw~n ejkklhsi>an). The phrase church that is in their (or his) house occurs 1 Corinthians 16:19 of Aquila and
Priscilla; Colossians 4:15 of Nymphas; Philemon 1:2 of Philemon. A similar gathering may be implied in Romans 16:14, 15. Bishop Lightfoot says there is no clear
example of a separate building set apart for christian worship within the limits of the Roman Empire before the third century. The Christian congregations were,
therefore, dependent upon the hospitality of prominent church members who furnished their own houses for this purpose. Hence their places of assembly were not
called temples until late; but houses of God; houses of the churches; houses of prayer.

Numerous guilds or clubs existed at Rome for furnishing proper burial rites to the poor. Extant inscriptions testify to the existence of nearly eighty of these, each
consisting of the members of a different trade or profession, or united in the worship of some deity. The Christians availed themselves of this practice in order to evade
Trajan's edict against clubs, which included their own ordinary assemblies, but which made a special exception in favor of associations consisting of poorer members of
society, who met to contribute to funeral expenses. This led to the use of the catacombs, or of buildings erected over them for this purpose. 72

The expression here denotes, not the whole church, but that portion of it which met at Aquila's house.

Epaenetus. A Greek name, meaning praised. It is, however; impossible to infer the nationality from the name with any certainty, since it was common for the Jews to
have a second name, which they adopted during their residence in heathen countries. Compare John Mark (Acts 12:12); Justus (Acts 1:23); Niger (Acts 13:1); Crispus
(Acts 18:8).

The first fruits of Achaia. The best texts read of Asia. An early convert of the Roman province of Asia. See on Acts 2:9 This is adduced as an argument that this
chapter was addressed to Ephesus. 73

6. Mary (Maria>m Mariam). Westcott and Hort read Mari>an. A Jewish name, the same as Miriam, meaning obstinacy, rebelliousness.

Bestowed labor (ejkopi>asen). See on Luke 5:5.

7. Andronicus and Junia. The latter name may be either masculine or feminine. If the latter, the person was probably the wife of Andronicus. If the former, the name is
to be rendered Junias, as Rev. The following words point to this conclusion.

Kinsmen (suggenei~v). The primary meaning is related by blood; but it is used in the wider sense of fellow-countrymen. So Romans 9:3.

Of note (ejpi>shmoi). A good rendering etymologically, the word meaning, literally, bearing a mark (sh~ma, nota).

Fellow prisoners (sunaicmalw>touv). See on captives, Luke 4:18.

8. Amplias. A contraction of Ampliatus, which is the reading of the best texts.

9. Urbane. The correct reading is Urbanus, city-bred.

Stachys. Meaning an ear of corn.

10. Apelles. It occurs in Horace as the name of a Jew, under the form Apella ("Satire," 1. 5, 100).

Them which are of Aristobulus' household. Possibly household slaves. They might have borne the name of Aristobulus even if they had passed into the service of
another master, since household slaves thus transferred, continued to bear the name of their former proprietor. Lightfoot thinks that this Aristobulus may have been the
grandson of Herod the Great, who was still living in the time of Claudius.

11. Narcissus. This name was borne by a distinguished freedman, who was secretary of letters to Claudius. Juvenal alludes to his wealth and his influence over
Claudius, and says that Messalina, the wife of Claudius, was put to death by his order ("Satire," xiv., 330). His household slaves, passing into the hands of the emperor
or of some other master, would continue to bear his name.

12. Tryphaena and Tryphosa. From trufa>w to live luxuriously. See on riot, 2 Peter 2:13. Perhaps sisters. Farrar says they are slave-names.

13. Rufus. Meaning
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And mine. Delicately intimating her maternal care for him.
or of some other master, would continue to bear his name.

12. Tryphaena and Tryphosa. From trufa>w to live luxuriously. See on riot, 2 Peter 2:13. Perhaps sisters. Farrar says they are slave-names.

13. Rufus. Meaning red. Possibly the son of Simon of Cyrene, Mark 15:21. Mark probably wrote in Rome.

And mine. Delicately intimating her maternal care for him.

14. Hermes. Or Hermas. A common slave-name, a contraction of several different names, as Hermagoras, Hermogenes, etc. 74

16. Kiss. Compare 1 Corinthians 16:20; 2 Corinthians 13:12; 1 Thessalonians 5:26; 1 Peter 5:14.

17. Divisions - offenses (taav - tandala) The article with each noun points to some well-known disturbances The former noun occurs only in Paul.

Avoid (ejkkli>nate). Better, as Rev, turn aside. Not only keep out of their way, but remove from it if you fall in with them.

18. Belly. Compare Philippians 3:19.

Good words (crhstologi>av). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., good speaking. The compounded adjective crhs to>v is used rather in its secondary sense of mild,
pleasant So Rev., smooth speech.

Deceive (ejxapatw~sin) Better, as Rev., beguile. It is not merely making a false impression, but practically leading astray

Simple (ajka>kwn). Only here and Hebrews 7:26. Lit., not evil. Rev., innocent. Bengel says: "An indifferent word. They are called so who are merely without positive
wickedness, when they ought to abound also in prudence, and to guard against other men's wickedness."

19. Simple (ajkerai>ouv). See on harmless, Matthew 10:16.

20. Shall bruise (suntri>yei). See on Mark 5:4; Luke 9:39.

21. Lucius and Jason - Sosipater. For Lucius, see on Acts 13:1. Jason, possibly the Jason of Acts 17:5. Sosipater, possibly the Sopater of Acts 20:4. Both names
were common.

22. I Tertius. Paul's amanuensis. See on Galatians 6:11.

Wrote (gra>yav). Better Rev., write. The epistolary aorist. See on 1 John 2:13. Godet remarks upon Paul's exquisite courtesy in leaving Tertius to salute in his own
name. To dictate to him his own salutation would be to treat him as a machine.

23. Gaius. See Acts 19:29; 20:4; 1 Corinthians 1:14. Possibly the same in all three references.

Chamberlain (oijkono>mov). See on Luke 16:1. The word appears in the New Testament in two senses: 1. The slave who was employed to give the other slaves their
rations. So Luke 7:42. 2. The land-steward, as Luke 16:1. Probably here the administrator of the city lands.

25. This is the only epistle of Paul which closes with a doxology. The doxology (see on Romans 14:23) stands at the close of this chapter in most of the very oldest
MSS., and in the Peshito or Syriac and Vulgate versions. In a very few MSS. it is omitted or erased by a later hand. In many MSS. including most of the cursives, it is
found at the close of ch. 14, and in a very few, at the close of both 14 and 16. 75 Weiss ("Introduction to the New Testament") says that the attempt to prove its un-
Pauline character has only been the result of extreme ingenuity.

Stablish (sthri>xai). See on 1 Peter 5:10

Mystery. See on Romans 11:25. The divine plan of redemption. The particular mystery of the conversion of the Gentiles, which is emphasized in Ephesians 3:3-9;
Colossians 1:26 is included, but the reference is not to be limited to this.

Kept secret (sesighme>nou). Rev., more accurately, kept in silence. In Ephesians 3:9; Colossians 1:26ajpokekrumme>non hidden away, is used.

27. To whom. God, who, through Christ, appears as "the only wise."

THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS
CHAPTER 1

1. Called to be an apostle. See on Romans 1:1. Compare 1 Timothy 1:1. Not distinguishing him from other apostles. Compare Matthew 4:21; John 6:70; but Paul was
called no less directly than these by Jesus Christ. Galatians 1:12-16. John does not use the word apostle, but gives the idea, John 13:18.

2. Corinth. The Corinth of this period owed the beginning of its prosperity to Julius Caesar, who, a hundred years after its destruction by Mummius (B.C. 146), rebuilt
and peopled it with a colony of veterans and freedmen. It was situated on the isthmus which divided Northern Greece from the Peloponnesus. It had three harbors,
Cenchreae and Schoenus on the east, and Lechaeumn on the west. The isthmus, forming the only line of march for an invading or retreating army, was of the greatest
military importance. It was known as "the eye of Greece." By Pindar it was called "the bridge of the sea;" by Xenophon, "the gate of the Peloponnesus;" and by Strabo,
"the acropolis of Greece." In more modern times it was known as "the Gibraltar of Greece." Hence, at least as early as the march of Xerxes into Greece, it was crossed
by a wall, which, in later times, became a massive and important fortification, especially in the decline of the Roman Empire. Justinian fortified it with an hundred and
fifty towers. The citadel rose two thousand feet above the sea-level, on a rock with precipitous sides. In the days of the Achaean league it was called one of the
"fetters" of Greece. "It runs out boldly from the surging mountain chains of the Peninsula, like an outpost or sentry, guarding the approach from the North. In days when
news was transmitted by fire-signals, 76 we can imagine how all the southern country must have depended on the watch upon the rock of Corinth" (Mahaffy, "Rambles
and Studies in Greece").

At its narrowest part the isthmus was crossed by a level track called the diolcus, over which vessels were dragged on rollers from one port to the other. This was in
constant use, because seamen were thus enabled to avoid sailing round the dangerous promontory of Malea, the southern extremity of the Peloponnesus. A canal was
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projected  and by Nero, but was abandoned. The common title of the city in the poets was bimaris, "the city of the two seas."

The commercial position of Corinth was, therefore, most important, communicating with the eastern and the western world, with the north and the south. The isthmus
and Studies in Greece").

At its narrowest part the isthmus was crossed by a level track called the diolcus, over which vessels were dragged on rollers from one port to the other. This was in
constant use, because seamen were thus enabled to avoid sailing round the dangerous promontory of Malea, the southern extremity of the Peloponnesus. A canal was
projected and by Nero, but was abandoned. The common title of the city in the poets was bimaris, "the city of the two seas."

The commercial position of Corinth was, therefore, most important, communicating with the eastern and the western world, with the north and the south. The isthmus
was one of the four principal points for the celebration of the Grecian games; and in Paul's day great numbers flocked to these contests from all parts of the
Mediterranean.

On the restoration of the city by Julius Caesar, both Greek and Jewish merchants settled in Corinth in such numbers as probably to outnumber the Romans. In Paul's
time it was distinctively a commercial center, marked by wealth and luxury. "It was the 'Vanity Fair' of the Roman Empire, at once the London and the Paris of the first
century after Christ" (Farrar). It was conspicuous for its immorality. To "corinthianize" was the term for reckless debauchery. Juvenal sarcastically alludes to it as
"perfumed Corinth;" and Martial pictures an effeminate fellow boasting of being a Corinthian citizen. The temple of Aphrodite (Venus) employed a thousand ministers.
Drunkenness rivaled licentiousness, and Corinthians, when introduced on the stage, were commonly represented as drunk. Paul's impression of its profligacy may be
seen in his description of heathenism in the first of Romans, and in his stern words concerning sensual sin in the two Corinthian Epistles. "Politically Roman, socially
Greek, religiously it was Roman, Greek, Oriental, all in one. When, therefore, the apostle preached to the Corinthians, the Gospel spoke to the whole world and to the
living present" (Edwards).

Called to be saints. See on Romans 1:7.

Call upon the name (ejpikaloume>noiv to). Compare Romans 10:12; Acts 2:21. The formula is from the Septuagint. See Zechariah 13:9; Genesis 12:8; 13:4; Psalms
115:17. It is used of worship, and here implies prayer to Christ. The first christian prayer recorded as heard by Saul of Tarsus, was Stephen's prayer to Christ, Acts
7:59. The name of Christ occurs nine times in the first nine verses of this epistle.

Theirs and ours. A.V. and Rev. connect with Jesus Christ our Lord. Better with in every place. Every place in the province where Christians are is our place also. The
expression emphasizes the position of Paul as the founder and apostolic head of Christianity in Corinth and in all Achaia.

3. Grace - peace. Grace is the Greek salutation, peace the Jewish. Both in the spiritual sense. Compare Numbers 6:25, 26. This form of salutation is common to all
Paul's epistles to the churches. In Timothy and Titus, mercy is added. James alone has the ordinary conventional salutation, cai>rein rejoice, hail, greeting.

4. I thank (eujcaristw~). Found in the Gospels, Acts, and Revelation, but most frequently in Paul.

My God. Some very high authorities omit. The pronoun implies close personal relationship. Compare Acts 27:23; Philippians 1:3; 3:8.

By Christ Jesus (ejn). Better, as Rev., in; in fellowship with. The element or sphere in which the grace is manifested.

5. Ye are enriched (ejplouti>sqhte). Rev. more literally, "were enriched." Compare Colossians 3:16; and see on Romans 2:4.

Utterance - knowledge (lo>gw| - gnw>sei). The two words are found together, 1 Corinthians 12:8; 2 Corinthians 11:6; 8:7. For knowledge, see on Romans 11:33.
Utterance, aptitude in speech. Paul gives thanks for speech as a means of testifying for Christ. "The saints have never been silent" (Pascal).

6. Witness of Christ (martu>rion tou~ Cristou~). Testimony concerning Christ. See on John 1:7. Compare Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:8.

7. Come behind (uJsterei~sqai). See on Luke 15:14 and compare Romans 3:23. Contrast with were enriched.

Gift (cari>smati). See on Romans 1:11. Its prevailing sense in this epistle is that of special spiritual endowments, such as tongues, prophecy, etc. Here of spiritual
blessings generally.

Waiting (ajpekdecome>nouv). See on Romans 8:19. Denoting assiduous waiting. Dr. Thayer compares the phrase wait it out (ejk).

Revelation (ajpoka>luyin). See on Revelation 1:1.

8. Confirm. Compare ver. 6.

Unto the end. Of the present aeon or period. See on end of the world, Matthew 28:20.

Blameless (ajnegklh>touv). Used by Paul only. In apposition with you. Rev., unreprovable. The kindred verb ejgkale>w occurs only in Acts and Romans. See on
Romans 8:33. It means to accuse publicly, but not necessarily before a tribunal. See Acts 23:28, 29; 26:2, 7. Hence the word here points to appearance at God's bar.

9. Faithful (pisto). Emphatic, and therefore first in the sentence. See on 1 John 1:9; Revelation 1:5; 3:14. Compare 2 Timothy 2:13.

Ye were called (ejklh>qhte). See on Romans 4:17.

Fellowship (koinwni>an). See on 1 John 1:3; Acts 2:42; Luke 5:10.

10. I beseech (parakalw~). See on consolation, Luke 6:24. The word occurs more than one hundred times in the New Testament.

Divisions (sci>smata). See on John 10:19. In classical Greek used only of actual rents in material. So in Matthew 9:16; Mark 2:21. In the sense of discord, see John
7:43; 9:16; 10:19. Here, faction, for which the classical word is sta>siv: division within the christian community. The divisions of the Corinthian church arose on
questions of marriage and food (1 Corinthians 7:3, 5, 12); on eating, meat offered to idols (1 Corinthians 8:7; 10:20); on the comparative value of spiritual
endowments, such as speaking with "tongues" 79 ; on the privileges and demeanor of women in the assemblies for worship (1 Corinthians 11:5-15); on the relations of
the rich and the poor in the agape or love-feasts (1 Corinthians 11:17-22); and on the prerogatives of the different christian teachers (1 Corinthians 1:12, 13; 3:3-22).

Perfectly joined together (kathrtisme>noi). Rev., perfected together. See on Matthew 21:16; Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10. Carrying on the metaphor in divisions. Not of
individual and absolute perfection, but of perfection in the unity of the Church.

Mind (noi). (c)
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Judgment (gnw>mh|). See on Revelation 17:13. The distinction between mind and judgment is not between theoretical and practical, since nou~v mind, includes the
practical reason, while gnw>mh judgment, has a theoretical side. Rather between understanding and opinion; nou~v regarding the thing from the side of the subject,
Perfectly joined together (kathrtisme>noi). Rev., perfected together. See on Matthew 21:16; Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10. Carrying on the metaphor in divisions. Not of
individual and absolute perfection, but of perfection in the unity of the Church.

Mind (noi). See on Romans 7:23.

Judgment (gnw>mh|). See on Revelation 17:13. The distinction between mind and judgment is not between theoretical and practical, since nou~v mind, includes the
practical reason, while gnw>mh judgment, has a theoretical side. Rather between understanding and opinion; nou~v regarding the thing from the side of the subject,
gnw>mh from the side of the object. Being in the same realm of thought, they would judge questions from the same christian stand-point, and formulate their judgment
accordingly.

11. It hath been declared (ejdhlw>qh). Rev., signified, which is hardly strong enough. The word means to make clear, or manifest (dh~lov). Compare 1 Corinthians
3:13. It may imply that Paul was reluctant to believe the reports, but was convinced by unimpeachable testimony.

Of the household of Chloe (tw~n Clo>hv). See on Romans 16:10 for the form of expression. The persons may have been slaves who had come to Ephesus on
business for their mistress, or members of her family. Chloe means tender verdure, and was an epithet of Demeter (Ceres), the goddess of agriculture and rural life. It is
uncertain whether she belonged to the Corinthian or to the Ephesian church.

Contentions (e]ridev). Socrates in Plato's "Republic" distinguishes between disputing (ejri>zein) and discussing (diale>gesqai), and identifies contention (e]riv) with
gainsaying (ajntilogi>a), "Republic," v., 454. Compare Titus 3:9.

12. Now this I say (le>gw de). A familiar classical formula: What I mean is this. Rev., Now this I mean. This usually refers to what follows. Compare Galatians 3:17;
Ephesians 4:17.

I am of Paul and I of Apollos. The repeated de and, expresses the opposition between the respective parties. The followers of Apollos preferred his more philosophical
and rhetorical preaching to the simpler and more direct utterances of Paul. Others ranged themselves under the name of Peter.

Cephas. Aramaic for Pe>trov Peter. See on John 1:42. It is Paul's usual name for Peter, Pe>trov occurring only Galatians 2:7, 8. Peter would be the rallying-point for
the Judaizing Christians, who claimed him as the apostle of the circumcision. The state of the Corinthian church offered the most favorable ground for Paul's Jewish-
Christian adversaries, who took advantage of the reaction created by the looser views and practice of Gentile Christians, and by the differences of opinion on important
questions, to press the necessity of legal regulation, and of ceremonial observances in non-essentials.

Of Christ. Many modern authorities hold that Paul thus designates a fourth and quite distinct party. This view rests mainly on the form of statement in this verse, and has
no support in the epistle. The peculiar characteristics of this party, if it were such, can only be conjectured. It seems more probable that those who were "of Christ"
belonged to the party of Peter: that they were native Jews, coming from abroad with letters of recommendation to Corinth, representing themselves as ministers and
apostles of Christ, and using His name as the watchword under which they could most successfully prosecute their opposition to Paul and the gospel which he
preached. The allusion in this verse would therefore link itself with those in the tenth and eleventh chapters of the second epistle. 77

13. Is Christ divided? (meme>ristai oJ Cristo>v). Some of the best expositors render as an assertion. Christ has been divided by your controversies. He is broken up
into different party Christs. This gives a perfectly good and forcible sense, and is favored by the absence of the interrogative particle mh, which introduces the next
clause. 78 Divided: so portioned up that one party may claim Him more than another. Christ has the article. See on Matthew 1:1.

Was Paul crucified for you? (mhqh uJpe). A negative answer is implied. Paul surely was not, etc. For is uJpe>r on behalf of, not peri> on account of, as some texts.

In the name (eijv to). Rev., correctly, Into the name. See on Matthew 28:19. Of Paul as the name of him whom you were to confess. The order of the original is: Was it
into the name of Paul that ye were baptized?

15. l had baptized (ejba>ptisa). The correct reading is ejbapti>sqhte ye were baptized. So Rev. Paul's commission contains no mention of baptism. Compare Acts
9:15 with Matthew 28:15. From his peculiar position as the inaugurator of a second epoch of Christianity, many would be tempted to regard him as the real founder of
the Church, and to boast of having been baptized into his name. "No outward initiation of converts entered into his ministry" (Edwards).

16. And I baptized also. Another exceptional case occurs to him which he conscientiously adds. The de and has a slightly corrective force.

17. Should be made of none effect (kenwqh~|). Lit., emptied. Rev., made void. Compare is made void, Romans 4:14 and the kindred adjective keno vain, 1
Corinthians 15:14. The nucleus of the apostolic preaching was a fact - Christ crucified. To preach it as a philosophic system would be to empty it of its saving power, a
truth which finds abundant and lamentable illustration in the history of the Church.

18. The word of the cross (oJ lo>gov oj tou~ staurou~). Lit., the word, that, namely, of the cross. The second article is definitive and emphatic. The word of which the
substance and purport is the cross.

To them that perish (toi~v ajpollume>noiv). Lit., that are perishing. So Rev. The present participle denotes process: they who are on the way to destruction. Compare
2 Corinthians 2:15.

Foolishness (mwri>a). Only in this epistle. See on have lost his savor, Matthew 5:13.

Which are saved (toi~v swzome>noiv). Rev., being saved: in process of salvation.

19. I will destroy, etc. Cited literally from the Septuagint, Isaiah 29:14 except that the Septuagint has kru>yw I will conceal, instead of I will reject. The Hebrew reads:
"The wisdom of its (Judah's) wise men shall perish, and the sagacity of its sagacious men shall hide itself."

Wisdom - prudence (sofi>an - su>nesin). The two words are often found together, as Exodus 31:3; Deuteronomy 4:6; Colossians 1:9. Compare sofoi wise and
prudent, Matthew 11:25. For the distinction, see, as to sofi>a wisdom, on Romans 11:33; as to su>nesiv prudence, on Mark 12:33; Luke 2:47. Wisdom is the more
general; mental excellence in its highest and fullest sense. Prudence is the special application of wisdom; its critical adjustment to particular cases.

Will bring to nothing (ajqeth>sw). See on Luke 7:30. Originally, to make disestablished (a]qeton) something which is established or prescribed (qeto>n). Hence to
nullify, make void, frustrate, and, in a milder sense, to despise or reject, as Galatians 2:21. The stronger sense is better here, so that Rev., reject is not an improvement
on the A.V. The American revisers render: And the discernment of the discerning will I bring to nought.
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20. Scribe (grammateu>v). Always in the New Testament in the Jewish sense, an interpreter of the law, except Acts 19:35the town-clerk.

Disputer (suzhthth). Only here. Compare the kindred verb suzhte>w to question with, Mark 1:27; Luke 22:23; Acts 6:9; and suzh>thsiv disputation, Acts 15:2, 7.
Will bring to nothing (ajqeth>sw). See on Luke 7:30. Originally, to make disestablished (a]qeton) something which is established or prescribed (qeto>n). Hence to
nullify, make void, frustrate, and, in a milder sense, to despise or reject, as Galatians 2:21. The stronger sense is better here, so that Rev., reject is not an improvement
on the A.V. The American revisers render: And the discernment of the discerning will I bring to nought.

20. Scribe (grammateu>v). Always in the New Testament in the Jewish sense, an interpreter of the law, except Acts 19:35the town-clerk.

Disputer (suzhthth). Only here. Compare the kindred verb suzhte>w to question with, Mark 1:27; Luke 22:23; Acts 6:9; and suzh>thsiv disputation, Acts 15:2, 7.
Referring to Grecian sophistical reasoners, while scribe refers to rabbinical hair-splitters.

World (aijw~nov). See on John 1:9. More correctly, age or period.

Made foolish (ejmw>ranen). Proved it to be practical folly; stupefied it. Compare Romans 1:22. Possibly with a latent suggestion of the judicial power of God to make
it foolish.

21. After that (ejpeidh). Rev., correctly, seeing that.

By wisdom (diaav). Better, as Rev., giving the force of the article, "through its wisdom."

Preaching (khru>gmatov). Not the act, but the substance of preaching. Compare ver. 23.

To save (sw~sai). The word was technically used in the Old Testament of deliverance at the Messiah's coming; of salvation from the penalties of the messianic
judgment, or from the evils which obstruct the messianic deliverance. See Joel 2:32; Matthew 1:21; compare Acts 2:40. Paul uses it in the ethical sense, to make one a
partaker of the salvation which is through Christ. Edwards calls attention to the foregleam of this christian conception of the word in the closing paragraph of Plato's
"Republic:" "And thus, Glaucon, the tale has been saved, and has not perished, and will save (sw>seien) us if we are obedient to the word spoken, and we shall pass
safely over the river of forgetfulness and our soul will not be defiled."

22. The Jews. Omit the article. Among the Jews many had become Christians.

Require (aijtou~sin). Rev., ask. But it is questionable whether the A.V. is not preferable. The word sometimes takes the sense of demand, as Luke 12:48; 1 Peter 3:15;
and this sense accords well with the haughty attitude of the Jews, demanding of all apostolic religions their proofs and credentials. See Matthew 12:38; 16:1; John 6:30.

Greeks. See on Acts 6:1.

Seek after (zhtou~sin). Appropriate to the Greeks in contrast with the Jews. The Jews claimed to possess the truth: the Greeks were seekers, speculators (compare
Acts 17:23) after what they called by the general name of wisdom.

Christ crucified (Cristonon). Not the crucified Christ, but Christ as crucified, not a sign-shower nor a philosopher; and consequently a scandal to the Jew and folly to
the Gentile.

Unto the Greeks (%Ellhsi). The correct reading is e]qnesin to the Gentiles. So Rev. Though %Ellhnev Greeks, is equivalent to Gentiles in the New Testament when
used in antithesis to Jews, yet in this passage Paul seems to have in mind the Greeks as representing gentile wisdom and culture.

25. The foolishness (to). Lit., the foolish thing. More specific than the abstract mwri>a foolishness (vers. 18, 21), and pointing to the fact of Christ crucified.

26. Calling (klh~sin). Not condition of life, but your calling by God; not depending on wisdom, power, or lineage.

Noble (eujgenei~v). Of high birth. So originally, though as Greece became democratic, it came to signify merely the better sort of freemen. Plato applies it to the
children of native Athenians ("Menexenus," 237). Aeschylus makes Clytaemnestra say to the captive Cassandra that if slavery must befall one there is an advantage in
having masters of ancient family property instead of those who have become unexpectedly rich ("Agamemnon," 1010).

27. Hath chosen. The threefold repetition of the word emphasizes the deliberate and free action of God's gracious will.

28. Base (wjgenh~). Of no family. The reverse of eujgenei~v noble.

Despised (ejxouqenhme>na). Lit., set at nought. Not merely despised, but expressly branded with contempt. See Luke 23:11.

30. Wisdom and righteousness and sanctification and redemption. The last three terms illustrate and exemplify the first - wisdom. The wisdom impersonated in Christ
manifests itself as righteousness, sanctification, and redemption. 79 For dikaiosu>nh righteousness, see on Romans 1:17. For aJgiasmo>v sanctification, on Romans
6:19. For ajpolu>trwsiv redemption, Romans 3:24.

31. He that glorieth, etc. From Jeremiah 9:23, 24 abridged after the Septuagint.

CHAPTER 2

1. With excellency (kaq uJperoch). Lit., according to elevation or superiority. The noun occurs only here and 1 Timothy 2:2 where it is rendered authority. The phrase
expresses the mode of his preaching. For similar adverbial phrases, see kaq uJperbolh>n exceedingly or according to excess, Romans 8:13; katatov mightily or
according to might, Acts 19:20. Construe with declaring.

Declaring (katagge>llwn). Rev., proclaiming. See on 1 John 1:5; Acts 17:23. Authoritative proclamation is implied. The word is found only in the Acts and in Paul.

Testimony (martu>rion). Some of the best texts read musth>rion mystery. So Rev. See on Romans 11:25.

2. Crucified. Emphatic. That which would be the main stumbling-block to the Corinthians he would emphasize.

3. I was with you (ejgeno>mhn pro). I was is rather I became. I fell into a state of weakness, etc., after I had come among you. With you, i.e., in intercourse with. See
on with God, John 1:1. The implication is that his condition grew out of the circumstances in which he found himself in Corinth.
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4. In demonstration (ejn ajpodei>xei). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., a showing forth.
2. Crucified. Emphatic. That which would be the main stumbling-block to the Corinthians he would emphasize.

3. I was with you (ejgeno>mhn pro). I was is rather I became. I fell into a state of weakness, etc., after I had come among you. With you, i.e., in intercourse with. See
on with God, John 1:1. The implication is that his condition grew out of the circumstances in which he found himself in Corinth.

4. In demonstration (ejn ajpodei>xei). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., a showing forth.

6. Wisdom. Emphatic. Lest his depreciation of worldly wisdom should expose him and his companions to the charge of not preaching wisdom at all, he shows that they
do preach wisdom, though not of a worldly kind, among matured Christians.

Them that are perfect (toi~v telei>oiv). American Rev., them that are full-grown. Paul's term for matured Christians. See Ephesians 4:13 where a perfect (te>leion) man
is contrasted with children (nh>pioi, ver. 14). So 1 Corinthians 14:20: "In malice children, in understanding men (lit., perfect);" Philippians 3:15. "This wisdom is the
Christian analogue to philosophy in the ordinary sense of the word" (Meyer), and the perfect to whom he delivered it would recognize it as such.

That come to nought (katargoume>nwn). The A.V. states a general proposition, but the Greek present participle a fact in process of accomplishment: which are coming
to nought. So Rev.

7. In a mystery. Connect with we speak. See on Matthew 13:11; Romans 11:25. 80 The in (ejn) has a kind of instrumental force: by means of a mystery; i.e., by
delivering a doctrine hidden from the human understanding and revealed to us by God.

8. Lord of glory. The Lord whose attribute is glory. Compare Psalms 29:1; Acts 7:2; Ephesians 1:17; James 2:1.

9. Eye hath not seen, etc. From Isaiah 64:4 freely rendered by Septuagint. The Hebrew reads: "From of old men have not heard, not perceived with the ear, eye has
not seen a God beside Thee who does (gloriously) for him who waits on Him." Septuagint, "From of old we have not heard, nor have our eyes seen a God beside
Thee, and Thy works which Thou wilt do for those who wait for mercy." Paul takes only the general idea from the Old-Testament passage. The words are not to be
limited to future blessings in heaven. They are true of the present.

Have entered (ajne>bh). Lit., went up. See on Acts 7:23. Compare Daniel 2:29 Sept.

Heart (kardi>an). See on Romans 1:21.

10. Searcheth (ejreuna~). See on John 5:39. Not, searcheth in order to discover; but of the ever active, accurate, careful sounding of the depths of God by the Spirit.

11. Spirit (pneu~ma). See on Romans 8:4. The things of God can be recognized only by the highest element of the human personality. They have not entered into the
heart (kardi>a, see on Romans 1:21), but into the spirit, which is the highest and principal point of contact with the Spirit of God.

12. The spirit of the world (tosmou). For this use of pneu~ma, see on Romans 8:4 under 7. Ko>smov world, is used with the ethical sense. See on John 1:9 under 4, e,
The phrase means the principle of evil which animates the unregenerate world; not the personal spirit of evil or Satan, since Paul does not use pneu~ma spirit, elsewhere
in the personal sense of an evil spirit. See note on Ephesians 2:2.

Of God (ejk tou~ Qeou~). Lit., from God: proceeding forth from Him. "God in us reveals God in our nature" (Edwards).

13. Not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth. Lit., not in the taught words of human wisdom. Compare Plato: "Through love all the intercourse and speech of
God with man, whether awake or asleep, is carried on. The wisdom which understands this is spiritual; all other wisdom, such as that of arts and handicrafts, is mean
and vulgar" ("Symposium," 203).

Which the Spirit teacheth (ejn didaktoi~v pneu>matov). Lit., in the taught (words) of the Spirit. Taught; not mechanically uttered, but communicated by a living Spirit.

Comparing spiritual things with spiritual (pneumatikoi~v pneumatikanontev). Notice the paronomasia. See on Romans 1:29, 31. The dispute on this verse arises over
the meanings of sugkri>nontev, A.V., comparing, and pneumatikoi~v spiritual. As to the latter, whether the reference is to spiritual men, things, or words; as to the
former, whether the meaning is adapting, interpreting, proving, or comparing. The principal interpretations are: adapting spiritual words to spiritual things; adapting
spiritual things to spiritual men; interpreting spiritual things to spiritual men; interpreting spiritual things by spiritual words. Sugkri>nontev occurs only here and 2
Corinthians 10:12 where the meaning is clearly compare. In classical Greek the original meaning is to compound, and later, to compare, as in Aristotle and Plutarch,
and to interpret, used of dreams, and mainly in Septuagint. See Genesis 40:8. The most satisfactory interpretation is combining spiritual things with spiritual words. After
speaking of spiritual things (vers. 11, 12, 13), Paul now speaks of the forms in which they are conveyed - spiritual forms or words answering to spiritual matters, and
says, we combine spiritual things with spiritual forms of expression. This would not be the case if we uttered the revelations of the Spirit in the speech of human wisdom.
81

14. The natural man (yuciko). See on Romans 11:4 on the distinction between yuch> soul, life, and pneu~ma spirit. The contrast is between a man governed by the
divine Spirit and one from whom that Spirit is absent. But yuciko natural, is not equivalent to sarkiko>v fleshy. Paul is speaking of natural as contrasted with spiritual
cognition applied to spiritual truth, and therefore of the yuch> soul, as the organ of human cognition, contrasted with the pneu~ma spirit, as the organ of spiritual
cognition. The man, therefore, whose cognition of truth depends solely upon his natural insight is yuciko>v natural, as contrasted with the spiritual man (pneumatiko>v)
to whom divine insight is imparted. In other words, the organ employed in the apprehension of spiritual truth characterizes the man. Paul therefore "characterizes the
man who is not yet capable of understanding divine wisdom as yuciko>v, i.e., as one who possesses in his yuch> soul, simply the organ of purely human cognition, but
has not yet the organ of religious cognition in the pneu~ma spirit" (Dickson). 82 It is perhaps impossible to find an English word which will accurately render yuciko>v.
Psychic is simply the Greek transcribed. We can do no better than hold by the A.V. natural. 83

Receiveth not (ouj de>cetai). Not, does not understand, but does not admit them into his heart; thus, according to New Testament usage, when the word is used in
connection with teaching. See Luke 8:13; Acts 8:14; 11:1; 1 Thessalonians 1:6; James 1:21.

Are foolishness. Not merely seem. To him they are.

Neither can he know (kainatai gnw~nai). Rev., more strictly, and he cannot know. "It is an utter perversion of such statements to maintain that there is in the natural
man any organic, constitutional incapacity of spiritual perception requiring to be created in them by the Holy Spirit.... The uniform teaching of Scripture is that the
change effected in regeneration is a purely moral and spiritual one" (Brown).

Discerned (ajnakri>netai). Rev., judged. Used only by Luke and Paul, and by the latter in this epistle only. By Luke, mostly of judicial examination: Luke 23:14; Acts
4:9; 12:19; 24:8;
 Copyright        28:18. Of examining
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                               Infobase Media    Corp. Acts 17:11 but with the sense of proving or coming to a judgment on. The fundamental idea ofPage     the word
                                                                                                                                                                   71is/ 567
examination, scrutiny, following up (ajna>) a series of objects or particulars in order to distinguish (kri>nw). This is its almost universal meaning in classical Greek. At
Athens it was used technically in two senses: to examine magistrates with a view to proving their qualifications; and to examine persons concerned in a suit, so as to
prepare the matter for trial, as a grand jury. The meaning judged is, at best, inferential, and the Rev. inserts examined in the margin. Bishop Lightfoot says: "Anakri>nein
change effected in regeneration is a purely moral and spiritual one" (Brown).

Discerned (ajnakri>netai). Rev., judged. Used only by Luke and Paul, and by the latter in this epistle only. By Luke, mostly of judicial examination: Luke 23:14; Acts
4:9; 12:19; 24:8; 28:18. Of examining the Scriptures, Acts 17:11 but with the sense of proving or coming to a judgment on. The fundamental idea of the word is
examination, scrutiny, following up (ajna>) a series of objects or particulars in order to distinguish (kri>nw). This is its almost universal meaning in classical Greek. At
Athens it was used technically in two senses: to examine magistrates with a view to proving their qualifications; and to examine persons concerned in a suit, so as to
prepare the matter for trial, as a grand jury. The meaning judged is, at best, inferential, and the Rev. inserts examined in the margin. Bishop Lightfoot says: "Anakri>nein
is neither to judge nor to discern; but to examine, investigate, inquire into, question, as it is rightly translated, 1 Corinthians 9:3; 10:25, 27. The apostle condemns all
these impatient human praejudicia which anticipate the final judgment, reserving his case for the great tribunal, where at length all the evidence will be forthcoming and a
satisfactory verdict can be given. Meanwhile the process of gathering evidence has begun; an ajna>krisiv investigation is indeed being held, not, however, by these self-
appointed magistrates, but by one who alone has the authority to institute the inquiry, and the ability to sift the facts" ("On a Fresh Revision of the New Testament").
See, further, on ch. 4:3, 4.

16. Mind (nou~n). See on Romans 7:23. The understanding of the Lord. The divine counsels or purposes which are the results of the divine thought. See on Romans
11:34.

Instruct (sumbiba>sei). See on proving, Acts 9:22.

CHAPTER 3

1. Carnal (sarki>noiv). Made of flesh. See on Romans 7:14, and on flesh, Romans 7:5.

Babes (nhpi>oiv). From nh not, and e]pov a word. Strictly, non-speakers. Compare the Latin infans. Strongly contrasted with perfect; see on 1 Corinthians 2:6.

2. I fed (ejpo>tisa). Lit., I gave you to drink. An instance of the rhetorical figure zeugma, by which one verb is attached to two nouns, of which it only suits the meaning
of one, but suggests a verb suitable for the other. Thus "gave to drink" is applied to meat as well as to milk. For another illustration see hindering (A.V. and Rev.,
forbidding), 1 Timothy 4:3.

3. Carnal (sarkikoi>). Here the milder word is used (see ver. 1), having the nature of flesh. In ver. 1, Paul would say that he was compelled to address the Corinthians
as unspiritual, made of flesh. Here he says that though they have received the Spirit in some measure, they are yet under the influence of the flesh.

4. Another (e[terov). See on Matthew 6:24. Not merely another, numerically, but another of different affinities and prepossessions.

Carnal. The best texts read a]nqrwpoi men. Are ye not mere men?

But ministers. Omit but, and place the interrogations after Paul and Apollos, respectively, as Rev. For ministers see on Matthew 20:26; Mark 9:35. Servants, not heads
of parties.

6. Planted - watered - gave the increase (ejfu>teusa - ejpo>tisen - hu]xanen). The first two verbs are in the aorist tense, marking definite acts; the third is in the
imperfect, marking the continued gracious agency of God, and possibly the simultaneousness of His work with that of the two preachers. God was giving the increase
while we planted and watered. There is a parallel in the simultaneous work of Satan with that of the preachers of the word as indicated by the continuous presents in
Matthew 13:19. See note there.

7. Anything. The devoted Angelique Arnauld, of Port Royal, when her sister condoled with her on the absence of her confessor, Singlier, replied: "I have never put a
man in God's place. He can have only what God gives him; and God gives him something for us only when it is His will that we should receive it through him."

9. God's. In this and the two following clauses, God is emphatic. "It is of God that ye are the fellow-workers."

Husbandry (gew>rgion). Rev., in margin, tilled land. Only here in the New Testament. Bengel says: "Embracing field, garden, and vineyard."

Building (oijkodomh>). Paul's metaphors are drawn from the works and customs of men rather than from the works of nature. "In his epistles," says Archdeacon
Farrar, "we only breathe the air of cities and synagogues." The abundance of architectural metaphors is not strange in view of the magnificent temples and public
buildings which he was continually seeing at Antioch, Athens, Corinth, and Ephesus. His frequent use of to build and building in a moral and spiritual sense is
noteworthy. In this sense the two words oijkodome>w and oijkodomh> occur twenty-six times in the New Testament, and in all but two cases in Paul's writings. 84
Peter uses build in a similar sense; 1 Peter 2:5. See edify, edification, build, Acts 9:31; Romans 15:20; 1 Corinthians 8:1; 1 Corinthians 8:10 where emboldened is
literally built up, and is used ironically. Also Romans 14:19; 15:2; 1 Corinthians 14:3; Ephesians 2:21 etc. It is worth noting that in the Epistle to the Hebrews, while the
same metaphor occurs, different words are used. Thus in 1 Corinthians 3:3, 4 built, builded, represent kataskeua>zw to prepare. In 1 Corinthians 11:10tecni>thv
artificer, and dhmiourgo, lit., a workman for the public: A.V., builder and maker. This fact has a bearing on the authorship of the epistle. In earlier English, edify was
used for build in the literal sense. Thus Piers Ploughman: "I shal overturne this temple and a-down throwe it, and in thre daies after edifie it newe." See on Acts 20:32.
In the double metaphor of the field and the building, the former furnishes the mould of Paul's thought in vers. 6-9, and the latter in vers. 10-17. Edwards remarks that
the field describes the raw material on which God works, the house the result of the work.

10. Grace. The special endowment for his apostolic work. Compare Romans 1:5grace and apostleship: Romans 12:3, 6; Ephesians 3:7, 8.

Wise (sofo). Skillful. See on James 3:13.

Master-builder (ajrcite>ktwn). Only here in the New Testament. "The architect does not work himself, but is the ruler of workmen" (Plato, "Statesman," 259).

Foundation. The importance which Paul attached to the foundation was figured by the care employed in laying the foundation of the great Ephesian temple. "To avoid
the danger of earthquakes, its foundations were built at vast cost on artificial foundations of skin and charcoal laid over the marsh" (Farrar).

12. If any man build, etc. It is important to have a clear conception of Paul's figure, which must be taken in a large and free sense, and not pressed into detail. He
speaks of the body of truth and doctrine which different teachers may erect on the one true foundation - Jesus Christ. This body is the building. The reference is to a
single building, as is shown by ver. 16; not to a city with different buildings of different materials. The figure of Christ as the foundation of a city does not occur in the
New Testament. To this structure different teachers (builders) bring contributions of more or less value, represented by gold, wood, hay, etc. These are not intended to
represent specific forms of truth or of error, but none of them are to be regarded as anti-Christian, which would be inconsistent with building on the true foundation. It is
plainly implied that teachers may build upon the true foundation with perishable or worthless materials. This appears in the history of the Church in the false
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interpretations of scripture, and the crude or fanatical preaching of sincere but ignorant men. The whole structure will be brought to a final and decisive     test at
judgment, when the true value of each teacher's work shall be manifested, and that which is worthless shall be destroyed. The distinction is clearly made between the
teacher and the matter of his teaching. The sincere but mistaken teacher's work will be shown to be worthless in itself, but the teacher himself will be saved and will
single building, as is shown by ver. 16; not to a city with different buildings of different materials. The figure of Christ as the foundation of a city does not occur in the
New Testament. To this structure different teachers (builders) bring contributions of more or less value, represented by gold, wood, hay, etc. These are not intended to
represent specific forms of truth or of error, but none of them are to be regarded as anti-Christian, which would be inconsistent with building on the true foundation. It is
plainly implied that teachers may build upon the true foundation with perishable or worthless materials. This appears in the history of the Church in the false
interpretations of scripture, and the crude or fanatical preaching of sincere but ignorant men. The whole structure will be brought to a final and decisive test at the day of
judgment, when the true value of each teacher's work shall be manifested, and that which is worthless shall be destroyed. The distinction is clearly made between the
teacher and the matter of his teaching. The sincere but mistaken teacher's work will be shown to be worthless in itself, but the teacher himself will be saved and will
receive the reward of personal character, and not of good building. Luther alluded to this verse in his unfortunate description of the Epistle of James as "an epistle of
straw."

Stubble (kala>mhn). Not the same as ka>lamov a reed. See Revelation 11:1; 21:15; and on 3 John 1:13. This word means a stalk of grain after the ears have been cut
off. It was used for thatch in building. Virgil, "Aeneid," 654, alludes to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus with its roof bristling with stubble.

15. Shall suffer loss (zhmiwqh>setai). He shall be mulcted, not punished. See on Matthew 16:26; Luke 9:25.

He himself shall be saved. Compare Dante of Constantine:

"The next who follows, with the laws and me,

Under the good intent that bore bad fruit

Became a Greek by ceding to the pastor;

Now knoweth he how all the ill deduced

From his good action is not harmful to him,

Although the world thereby may be destroyed."

"Paradiso," xx. 55-60.

By fire (diav). Better, Rev., through fire. He will escape as through the fire that consumes his work, as one does through the flames which destroy his house.

16. Temple (nao). Or sanctuary. See on Matthew 4:5. Compare Ephesians 2:21; 2 Corinthians 6:16.

17. Defile (fqei>rei). Rev., more correctly, destroy. This is the primary and almost universal meaning in classical Greek. In a fragment of Euripides it occurs of
dishonoring a female. Sophocles uses it of women pining away in barrenness, and Plutarch of mixing pure colors. The phrase seems to be used here according to the
Jewish idea that the temple was destroyed or corrupted by the slightest defilement or damage, or by neglect on the part of its guardians. Ignatius says: "oiJ oijkofqo>roi;
violators of the house (of God) shall not inherit the kingdom of God" (To the Ephesians, 16.).

Which temple (oi[tinev). Temple is not in the Greek. The double relative which refers to the epithet holy; "of which holy character or class ye are." 85

19. He taketh (oJ drasso>menov). Cited from Job 5:13 but not following the Septuagint verbally. The verb occurs only here, meaning to grasp with the hand. Rev.,
more accurately, gives the force of the participle with the article, he that taketh. This is the only allusion to the book of Job in the New Testament, except James 5:11.

21. All things are yours. The categories which follow form an inventory of the possessions of the Church and of the individual Christian. This includes: the christian
teachers with different gifts; the world, life, and things present; death and things to come. In Christ, death becomes a possession, as the right of way between things
present and things to come.

22. Things present (ejnestw~ta). See on Romans 8:38.

23. Ye are Christ's. A summary of the title following the inventory. Compare Romans 8:17.

CHAPTER 4

1. Ministers (uJphre>tav). See on officer, Matthew 5:25. Only here in Paul's epistles.

Stewards. See on Luke 16:1.

2. It is required (zhtei~tai). Lit., it is sought for; thus agreeing with found in the following clause.

3. A very small thing (eijv ejla>ciston). Lit., unto a very small thing: it amounts to very little.

Judged. See on 1 Corinthians 2:14. Rev., in margin, examined.

Man's judgment (ajnqrwpi>nhv hJme>rav). Lit., man's day, in contrast with the day of the Lord (ver. 5).

5. Judge (kri>nete). See on 1 Corinthians 2:14. The change of the verb favors the rendering examine for ajnakri>nw. The Lord is the only competent examiner
therefore do not judge until He comes to judgment. Even I myself am not competent to institute a conclusive examination, for the absence of condemnation from my
conscience does not absolutely acquit me. See the critical note on 1 John 3:19-22.

6. I have in a figure transferred (metaschma>tisas). From meta>, denoting exchange, and sch~ma outward fashion. Here the fashion in which Paul expresses himself.
See on transfigured, Matthew 17:2.

Not to go beyond the things which are written (tograptai). Lit. (that ye might learn) the not beyond what stands written. The article the introduces a proverbial
expression. The impersonal it is written is commonly used of Old-Testament references.

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8. Now ye are full (h]dh kekoresme>noi ejste>). Rev., better, filled. Ironical contrast between their attitude and that of the apostle in vers. 3, 4. We are hungering for
Not to go beyond the things which are written (tograptai). Lit. (that ye might learn) the not beyond what stands written. The article the introduces a proverbial
expression. The impersonal it is written is commonly used of Old-Testament references.

Be puffed up (fusiou~sqe). Used only by Paul in Corinthians and Colossians. From fu~sa a pair of bellows.

8. Now ye are full (h]dh kekoresme>noi ejste>). Rev., better, filled. Ironical contrast between their attitude and that of the apostle in vers. 3, 4. We are hungering for
further revelations; ye are already filled without waiting for the Lord's coming.

Ye have reigned (ejbasileu>sate). American Rev., better, ye have come to reign; attained to dominion, that kingship which will be bestowed on Christians only at
Christ's coming.

Without us. Though it is through us that you are Christians at all.

9. For. Introducing a contrast between the inflated self-satisfaction of the Corinthians and the actual condition of their teachers. You have come to reign, but the case is
very different with us, for I think, etc.

Hath set forth (ajpe>deixen). Only twice in Paul's writings; here, and 2 Thessalonians 2:4. See on approved, Acts 2:22. In classical Greek used of publishing a law;
shewing forth, and therefore naming or creating a king or military leader; bringing forward testimony; displaying treasure, etc. So here, exhibiting.

Last (ejsca>touv). As in Mark 9:35 of relative rank and condition: as having in men's eyes the basest lot of all.

Appointed to death (ejpiqanati>ouv). Rev., doomed. Only here in the New Testament. Probably an allusion to the practice of exposing condemned criminals in the
amphitheatre to fight with beasts or with one another as gladiators. The gladiators, on entering the arena, saluted the presiding officer with the words Nos morituri
salutamus, We who are to die greet you. Tertullian paraphrases this passage, God hath chosen us apostles last as beast-fighters. "The vast range of an amphitheatre
under the open sky, well represents the magnificent vision of all created things, from men up to angels, gazing on the dreadful death-struggle; and then the contrast of the
selfish Corinthians sitting by unconcerned and unmoved by the awful spectacle" (Stanley). For a similar image of spectators watching the contest in the arena, see
Hebrews 12:1. Compare also 1 Corinthians 15:32.

Spectacle (qe>atron). Primarily, a theatre; then that which is exhibited. Compare the kindred verb qeatrizo>menoi being made a gazing-stock, Hebrews 10:33.

Unto the world (tw|~ ko>smw). The universe, a sense not usual with Paul; compare 1 Corinthians 8:4. The words to angels and to men define world; so that the
rendering of the American Rev. is preferable, both to angels and men. Principal Edwards remarks: "This comprehensive use of the word kosmos is remarkable,
because, on the one hand, it is an advance on the Old-Testament conception of two separate spheres of existence, heaven and earth, not comprehended under any
wider designation; and, on the other, because it differs from the meaning attached to the word among the Greeks; inasmuch as the apostle uses it of the spiritual as well
as the physical totality of existence." The spiritual oneness of the universe is a conception eminently characteristic of St. Paul; but it is foreshadowed by Plato.
"Communion and friendship and orderliness and temperance and justice bind together heaven and earth and gods and men; and this universe is therefore called kosmos
or order; not disorder or misrule" ("Gorgias," 508).

10. For Christ's sake - in Christ (dia Cristo>n - ejn Cristw|~). We apostles are fools in the world's eyes on account of (dia) Christ, because we know and preach
nothing but Christ: You are wise in Christ, as Christians, making your Christianity a means to your worldly greatness - union with Christ the basis of worldly wisdom.
"Wise men are ye in your connection with Christ! Sagacious, enlightened Christians!" (Meyer).

Honorable (e]ndoxoi). With a suggestion of display and splendor. Right honorable are ye!

11. We have no certain dwelling-place (ajstatou~men). From a]statov unstable, strolling about. Only here in the New Testament. Compare Matthew 8:20; 10:23;
Hebrews 11:37. Wyc., we ben unstable.

12. Labor (kopiw~men). Rev., toil. Unto weariness. See on Luke 5:5.

Reviled (loidorou>menoi). See on Acts 23:4.

We bless (eujlogou~men). See on blessed, John 12:13.

We suffer (ajneco>meqa). Lit., we hold or bear up.

13. Defamed (dusfhmou>menoi). Publicly slandered; while reviled refers to personal abuse.

Intreat (parakalou~men). See on consolation, Luke 6:24 and comfort, Acts 9:31. The sense is, we strive to appease by entreaty.

Filth - offscouring (perikaqa>rmata - peri>yhma). The former word is from perikaqai>rw to cleanse all round. Hence that which is thrown off in cleansing; refuse.
Ka>qarma the refuse of a sacrifice. So Aeschylus. Electra says: "Should I, like one who has carried away refuse (kaqa>rmaq) from a purification, after tossing away
the urn, go back again with unturned eyes?" ("Choephoroe," 90). In Proverbs 21:18 Sept., it occurs in the sense of ransom. Some find an allusion here to an ancient
Athenian custom of throwing certain worthless persons into the sea in case of plague or famine, saying Be our offscouring! These persons were called perikaqa>rmata
offscourings, or periyh>mata scrapings, in the belief that they would wipe away the nation's guilt. Ignatius says to the Ephesians, peri>yhma uJmw~n I am your
offscouring. The sense is twofold: I am as the meanest among you; and I devote my life for you. In the middle of the third century, peri>yhma> sou had become a
common expression of formal compliment: your humble servant. See Lightfoot, "Apostolic Fathers," on Ignatius to the Ephesians, 8. "Compare Lamentations 3:45 and
Tobit 5:18. Peri>yhma that which is scraped or scoured off. Both words only here in the New Testament.

This tremendous piece of irony justifies the numerous allusions which have been made to Paul's vehemence and severity. Thus Dante, in his vision of the Earthly
Paradise, pictures Paul:

"Two old men I beheld, unlike in habit,

But like in gait, each dignified and grave.

One (Luke) showed himself as one of the disciples
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Of that supreme Hippocrates whom Nature

Made for the animals she holds most dear,
But like in gait, each dignified and grave.

One (Luke) showed himself as one of the disciples

Of that supreme Hippocrates whom Nature

Made for the animals she holds most dear,

Contrary care the other (Paul) manifested,

With sword so shining and so sharp, it caused

Terror to me on this side of the river."

"Purgatorio," xxix., 134-141.

"His words, indeed, seem to be those of a simple, and, as it were, an innocent and rustic man, who knows neither how to frame nor to avoid wiles; but whithersoever
you look, there are thunderbolts" (Jerome). "Paul thunders, lightens, utters pure flames" (Erasmus). See a collection of quotations in Farrar's "Life and Work of St.
Paul," i., 619. 86

14. To shame (ejntre>pwn). Lit., as shaming. See on Matthew 21:37. The verb means to turn about, hence to turn one upon himself; put him to shame. Compare 2
Thessalonians 3:14; Titus 2:8. Also, in the middle voice, in the sense of reverence; to turn one's self toward another. See Mark 12:6; Luke 18:2. The kindred noun
ejntroph> occurs twice: 1 Corinthians 6:5; 15:34. Compare Sophocles: "Think you he will have any regard (ejntroph) for the blind man" ("Oedipus at Colonos," 299).

15. Tutors (paidagwgou). From pai~v boy and ajgwgo>v leader. The Paedagogus was a slave to whom boys were entrusted on leaving the care of the females, which
was somewhere about their sixteenth year. He was often a foreigner, sometimes educated and refined, but often otherwise; for Plutarch complains that seamen, traders,
usurers, and farmers are engaged in this capacity. The office was one of general guardianship, not of instruction, though sometimes the paedagogus acted as teacher. He
accompanied the boy to school, carrying his books, etc., and attended him to the gymnasium and elsewhere. 87 See, further, on Galatians 3:24.

CHAPTER 5

1. Commonly (o[lwv). Better, absolutely or actually, as Rev.

Should have. Opinions are divided as to whether the relation was that of marriage or concubinage. The former is urged on the ground that e]cein to have is commonly
used in the New Testament of marriage; and that the aorist participles poih>sav (so Tex. Rec.) had done, and katergasamenon hath wrought, imply that an incestuous
marriage had already taken place. It is urged, on the other hand, that e]cein to have is used of concubinage, John 4:18; but it takes its meaning there from the sense of
marriage in the preceding clause, and is really a kind of play on the word. "He who now stands for thy husband is not thy husband." The indications seem to be in favor
of marriage. Notwithstanding the facilities for divorce afforded by the Roman law, and the loose morals of the Corinthians, for a man to marry his stepmother was
regarded as a scandal.

5. To deliver - unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh. On this very obscure and much controverted passage it may be observed:

1.That it implies excommunication from the Church.

2.That it implies something more, the nature of which is not clearly known.

3.That casting the offender out of the Church involved casting him back into the heathen world, which Paul habitually conceives as under the power of Satan.

4.That Paul has in view the reformation of the offender: "that the spirit may be saved," etc.

This reformation is to be through affliction, disease, pain, or loss, which also he is wont to conceive as Satan's work. See 1 Thessalonians 2:18; 2 Corinthians 12:7.
Compare Luke 13:16. Hence in delivering him over to these he uses the phrase deliver unto Satan. Compare 1 Timothy 1:20. 88

6. Glorying (kau~chma). Not the act, but the subject of boasting; namely, the condition of the Corinthian church.

Lump (fu>rama). See on Romans 12:21. A significant term, suggesting the oneness of the Church, and the consequent danger from evil-doers.

7. Leaven. Not the sinful man, but evil of every kind, in accordance with the more general statement of the leavening, power of evil in ver. 6. The apostle's metaphor is
shaped by the commands concerning the removal of leaven at the passover: Exodus 12:19; 13:7. Compare Ignatius; "Dispense, therefore, with the evil leaven that has
grown old (palaiwqei~san) and that has gone sour (ejnoxi>sasan), and be changed into new leaven which is Jesus Christ" (Epistle to Magnesians, 10.).

New (ne>on). See on Matthew 26:29.

Passover (tosca). The Paschal lamb, as Mark 14:12; Luke 22:7.

8. Let us keep the feast (eJorta>zwmen). Only here in the New Testament. The epistle was probably written a short time before the Passover. See 1 Corinthians 16:8.

Sincerity (eijlikrinei>av). See on pure minds, 2 Peter 3:1.

Truth. Bengel observes: "Sincerity takes care not to admit evil with the good; truth, not to admit evil instead of good."

9. I write - in my epistle. American Rev., as it is I wrote. The reference is probably to a former letter now lost. Some explain e]graya I wrote as the epistolary aorist
(see on 1 John 2:13); but the words in my epistle seem to favor the other view.

To company (sunanami>gnusqai): Only here and 2 Thessalonians 3:14. The translation company is inadequate, but cannot perhaps be bettered. The word is
compounded of su>n together, ajna> up and down among, and, mi>gnumi to mingle. It denotes, therefore, not only close, but habitual, intercourse.
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10. Idolaters (eijdwlola>traiv). Only twice outside of Paul's writings: Revelation 21:8; 22:15. This is the earliest known instance of the use of the word. For the
collocation of the covetous and idolaters, compare Colossians 3:15; Ephesians 5:5. New-Testament usage does not confine the term to the worship of images, but
extends it to the soul's devotion to any object which usurps the place of God.
To company (sunanami>gnusqai): Only here and 2 Thessalonians 3:14. The translation company is inadequate, but cannot perhaps be bettered. The word is
compounded of su>n together, ajna> up and down among, and, mi>gnumi to mingle. It denotes, therefore, not only close, but habitual, intercourse.

10. Idolaters (eijdwlola>traiv). Only twice outside of Paul's writings: Revelation 21:8; 22:15. This is the earliest known instance of the use of the word. For the
collocation of the covetous and idolaters, compare Colossians 3:15; Ephesians 5:5. New-Testament usage does not confine the term to the worship of images, but
extends it to the soul's devotion to any object which usurps the place of God.

13. Wicked (ponhro). Mischievous to the Church. See on Luke 3:19. The usage of the Septuagint emphasizes the idea of active harmfulness. The word has, however,
in some passages, the sense of niggardly or grudging, and the Hebrew word which is usually translated by ponhro>v mischievous, is sometimes rendered by ba>skanov
malignant, with a distinct reference to the "evil" or "grudging eye." This sense may go to explain Matthew 20:15 and possibly Matthew 6:19 and 7:11.

CHAPTER 6

1. Dare. "The insulted majesty of Christians is denoted by a grand word" (Bengel).

2. Matters (krithri>wn). The word means, 1, The instrument or rule of judging; 2, the tribunal of a judge. It occurs only here, ver. 4, and James 2:6 where it means
judgment-seats. This latter gives a good sense here without having recourse to the meaning suit or case, which lacks warrant. So Rev., in margin, "are ye unworthy of
the smallest tribunals?" That is, are ye unworthy of holding or passing judgment in such inferior courts?

3. How much more (mh>tige). It is hard to render the word accurately. How much more follows the Vulgate quanto magis. It is rather, not to speak of; or to say
nothing at all of.

Things that pertain to this life (biwtika>). See on Luke 21:34.

4. Judgments (krith>ria). Better, tribunals or courts, as ver. 2. If you have to hold courts for the settlement of private matters.

Set (kaqi>zete). Seat them as judges on the tribunal. It is disputed whether kaqi>zete is to be taken as imperative, set (A.V.), or as interrogative, do ye set (Rev.). 89
The A.V. seems, on the whole, preferable. The passage is well paraphrased by Farrar. "Dare they, the destined judges of the world and of angels, go to law about
mere earthly trifles, and that before the heathen? Why did they not rather set up the very humblest members of the Church to act as judges in such matters?" 90

5. To your shame (pro). Lit., I speak to you with a view to shame; i.e., to move you to shame, as Rev. See on 1 Corinthians 4:14.

To judge (diakri~nai). Rev., better, decide; by arbitration.

6. Goeth to law (kri>netai). As in ver. 1, and Matthew 5:40. Instead of accepting arbitration.

7. Now therefore (h]dh me). Me nay, as in ver. 4, at once looks back to the preceding thought, and continues it, bringing under special consideration the fact that
brother goes to law with brother. '&Hdh already or at once is a temporal adverb, but with a logical force and enhancing the nay. The connection of thought is: Is there
not one wise man among you who is competent to act as an arbitrator between brethren, so that christian brethren must needs take their differences into the civil courts
and before heathen judges? Nay; such a proceeding at once implies the existence of a litigious spirit generally, which is unchristian, and detrimental to you.

Fault among you (h[tthma ejn uJmi~n). Only here and Romans 11:12. See note. %Htthma fault, is from h[ttwn less. Lit., diminution, decrease. Hence used in the sense
of defeat, Isaiah 31:8: "Young men shall be discomfited lit., shall be for diminution." Similarly the kindred verb hJtta>omai, in 2 Corinthians 12:13made inferior; and in 2
Peter 2:19, 20overcome. See note there. Compare 2 Macc. x. 24. In classical Greek h=tta means defeat, and is contrasted with ni>kh victory by Plato and
Thucydides. The meaning here is loss. among is omitted by the best texts, so that we should read a loss to you, which Rev. gives in margin, reading in the text a defect
in you. The spirit of litigation which runs into wrong and fraud (ver. 8) is a source of damage, resulting in forfeiture of the kingdom of God (ver. 9), and in loss of
spiritual power.

Ye go to law (kri>mata e]cete). Rev., more correctly, ye have lawsuits. Not the same phrase as in ver. 6. Kri>ma in the New Testament almost universally means
judgment or decree, as Romans 5:16. See on 2 Peter 2:3. In classical Greek it has also the meaning of the matter of judgment, the question in litigation. So Aeschylus:
"The matter (kri>ma) is not easy to judge. Choose me not as judge" ("Suppliants," 391). Here the meaning is legal proceedings, lawsuits. So in Septuagint, Job 31:13;
Exodus 23:6.

Suffer yourselves to be defrauded (ajposterei~sqe). Rev., more literally, "why not rather be defrauded?" In classical Greek the word means,

1,to rob or despoil.

2,to detach or withdraw one's self from a person or thing. ~.~n eJauto>n was a regular phrase for separation from civic life. So Oedipus says: "I, noblest of the sons of
Thebes, have cut myself off (ajpeste>rhs ejmauto>n. Sophocles, "Oedipus Tyrannus," 1381).

3.To withhold or avert. So Io to Prometheus: "Do not, after proffering me a benefit, withhold it" ("Prometheus," 796). The maidens say: "May King Zeus avert the
hateful marriage" (Aeschylus, "Suppliants," 1063). In the New Testament the word occurs five times.

In Mark 10:19defraud not is apparently Mark's rendering of the tenth commandment. According to the inner meaning of the commandment as conceived by Jesus, the
coveting of another's goods is, in heart, a depriving him of them. In 1 Corinthians 7:5 it is used of connubial relations. In 1 Timothy 6:5 of those who are deprived or
destitute of the truth. 91 Dr. Morison, on Mark 10:19 justly observes that defraud is too narrow a rendering. The word means rather "to deprive of what is one's due,
whether by 'hook,' 'crook,' or force, or in any other way."

9. Kingdom of God. See on Luke 6:20.

Fornicators. The besetting sin of Corinth. Hence the numerous solemn and emphatic allusions to it in this epistle. See 1 Corinthians 5:11; 6:15-18; 10:8.

Effeminate (malakoi). Luxurious and dainty. The word was used in a darker and more horrible sense, to which there may be an allusion here. 92

Abusers, etc. See on Romans 1:7.

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is not set forth with any studied precision, since its main purpose is corrective."
Effeminate (malakoi). Luxurious and dainty. The word was used in a darker and more horrible sense, to which there may be an allusion here. 92

Abusers, etc. See on Romans 1:7.

11. Washed - sanctified - justified. According to fact the order would be justified, washed (baptism), sanctified; but as Ellicott justly remarks, "in this epistle this order
is not set forth with any studied precision, since its main purpose is corrective."

Ye were justified (ejdikaiw>qhte). Emphasizing the actual moral renewal, which is the true idea of justification. This is shown by the words "by the Spirit," etc., for the
Spirit is not concerned in mere forensic justification.

12. Are lawful (e[xestin). There is a play between this word and ejxousiasqh>somai be brought under the power, which can hardly be accurately conveyed to the
English reader. The nearest approach to it is: "all things are in my power, but I shall not be brought under the power of any."

Will - be brought under the power (ejxousiasqh>somai). From ejxousi>a power of choice, permissive authority. See on Mark 2:10. This in turn is derived from e]xesti
it is permitted. See above on are lawful. This kinship of the two words explains the play upon them.

13. Meats for the belly, etc. Paul is arguing against fornication. His argument is that there is a law of adaptation running through nature, illustrated by the mutual
adaptation of food and the digestive organs; but this law is violated by the prostitution of the body to fornication, for which, in God's order, it was not adapted.

Shall destroy (katargh>sei). Rev., better, shall bring to nought. See on Romans 3:3. The mutual physical adaptation is only temporary, as the body and its nourishment
are alike perishable.

14. Will raise up us. The body being destined to share with the body of Christ in resurrection, and to be raised up incorruptible, is the subject of a higher adaptation,
with which fornication is incompatible.

15. Members of Christ. The body is not only for the Lord (ver. 13), adapted for Him: it is also united with Him. See Ephesians 4:16.

Members of a harlot. The union of man and woman, whether lawful or unlawful, confers a double personality. Fornication effects this result in an immoral way.

16. He that is joined (oJ kollw>menov). See on Luke 15:15. Compare Aeschylus: "The family has been glued (keko>llhtai) to misfortune" ("Agamemnon," 1543). The
verb is used Genesis 2:24 Sept., of the relation of husband and wife: shall cleave. In Deuteronomy 10:20; 11:22; Jeremiah 13:11 of man's cleaving to God.

To a harlot (th|~ po>rnh|). Lit., the harlot. The article is significant: his harlot, or that one with whom he is sinning at the time.

Shall be one flesh (e]sontai eijv sa>rka mi>an). Lit., shall be unto one flesh: i.e., from being two, shall pass into one. Hence Rev., rightly, shall become. Compare
Ephesians 2:15.

18. Flee. See Genesis 39:12. Socrates, in Plato's "Republic," relates how the poet Sophocles, in answer to the question "How does love suit with are?" replied: "Most
gladly have I escaped that, and I feel as if I had escaped from a mad and furious master" (329).

Sin (aJma>rthma). See on Romans 3:25.

Without the body (ejktomatov). Lit., outside. The body is not the instrument, but the subject. But in fornication the body is the instrument of the sin, and "inwardly as
well as outwardly is made over to another."

19. Temple (nao). Better, as Rev., in margin, sanctuary. It is not only a temple, but the very shrine. See on 1 Corinthians 3:16.

Glorify. See on John 7:39. Omit and in your spirit, which are God's.

CHAPTER 7

1. It is good (kalo). See on John 10:11. Not merely expedient, but morally salutary. The statement, however, is made in the light of circumstances, see ver. 26, and is
to be read with others, such as 2 Corinthians 11:2; Romans 7:4; Ephesians 5:28-33 in all which marriage is made the type of the union between Christ and His Church.
See also Hebrews 13:4. 93

5 May give yourselves (scola>shte). Lit., may have leisure. Like the Latin phrase vacaare rei to be free for a thing, and so to devote one's self to it.

Incontinency (ajkrasi>an). Only here and Matthew 23:35 on which see note.

7. As I myself. Not unmarried, but continent. It is not necessary to assume that Paul had never been married. Marriage was regarded as a duty among the Jews, so that
a man was considered to have sinned if he had reached the age of twenty without marrying. The Mishna fixed the age of marriage at seventeen or eighteen, and the
Babylonish Jews as early as fourteen. A rabbinical precept declared that a Jew who has no wife is not a man. It is not certain, but most probable, that Saul was a
member of the Sanhedrim (Acts 26:10). If so, he must have been married, as marriage was a condition of membership. From ver. 8 it is plausibly inferred that he
classed himself among widowers. Farrar ("Life and Work of St. Paul," i., 80) has some beautiful remarks upon the evidence for his marriage afforded by the wisdom
and tenderness of his words concerning it. 94

Gift (ca>risma). See on Romans 1:11. As regards the matter of continence, fitting some for marriage and some for celibacy.

9. Cannot contain (oujk ejgkrateu>ontai). Rev., have not continence. Only here, and 1 Corinthians 9:25 of athletes abstaining from sensual indulgences when preparing
for the games.

To burn. Continuous present, to burn on: continuance in unsatisfied desire.

10. Not I, but the Lord. Referring to Christ's declarations respecting divorce, Matthew 5:31, 32; 19:3-12. Not a distinction between an inspired and an uninspired
saying. Paul means that his readers had no need to apply to him for instruction in the matter of divorce, since they had the words of Christ himself.

12. To the rest. He has been speaking to the unmarried (ver. 8) and to married parties, both of whom were Christians (ver. 10). By the rest he means married couples,
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I, not the Lord. These cases are not included in Christ's declarations.
saying. Paul means that his readers had no need to apply to him for instruction in the matter of divorce, since they had the words of Christ himself.

12. To the rest. He has been speaking to the unmarried (ver. 8) and to married parties, both of whom were Christians (ver. 10). By the rest he means married couples,
one of which remained a heathen.

I, not the Lord. These cases are not included in Christ's declarations.

Be pleased (suneudokei~). Rev., be content. Better, consent. Both the other renderings fail to express the agreement indicated by su>n together.

14. Is sanctified (hJgi>astai). Not, made morally holy, but affiliated to the Christian community - the family of the a[gioi saints - in virtue of his being "one flesh" with his
Christian wife.

15. Is not under bondage (ouj dedou>lwtai). A strong word, indicating that Christianity has not made marriage a state of slavery to believers. Compare de>detai is
bound, ver. 39, a milder word. The meaning clearly is that willful desertion on the part of the unbelieving husband or wife sets the other party free. Such cases are not
comprehended in Christ's words.

Hath called us to peace (ejn eijrh>nh ke>klhken hJma~v). Rev., correctly, in peace. Compare Galatians 1:6"into the grace" (ejn ca>riti, Rev., in); Ephesians 4:4, in one
hope (ejn mia|~ ejlpi>di); 1 Thessalonians 4:7, in sanctification (ejn aJgiasmw|~). Denoting the sphere or element of the divine calling. Enslavement in the marriage
relation between the believer and the unbeliever is contrary to the spirit and intent of this calling.

17. But (eij mh). Rev., only. Introducing a limitation to the statement in ver 15. There is to be no enslavement, only, to give no excuse for the reckless abuse of this
general principle, the normal rule of Christian life is that each one should seek to abide in the position in which God has placed him.

Ordain (diata>ssomai). See on Matthew 11:1.

18. Become uncircumcised (ejpispa>sqw). The reference is to the process of restoring a circumcised person to his natural condition by a surgical operation. See
Josephus, "Antiquities," 12, 5, 1; 1 Macc. i. 15; Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," Article Circumcision; Celsus, "De Re Medica," cited in Wetstein with other passages.
See, also, Edwards' note on this passage.

20. Calling (klh>sei), Not the condition or occupation, a meaning which the word does not have in classical Greek, nor in the New Testament, where it always signifies
the call of God into His kingdom through conversion. Paul means: If God's call was to you as a circumcised man or as an uncircumcised man; as a slave or as a
freedman - abide in that condition. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:26.

21. Use it rather. Whether the apostle means, use the bondage or use the freedom - whether, take advantage of the offer of freedom, or, remain in slavery - is, as Dean
Stanley remarks, one of the most evenly balanced questions in the interpretation of the New Testament. The force of kai even, and the positive injunction of the apostle
in vers. 20 and 24, seem to favor the meaning, remain in slavery. 95 The injunction is to be read in the light of ver. 22, and of Galatians 3:28; Colossians 3:11; 1
Corinthians 12:13 that freeman and slave are one in Christ; and also of the feeling pervading the Church of the speedy termination of the present economy by the
second coming of the Lord. See vers. 26, 29. We must be careful to avoid basing our conclusion on the modern sentiment respecting freedom and slavery.

22. Freeman (ajpeleu>qerov). Rev., correctly, freedman; the preposition ajp' from implying previous bondage.

23. The servants of men. Not referring to the outward condition of bondage, but to spiritual subjection to the will and guidance of men as contrasted with Christ.

25. Virgins (parqe>nwn). Not the unmarried of both sexes, as Bengel. The use of the word by ecclesiastical writers for an unmarried man has no warrant in classical
usage, and may have arisen from the misinterpretation of Revelation 14:4 where it is employed adjectivally and metaphorically. In every other case in the New
Testament the meaning is unquestionable.

26. The present distress (thgkhn). s~san present may also express something which is not simply present, but the presence of which foreshadows and inaugurates
something to come. Hence it may be rendered impending or setting in. See on Romans 8:38. >gkh means originally force, constraint, necessity, and this is its usual
meaning in classical Greek; though in the poets it sometimes has the meaning of distress, anguish, which is very common in Hellenistic Greek. Thus Sophocles, of the
approach of the crippled Philoctetes: "There falls on my ears the sound of one who creeps slow and painfully (kat' ajna>gkhn." "Philoctetes," 206); and again, of the
same: "Stumbling he cries for pain (uJp' ajna>gkav," 215). In the Attic orators it occurs in the sense of blood-relationship, like the Latin necessitudo a binding tie. In this
sense never in the New Testament. For the original sense of necessity, see Matthew 18:97; Luke 14:18; 2 Corinthians 9:7; Hebrews 9:16. For distress, Luke 21:23; 1
Thessalonians 3:7. The distress is that which should precede Christ's second coming, and which was predicted by the Lord himself, Matthew 24:8 sqq. Compare Luke
21:23-28.

28. I spare you (uJmw~n fei>domai). Rev., "I would spare," is not warranted grammatically, but perhaps avoids the ambiguity of I spare, which might be understood: I
spare you further mention of these things. The meaning is: I give you these injunctions in order to spare you the tribulation of the flesh.

29. Time (kairo). Not, the period of mortal life; but the time which must elapse before the Lord appears.

Short (sunestalme>nov) Rev., correctly, giving the force of the participle, shortened. Compare Mark 13:20 and see on hasting unto, 2 Peter 3:12. The word means to
draw together or contract. Only here and Acts 5:6 where it is used of the winding up of Ananias' corpse. In classical Greek of furling sails, packing luggage, reducing
expenses, etc. Applied to time, the word is very graphic.

It remaineth that (ton i[na). The meaning is rather henceforth, or for the future. That (i[na) in any case is to be construed with the time is shortened. According to the
punctuation by different editors, we may read either: the time is shortened that henceforth both those, etc.; or, the time is shortened henceforth, that both those, etc. The
former is preferable. 96 The time is shortened that henceforth Christians may hold earthly ties and possessions but loosely

31 Abusing (katacrw>menoi). Only here and 1 Corinthians 9:18. The verb means to use up or consume by using. Hence the sense of misuse by overuse. So A.V. and
Rev., abuse. But the American Rev., and Rev. at 1 Corinthians 9:18 use to the full, thus according better with the preceding antitheses, which do not contrast what is
right and wrong in itself (as use and abuse), but what is right in itself with what is proper under altered circumstances. In ordinary cases it is right for Christians to
sorrow; but they should live now as in the near future, when earthly sorrow is to be done away. It is right for them to live in the married state, but they should "assimilate
their present condition" to that in which they neither marry nor are given in marriage.

Passeth away (para>gei). Or, as some, the continuous present, is passing. If the former, the nature of the worldly order is expressed. It is transitory. If the latter, the
fact; it is actually passing, with a suggestion of the nearness of the consummation. The context seems to indicate the latter. 97
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32. Without carefulness (ajmeri>mnouv). Not a good translation, because carefulness has lost its earlier sense of anxiety. So Latimer: "This wicked carefulness of men,
when they seek how to live - like as if there were no God at all." See on take no thought, Matthew 6:25. Rev., free from cares. Ignatius uses the phrase ejn
their present condition" to that in which they neither marry nor are given in marriage.

Passeth away (para>gei). Or, as some, the continuous present, is passing. If the former, the nature of the worldly order is expressed. It is transitory. If the latter, the
fact; it is actually passing, with a suggestion of the nearness of the consummation. The context seems to indicate the latter. 97

32. Without carefulness (ajmeri>mnouv). Not a good translation, because carefulness has lost its earlier sense of anxiety. So Latimer: "This wicked carefulness of men,
when they seek how to live - like as if there were no God at all." See on take no thought, Matthew 6:25. Rev., free from cares. Ignatius uses the phrase ejn
ajmerimni>a| Qeou~ in godly carelessness (Polycarp, 7.).

34. There is a difference. The textual question here is very perplexing, and it is well-nigh impossible to explain the differences to the English reader. He must observe,
1st. That gunh wife is also the general term for woman, whether virgin, married, or widow. 2nd. That meme>ristai A.V., there is a difference, literally means, is divided,
so that the literal rendering of the A.V., would be, the wife and the virgin are divided. Some of the best texts insert kai and both before and after is divided, and join that
verb with the close of ver. 33, so that it reads: careth for the things of the world how he may please his wife, and he is distracted. This makes gunh and parqe>nov
(A.V., wife and virgin) begin a new sentence connected with the preceding by kai and Gunh is rendered woman, and the words h agamov the unmarried, instead of
beginning a sentence as A.V., are placed directly after woman as a qualifying phrase, so that the reading is hJ gunh the unmarried woman, and both this and hJ
parqe>nov the virgin are nominative to merimna~| careth. The whole, then, from the beginning of ver 33, will read: But he who is married careth for the things of the
world how he may please his wife, and he is distracted; and the unmarried woman and the virgin care for the things of the Lord. 98

35. Snare (bro>con). Lit., a noose or slip-knot for hanging or strangling. Thus Homer of Jocasta: "She went to Hades having suspended a noose on high from the lofty
roof" ("Odyssey," 11, 278). Sophocles, of Antigone: "We descried her hanging by the neck, slung by a thread-wrought halter of fine linen" ("Antigone," 1222). Also a
snare for birds; the meshes of a net.

That ye may attend (pro - eujpa>redron). Only here in the New Testament. From euj well, pa>redrov setting beside. That ye may attend is a kind of circumlocution.
The Greek reads literally: for that which is seemly and for that which is assiduous. Assiduous conveys the sense of the word as nearly as possible, since etymologically it
means sitting close at. One is reminded of Mary at Bethany sitting at Jesus' feet, Luke 10:39.

Without distraction (ajperispa>stwv) See on Luke 10:40. The same word compounded here with aj not, is used of Martha's being cumbered or distracted with much
serving.

36. Behaveth himself uncomely (ajschmonei~n). Acts unbecomingly, either by throwing temptation in the daughter's way by constraining her to remain unmarried, or by
exposing her to the disgrace which was supposed to attach to the unmarried state. But Paul, in his preceding words, has regarded the latter consideration as set aside
by the peculiar circumstances of the time.

His virgin (thnon aujtou~). Rev. properly inserts daughter. It is an unusual expression for daughter. Xenophon uses it with the word quga>thr daughter ("Cyropaedia,"
iv., 6, 9), and Oedipus speaks of his two daughters as my maidens (Sophocles, "Oedipus Tyrannus," 1462)

Pass the flower of her age (hj| uJpe>rakmov). Rev., correctly, be past. Beyond the bloom of life. Plato fixes the point at twenty years ("Republic," 460). Diogenes
Laertius says: "An undowered maiden is a heavy burden to a father after she has outrun the flower of her age" ("Lycon," v., 65)

Let them marry. Evidently there was assumed to be another in the case beside the father and the virgin.

37. Necessity (ajna>gkhn). Either outward or moral constraint. See on ver. 26, and note on Luke 14:18.

Power over his own will (ejxousi>an periou qelh>matov). The A.V. is ambiguous, and might be understood to imply self-control. The meaning is rather: is free to act as
he pleases. Rev., as touching his own will. The repetition of his own emphasizes the fact that the disposal of the daughter lay wholly in the parent's power. Among the
Greeks and Romans the choice of a wife was rarely grounded upon affection. In many cases the father chose for his son a wife whom the latter had never seen, or
compelled him to marry for the sake of checking his extravagances. Thus Terence pictures a father meeting his son in the forum, and saving. "You are to be married to-
day, get ready" ("Andria," i., 5) Nor was the consent of a woman generally thought necessary. She was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and perhaps to
receive a stranger. Thus Hermione says: "My marriage is my father's care: it is not for me to decide about that" (Euripides, "Andromache," 987). Under the patriarchal
and Mosaic dispensations, the father's power over the children in the matter of marriage was paramount, and their consent was not required. After the Exile the parents
could betroth their children, while minors, at their pleasure; but when they became of age their consent was required, and if betrothed during minority, they had
afterward the right of insisting upon divorce.

39. Be dead (koimhqh|~). Lit., have fallen asleep. See on Acts 7:60; 2 Peter 3:4; compare Romans 7:2 where the usual word for die, ajpoqa>nh| is used. In that
passage Paul is discussing the abstract question. Here the inference is more personal, which is perhaps the reason for his using the more tender expression.

40. Happier (makariwte>ra). More blessed is preferable. The word has a higher meaning than happy. See on Matthew 5:3.99

"Such, if on high their thoughts are set,

Nor in the stream the source forget,

If prompt to quit the bliss they know,

Following the Lamb where'er He go,

By purest pleasure unbeguiled

To idolize or wife or child:

Such wedded souls our God shall own

For faultless virgins round His throne."

KEBLE, "Christian Year," Wednesday before Easter.

CHAPTER 8
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1. Things offered unto idols (eijdwloqu>twn). See on Revelation 2:14.
KEBLE, "Christian Year," Wednesday before Easter.

CHAPTER 8

1. Things offered unto idols (eijdwloqu>twn). See on Revelation 2:14.

We know that we all, etc. The arrangement of the text is in question. Evidently a parenthesis intervenes between the beginning of ver. 1 and ver. 4. It seems best to
begin this parenthesis with knowledge puffeth up, and to end it with known of him (ver. 3).

We all have knowledge (pa>ntev gnw~sin e]comen). The exact reference of these words must remain uncertain. Some understand Paul himself and the more
enlightened Corinthians. Others, all Christians. All the expositions are but guesses. I prefer, on the whole, the view that Paul is here repeating, either verbally or in
substance, a passage from the letter of the Corinthians to him. In that case the sense is slightly ironical: "We know, to use your own words, that we all have knowledge."
The parenthesis thus comes in with an appropriate cautionary force.

Puffeth up. See on 1 Corinthians 4:6. The contrast is striking between puffing up and building up - a bubble and a building.

2. That he knoweth anything (ejgnwke>nai ti). Or, literally, has come to know. See on John 2:24; 3:10; 17:3. Showing in what sense knowledge was used in the
previous clause: fancied knowledge; knowledge of divine things without love.

3. The same is known of Him (ou=tov e]gnwstai uJp' aujtou~) The same, i.e., this same man who loves God. He does not say knows God, but implies this in the larger
truth, is known by God. Compare Galatians 4:9; 1 John 4:7, 8, 16; 2 Timothy 2:19. Ginw>skw in New-Testament Greek often denotes a personal relation between
the knower and the known, so that the knowledge of an object implies the influence of that object upon the knower. So John 2:24, 25; 1 Corinthians 2:8; 1 John 4:8. In
John the relation itself is expressed by the verb. John 17:3, 25; 1 John 5:20; 4:6; 2:3, 4, 5.100

An idol is nothing in the world (oujdesmw|). Rev., no idol is anything. An idol is a nonentity. The emphasis is on the nothingness of the idol, hence the emphatic position
of oujde nothing. It is a mere stock or stone, having no real significance in heaven or on earth. One of the Old Testament names for heathen gods is elilim nothings. Idol
(ei]dwlon) is primarily an image or likeness. In Greek writers it is sometimes used of the shades of the dead, or the fantasies of the mind. In the Old Testament, the
number and variety of the words representing the objects of heathen worship, are a striking commentary upon the general prevalence of idolatry. Ei]dwlon image stands
in the Septuagint for several of the different Hebrew terms for idols; as, elilim things of nought; gillulim things rolled about, as logs or masses of stone; chammanium sun-
pillars, etc. Other words are also used to translate the same Hebrew terms, but in all cases the idea is that of the material object as shaped by mechanical processes, or
as being in itself an object of terror, or a vain or abominable thing, a mere device of man.

5. Gods - lords. Superhuman beings to whom these titles are given, as Ephesians 6:12; 2 Corinthians 4:4; John 12:31; 14:30.

7. With conscience of the idol (th|~ suneidh>sei tou~ eijdw>lou). The best texts read sunhqei>a| custom, which occurs only here and John 18:39; see note. Lit., with
custom of the idol; i.e., as Rev., being used to the idol. Their long habit previous to their conversion made them still regard their offering as made to something really
existent, and consequently to feel that it was sinful to eat of meat thus offered.

Is defiled (molu>netai). See on Revelation 14:4.

8. Commendeth - not (ouj parasth>sei). Lit., present. Rev., more correctly, will not commend. See on shewed himself, Acts 1:3.

9. Stumbling-block (prosko>mma). See on Romans 14:13.

10. Idol's temple (eijdwlei>w|). Only here in the New Testament. See on Revelation 2:14.

Be emboldened (oijkodomhqh>setai). Lit., be built up. The A.V. misses the irony of the expression. His apparent advance is really detrimental. Calvin remarks: "a
ruinous upbuilding."

11. Shall the weak brother perish (ajpo>llutai oJ ajsqenw~n). Not a question, as A.V. The participle "he that is being weak" indicates a continuance of the weakness,
and the present tense, is perishing, implies that the process of moral undermining is in progress through the habitual indulgence of the better informed Christian. Rev., he
that is weak perisheth.

13. Make to offend (skandali>zei). See on Matthew 5:29. Rev., maketh to stumble.

Meat - flesh (brw~ma - kre>a). The former food in general, the latter the special food which causes stumbling. Dr. South draws the distinction between a tender and a
weak conscience. "Tenderness, applied to the conscience, properly imports quickness and exactness of sense, which is the perfection of this faculty.... Though the eye
is naturally the most tender and delicate part of the body, yet is it not therefore called weak, so long as the sight is quick and strong.... A weak conscience is opposed
to a strong; which very strength, we shew, consisted in the tenderness or quickness of its discerning or perceptive power" (Sermon 29, "A True State and Account of
the Plea of a Tender Conscience").

CHAPTER 9

1. Seen Jesus. See 1 Corinthians 15:8; Acts 9:17; 18:9; 22:17, 18; 2 Corinthians 12:1 sqq. Compare Acts 22:14.

2. Seal (sfragi>v). See on Romans 4:11; John 3:33; Revelation 22:10.

3. Answer (ajpologi>a). See on 1 Peter 3:15.

Examine (ajnakri>nousin). See on Luke 23:14.

4. Eat - drink. At the expense of the churches. Compare Luke 10:7.

5 A sister, a wife. Wrong Sister means a christian woman, a fellow-member of the Church, as Romans 16:1; 1 Corinthians 7:15; James 2:15. It is in apposition with
wife: A wife that is a sister on believer. So Rev. Such an one has also the right, like her husband, to be maintained by the Church. Some of the fathers claimed that not a
wife was meant, but a female attendant, serviens mantrona, who contributed to the maintenance of the apostles as certain women ministered to Christ. There is no
foundation
 Copyright for
             (c) this. It is contradicted
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                                          Media  Corp. of Peter cited at the end of this verse; compare Matthew 8:14; and besides, the point of the argument  is that these
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companions should be maintained. Such a practice, however, did grow up in the Church, but was abolished by the Council of Nicaea on account of its abuses. Stanley
remarks that the fact of these women accompanying their husbands, may be explained by the necessity of females to gain access to and to baptize the female converts
in Greece and in oriental countries; the same necessity which gave rise to the order of deaconesses.
5 A sister, a wife. Wrong Sister means a christian woman, a fellow-member of the Church, as Romans 16:1; 1 Corinthians 7:15; James 2:15. It is in apposition with
wife: A wife that is a sister on believer. So Rev. Such an one has also the right, like her husband, to be maintained by the Church. Some of the fathers claimed that not a
wife was meant, but a female attendant, serviens mantrona, who contributed to the maintenance of the apostles as certain women ministered to Christ. There is no
foundation for this. It is contradicted by the example of Peter cited at the end of this verse; compare Matthew 8:14; and besides, the point of the argument is that these
companions should be maintained. Such a practice, however, did grow up in the Church, but was abolished by the Council of Nicaea on account of its abuses. Stanley
remarks that the fact of these women accompanying their husbands, may be explained by the necessity of females to gain access to and to baptize the female converts
in Greece and in oriental countries; the same necessity which gave rise to the order of deaconesses.

6. Barnabas. The only mention of Barnabas along with Paul since the quarrel, Acts 15:39.

Forbear working. For their own support. z>zesqai to work, is the regular word for manual labor. See Matthew 21:28; Acts 18:3. See on 3 John 1:5; and trade,
Revelation 18:17.

7. Goeth a warfare (strateu>etai). The "a" in a warfare is the abbreviated preposition on or in, as a coming, afield, going a pilgrimage. In the Geneva Bible,
Deuteronomy 24:5 is rendered, "When a man taketh a newe wife, he shal not go a warfare." So Froissart: "He was not in good poynt to ride a warfare." The phrase,
however, is incorrect as a translation, since the Greek word is used not only of war, but of military service in general. Soldiers are called strateuo>menoi, Luke 3:14.
More correctly, who serveth as a soldier? or, as Rev., what soldier servet? See on Luke 3:14; James 4:1.

Charges (ojywni>oiv). See on Luke 3:14 and compare Romans 6:23; 2 Corinthians 11:8.

Feedeth (poimai>nei). See on 1 Peter 5:2. Bengel remarks: "The minister of the gospel is beautifully compared with the soldier, vine-dresser, shepherd." He goes forth
to contend with the world, to plant churches, and to exercise pastoral care over them.

8. As a man (kata). Rev., after the manner of men. See on Romans 3:5. The formula occurs six times in Paul's epistles. The question introduces another kind of
evidence - that from Scripture. I will not confine myself to illustrations from human affairs. I will appeal to Scripture.

9. Muzzle (fimw>seiv). See on Matthew 22:12, 34; Mark 4:39. Some texts read khmw>seiv a muzzle, from khmo>v a muzzle See Deuteronomy 25:4.

Ox - treadeth. The custom of driving the oxen over the corn strewed on the ground or on a paved area, was an Egyptian one. In later times the Jews used threshing
instruments, dragged by the beasts through the grain Herodotus says that pigs were employed for this purpose in Egypt, but the monuments always represent oxen, or,
more rarely, asses. In Andalusia the process may still be seen, the animals pulling the drag in a circle through the heap of grain; and in Italy, the method of treading out
by horses was in use up to a comparatively recent date. 101

The verb ajloa>w to tread, occurring only here, ver. 10, and 1 Timothy 5:18 is etymologically related to a[lwn halon, threshing-floor (see on Matthew 3:12), which also
means the disk of the sun or moon, or a halo, thus implying the circular shape of the floor. Dr. Thomson says: "The command of Moses not to muzzle the ox that
treadeth out the corn is literally obeyed to this day by most farmers, and you often see the oxen eating from the floor as they go round. There are niggardly peasants,
however, who do muzzle the ox" ("The Land and the Book"). This custom was in strong contrast with that of Gentile farmers, who treated their laboring animals cruelly,
sometimes employing inhuman methods to prevent them from eating while threshing. All students of the Egyptian monuments are familiar with the hieroglyphic inscription
in a tomb at Eileithyas, one of the oldest written poems extant:

"Thresh ye for yourselves,

Thresh ye for yourselves,

Thresh ye for yourselves, O oxen.

Measures of grain for yourselves,

Measures of grain for your masters."

Doth God take care for oxen? The A.V. misses the true point of the expression. Paul, of course, assumes that God cares for the brute creation; but he means that this
precept of Moses was not primarily for the oxen's sake but for man's sake. He is emphasizing the typical and spiritual meaning of the command. Render, as Rev., Is it
for the oxen that God careth? 102

10. Altogether (pa>ntwv). Better, as Rev., in margin, as He doubtless doth, or, as American Rev., assuredly.

In hope (ejp' ejlpi>di). See on Romans 8:21. Resting on hope. Compare Aeschylus: "When hope has raised me up on strength (ejp' ajlka~v); i.e. elated me with
confidence" ("Choephoroe," 407).

He that thresheth in hope should be partaker of his hope. The text is in error here. The true reading is oJ ajlow~n ejp' ejlpi>di tou~ mete>cein and; he that thresheth to
thresh in hope of partaking.

12. Power (ejxousi>av). Rev., correctly, right. The right to claim maintenance.

Suffer (ste>gomen). Rev., bear. The primary meaning is to cover. So some render 1 Corinthians 13:7covereth for beareth. Hence to protect by covering, as with a tight
ship or roof. So Aesehylus, of a ship: "The wooden house with sails that keeps out (ste>gwn) the sea" ("Suppliants," 126). "The tower keeps off (ajposte>gei) the
multitude of the enemy" ("Seven against Thebes," 220). And so, to bear up against, endure. Compare 1 Thessalonians 3:1, 5. 103

Hinder (ejgkoph). Lit., give hindrance. Rev., cause hindrance. h> hindrance, only here in the New Testament. Primarily, an incision, and so used by the physician
Galen. Compare the kindred verb ejgko>ptw to cut into, also occurring in Hippocrates in the surgical sense. In the sense of cutting into one's way, it gets the meaning
of hindrance. See Acts 24:4; Romans 15:22; Galatians 5:7; 1 Thessalonians 2:18; 1 Peter 3:7. Compare the Latin intercidere to divide, inter-rupt.

13. Minister (ejrgazo>menoi). Lit, work or perform. Never in classical Greek of being engaged in sacred rites.

Wait (paredreu>ontev). Etymologically akin to pa>redrov sitting beside. See on 1 Corinthians 7:35. On]y here in the New Testament.

Altar (qusiasthri>w|). See on Acts 17:23
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17. For if l do this thing willingly, etc. The exact line of Paul's thought is a matter of much discussion, and must be determined if we are to understand the force of the
several words. It appears to be as follows: He has been speaking of the fact that he preaches at his own cost. He so glories in this that he would rather die than
surrender this ground of boasting Compare 2 Corinthians 11:7-12; 12:13-16. For it is the only ground of boasting that is possible to him. The preaching of the Gospel
Wait (paredreu>ontev). Etymologically akin to pa>redrov sitting beside. See on 1 Corinthians 7:35. On]y here in the New Testament.

Altar (qusiasthri>w|). See on Acts 17:23

17. For if l do this thing willingly, etc. The exact line of Paul's thought is a matter of much discussion, and must be determined if we are to understand the force of the
several words. It appears to be as follows: He has been speaking of the fact that he preaches at his own cost. He so glories in this that he would rather die than
surrender this ground of boasting Compare 2 Corinthians 11:7-12; 12:13-16. For it is the only ground of boasting that is possible to him. The preaching of the Gospel
in itself furnishes no such ground, for one cannot boast of what he needs must do; and the necessity to preach the Gospel is laid on him under penalty of a "woe" if he
refuse. He goes on to show, in two propositions, why and how there is no cause for boasting in preaching under necessity. 1 Supposing there were no necessity, but
that he preached of free will, like the twelve who freely accepted the apostleship at Christ's call, then he would rightfully have a reward, as a free man entering freely
upon service; and so would have some ground of glorying. 2. But supposing I became an apostle under constraint, as was the fact, then I am not in the position of a
free man who chooses at will, but of a slave who is made household steward by his master's will, without his own choice, and consequently I have no claim for reward
and no ground of boasting. What, then, is my reward? What ground of boasting have I? Only this: to make the Gospel without charge. In this I may glory. 104

Willingly - against my will (eJkw - a]kwn). These words are not to be explained of the spirit in which Paul fulfilled his ministry; but of his attitude toward the apostolic
charge when it was committed to him. He was seized upon by Christ (Philippians 2:12); constrained by His call on the way to Damascus. Rev., of mine own will - not
of mine own will.

Reward. Correlative with the second kau>chma something to glory of, in ver. 16.

A dispensation is committed unto me (oijkonomi>an pepi>stumai). Lit., I am entrusted with a stewardship. For a similar construction see Romans 3:2. Stewards
belonged to the class of slaves. See Luke 12:42, 43 and note oijkono>mov steward in ver. 42, and dou~lov ejkei~nov that bond-servant in ver. 43. Paul is not
degrading the gospel ministry to a servile office. He is only using the word to illustrate a single point - the manner of his appointment.

18. Abuse (katacrh>sasqai). See on 1 Corinthians 7:31. Rev., correctly, use to the full.

19. Made myself servant (ejdou>lwsa). Rev., brought myself under bondage; better, as bringing out the force of dou~lov bond-servant, from which the word is
derived, and thus according with stewardship, ver. 17.

Gain (kedh>sw). Carrying out the thought of servant in ver. 18. "He refuses payment in money that he may make the greater gain in souls. But the gain is that which a
faithful steward makes, not for himself, but for his master" (Edwards). The word is not, as Godet, to be limited to its purely natural meaning, but is used in the sense of
Matthew 18:15; 1 Peter 3:1.

20. Them that are under the law. The distinction between this class and Jews is differently explained. Some, Jews, viewed nationally; under the law, viewed religiously.
Others, Jews by origin, and Gentile proselytes. Others understand by those under the law, rigid Jews, Pharisees. The first explanation seems preferable.

21. Without law (a]nomov). As one of the Gentiles. By intercourse with them, relinquishment of Jewish observances, and adapting his teaching to their modes of
thought. See Acts 17.

Under law (e]nnomov). The expression differs from that in ver. 20, uJpomon under law, though with only a shade of difference in meaning. &Ennomov means subject
to the law, but in the sense of keeping within (ejn) the law.

22. Weak. In faith and christian discernment. Compare 1 Corinthians 8:7 sqq.; Romans 14:1; 15:1; 1 Thessalonians 5:14.

24. In a race (ejn stadi>w|). Or, better, in a race-course. From i[sthmi to place or establish. Hence a stated distance; a standard of length. In all other New-Testament
passages it is used of a measure of length, and is rendered furlong, representing 606.75 English feet. From the fact that the race-courses were usually of exactly this
length, the word was applied to the race-course itself. The position chosen for the stadium was usually on the side of a hill, which would furnish a natural slope for seats;
a corresponding elevation on the opposite side, being formed by a mound of earth, and the seats being supported upon arches. The stadium was oblong in shape, and
semicircular at one end; though, after the Roman conquest of Greece, both ends were often made semicircular. A straight wall shut in the area at one end, and here
were the entrances and the starting-place for the runners. At the other end was the goal, which, like the starting-point, was marked by a square pillar. Half-way
between these was a third pillar. On the first pillar was inscribed excel; on the second, hasten; on the third, turn, since the racers turned round the column to go back to
the starting-point. 105

The isthmus of Corinth was the scene of the Isthmian games, one of the four great national festivals of the Greeks. The celebration was a season of great rejoicing and
feasting. The contests included horse, foot, and chariot-racing; wrestling, boxing, musical and poetical trials, and later, fights of animals. The victor's prize was a garland
of pine leaves, and his victory was generally celebrated in triumphal odes called epinikia, of which specimens remain among the poems of Pindar. 106 At the period of
Paul's epistles the games were still celebrated, and the apostle himself may very probably have been present. 107 At the same time, he would have been familiar with
similar scenes in Tarsus, in all the great cities of Asia Minor, especially Ephesus, and even in Jerusalem. Metaphors and allusions founded upon such spectacles abound
in Paul s writings. Racers, 1 Corinthians 9:24; boxers, 1 Corinthians 9:26, 27; gladiators fighting with beasts, 1 Corinthians 15:32; the judge awarding the prize, 2
Timothy 4:8; the goal and the prize, 1 Corinthians 9:24; Philippians 3:14; the chaplet, 1 Corinthians 9:25; 2 Timothy 2:5; 4:8 the training for the contest, 1 Timothy 4:7,
8; the rules governing it, 2 Timothy 2:5; the chariot-race, Philippians 3:14. These images never occur in the gospels. See on of life, Revelation 2:10

Prize (brabei~on). Only here and Philippians 3:14. The kindred verb brabeu>w to be umpire, occurs once, Colossians 3:15. See note.

Obtain (katala>bhte). Lit., lay hold of. Rev., attain. See on comprehended, John 1:5; come upon you, John 12:35; and perceived, Acts 4:13. Compare Philippians
3:12.

25. Striveth for the mastery (ajgwnizo>menov). Better, Rev., striveth in the games, thus preserving the metaphor. The word was the regular term for contending in the
arena or on the stage.

Is temperate (ejgkrateu>etai). Only here and 1 Corinthians 7:9. The candidate for the races was required to be ten months in training, and to practice in the gymnasium
immediately before the games, under the direction of judges who had themselves been instructed for ten months in the details of the games. The training was largely
dietary. Epictetus says: "Thou must be orderly, living on spare food; abstain from confections; make a point of exercising at the appointed time, in heat and in cold; nor
drink cold water nor wine at hazard." Horace says: "The youth who would win in the race hath borne and done much; he hath sweat and been cold; he hath abstained
from love and wine" ("Ars Poetica," 412). Tertullian, commending the example of the athletes to persecuted Christians, says: "Coguntur, cruciantur, fatigantur." "They
are constrained, harassed, wearied" ("Ad Martyres," 3). Compare 2 Timothy 2:5.
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26. Uncertainly (ajdh>lwv). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred adjective a]dhlov not manifest, occurs Luke 11:44 (see note) and 1 Corinthians 14:8.
drink cold water nor wine at hazard." Horace says: "The youth who would win in the race hath borne and done much; he hath sweat and been cold; he hath abstained
from love and wine" ("Ars Poetica," 412). Tertullian, commending the example of the athletes to persecuted Christians, says: "Coguntur, cruciantur, fatigantur." "They
are constrained, harassed, wearied" ("Ad Martyres," 3). Compare 2 Timothy 2:5.

Crown (ste>fanon). Chaplet of pine-leaves. See on Revelation 4:4.

26. Uncertainly (ajdh>lwv). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred adjective a]dhlov not manifest, occurs Luke 11:44 (see note) and 1 Corinthians 14:8.
Compare also ajdhlo>thv uncertainty, 1 Timothy 6:17. He runs with a clear perception of his object, and of the true manner and result of his striving.

Fight I (pukteu>w). Only here in the New Testament. Distinctively of fighting with the fists, and evidently in allusion to the boxing-match. Rev., in margin, box.
Etymologically akin to pugmh> the fist; see on oft, Mark 7:3.

Beateth the air. A boxer might be said to beat the air when practicing without an adversary. This was called skiamaci>a shadow-fighting. Or he might purposely strike
into the air in order to spare his adversary; or the adversary might evade his blow, and thus cause him to spend his strength on the air. The two latter may well be
combined in Paul's metaphor. He strikes straight and does not spare. Compare Virgil, in the description of a boxing-match:

"Entellus, rising to the work, his right hand now doth show

Upreared, but he, the nimble one, foresaw the falling blow

Above him, and his body swift writhed skew-wise from the fall.

Entellus spends his stroke on air."

"Aeneid," v., 443. Morris' Translation.

27. I keep under (uJpwpia>zw). A feeble translation, and missing the metaphor. The word means to strike under the eye; to give one a black eye. It occurs elsewhere
in the New Testament but once, Luke 18:5 (see note). Rev., I buffet. The blow of the trained boxer was the more formidable from the use of the cestus, consisting of
ox-hide bands covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron. So Entellus throws his boxing-gloves into the ring, formed of seven bulls' hides with lead
and iron sewed into them (Virgil, "Aeneid," v., 405). They were sometimes called guioto>roi limb-breakers. A most interesting account is given by Rodolfo Lanziani,
"Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries," of the exhuming at the foundation of the Temple of the Sun, erected by Aurelian, of a sitting bronze statue of a
boxer. The accompanying photograph shows the construction of the fur-lined boxing-gloves secured by thongs wound round the forearm half-way to the elbow. The
gloves cover the thumb and the hand to the first finger-joints. The writer says; "The nose is swollen from the effects of the last blow received; the ears resemble a flat
and shapeless piece of leather; the neck, the shoulders, the breast, are seamed with scars.... The details of the fur-lined boxing-gloves are also interesting, and one
wonders how any human being, no matter how strong and powerful, could stand the blows from such weapons as these gloves, made of four or five thicknesses of
leather, and fortified with brass knuckles."

Bring it into subjection (doulagwgw~). Rev., bring in into bondage. Metaphor of captives after battle. Not of leading the vanquished round the arena (so Godet), a
custom of which there is no trace, and which, in most cases, the condition of the vanquished would render impossible. It is rather one of those sudden changes and
mixtures of metaphor so frequent in Paul's writings. See, for instance, 2 Corinthians 5:1, 2.

Having preached (khru>xav). See on 2 Peter 2:5. Some find in the word an allusion to the herald (kh~rux) who summoned the contestants and proclaimed the prizes.

Castaway (ajdo>kimov). See on Romans 1:28. Better, as Rev., rejected, as unworthy of the prize.

CHAPTER 10

1. Moreover (de>). But the correct reading is ga>r for, introducing an illustration of rejection by God, and thus connecting what follows with the close of the last
chapter. It is possible that I may be rejected, for the Israelites were.

All. Strongly emphasized in contrast with most of them (A.V., many) in ver. 5. All enjoyed the privileges, but few improved them. The word is repeated five times.

Under the cloud. The cloudy pillar which guided the Israelites. It is sometimes spoken of as covering the host. See Psalms 105:39; Wisdom 10:17; 19:7; Numbers
14:14.

2. Baptized unto Moses (eijv). Rev., margin, into. See on Matthew 28:19; Romans 6:3. They were introduced into a spiritual union with Moses, and constituted his
disciples.

Cloud - sea. The two together forming the type of the water of baptism. Bengel says: "The cloud and the sea are in their nature water." The cloud was diffused and
suspended water.

3. Spiritual meat. The manna, called spiritual because coming from heaven. See Psalms 78:25; John 6:31; and on Revelation 11:8; 2:17.

4. Drink - spiritual drink. Spiritual, like the meat, in being supernaturally given. The aorist tense denotes something past, yet without limiting it to a particular occasion.
They drank at Rephidim (Exodus 17:6), but they continued to drink spiritual drink, for

They drank (e]pinon). The imperfect tense denoting continued action - throughout their journey.

That spiritual rock. For that read a. Paul appears to recall a rabbinic tradition that there was a well formed out of the spring in Horeb, which gathered itself up into a
rock like a swarm of bees, and followed the people for forty years; sometimes rolling itself, sometimes carried by Miriam, and always addressed by the elders, when
they encamped, with the words, "Spring up, O well!" Numbers 21:17. Stanley says: "In accordance with this notion, the Rock of Moses, as pointed out by the local
tradition of Mt. Sinai, is not a cleft in the mountain, but a detached fragment of rock about fifteen feet high, with twelve or more fissures in its surface, from which the
water is said to have gushed out for the twelve tribes. This local tradition is as old as the Koran, which mentions this very stone." 108

Was Christ. Showing that he does not believe the legend, but only uses it allegorically. The important point is that Christ the Word was with His people under the old
covenant. "In each case we recognize the mystery of a 'real presence"' (Ellicott). "God was in Christ" here, as from the beginning. The mosaic and the christian
economies are only different sides of one dispensation, which is a gospel dispensation throughout. The Jewish sacraments are not mere types of ours. They are
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5. Many (toi~v plei>osin). The A.V. misses the force of the article, the many. Hence Rev., correctly, most of them. All perished save Caleb and Joshua.
Was Christ. Showing that he does not believe the legend, but only uses it allegorically. The important point is that Christ the Word was with His people under the old
covenant. "In each case we recognize the mystery of a 'real presence"' (Ellicott). "God was in Christ" here, as from the beginning. The mosaic and the christian
economies are only different sides of one dispensation, which is a gospel dispensation throughout. The Jewish sacraments are not mere types of ours. They are
identical.

5. Many (toi~v plei>osin). The A.V. misses the force of the article, the many. Hence Rev., correctly, most of them. All perished save Caleb and Joshua.

Overthrown (katestrw>qhsan). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., were strewn down along (the ground). The word belongs mostly to later Greek, though found in
Herodotos in the general sense of slaying. So Euripides: "He laid low his wife and child with one dart" ("Hercules Furens," 1000). It is used of spreading a couch.

6. Examples (tu>poi). See on 1 Peter 5:3. The word may mean either an example, as 1 Timothy 4:12 or a type of a fact or of a spiritual truth. Hebrews 9:24; Romans
5:14.

We should not lust (mh). Lit., should not be desirers. qbw>v desirer, lover, only here in the New Testament. Frequent in the classics. The sins of the Israelites are
connected with those of the Corinthians.

7. Idolaters. Referring to the danger of partaking of the idol feasts.

To play (pai>zein). The merrymaking generally which followed the feast, not specially referring to the dancing at the worship of the golden calf. See Exodus 32:19.

Commit fornication. Lasciviousness was habitually associated with idol-worship. The two are combined, Acts 15:29. A thousand priests ministered at the licentious
rites of the temple of Venus at Corinth. 109

Three and twenty thousand. A plain discrepancy between this statement and Numbers 25:9 where the number is twenty-four thousand. It may have been a lapse of
memory.

9. Let us tempt Christ (ejkpeira>zwmen ton). The compound word is very significant, "to tempt out" (ejk); tempt thoroughly; try to the utmost. It occurs in three other
places: Matthew 4:7; Luke 4:12; 10:25; and, in every case, is used of tempting or testing Christ. Compare Psalms 77:18 (Sept.). For Christ read Ku>rion the Lord.

10. Murmur (goggu>zete). See on John 6:41.

The destroyer (tou~ ojloqreutou~). The destroying angel, who is called oJ ojloqreu>wn, Exodus 12:23.

11. Happened (sune>bainon). The imperfect tense marks the successive unfolding of the events.

For ensamples (tu>poi). The best texts read tupikw~v by way of figure.

Admonition (nouqesi>an). See on the kindred verb to warn, Acts 20:31

Ends of the world (talh tw~n aijw>nwn). Lit., ends of the ages. So Rev. Synonymous with hJ sunte>leia tw~n aijw>nwn the consummation of the ages, Hebrews 9:26.
The phrase assumes that Christ's second coming is close at hand, and therefore the end of the world. Ellicott acutely remarks that the plural, ends, marks a little more
distinctly the idea of each age of preparation having passed into the age that succeeded it, so that now all the ends of the ages have come down to them.

Are come (kath>nthken) See on Acts 26:7. Compare Ephesians 4:13; Philippians 3:11.

13. Temptation (peirasmo). See on Matthew 6:13.

Common to man (ajnqrw>pinov). The word means what belongs to men, human. It occurs mostly in this epistle; once in Romans 6:19 meaning after the manner of
men, popularly (see note). See James 3:7; 1 Peter 2:13; 1 Corinthians 2:4, 13; 4:3. It may mean here a temptation which is human, i.e., incident or common to man, as
A.V., or, inferentially, a temptation adapted to human strength; such as man can bear, Rev. The words are added as an encouragement, to offset the warning "let him
that thinketh," etc. They are in danger and must watch, but the temptation will not be beyond their strength.

A way to escape (th). Rev., better, the way of escape. The word means an egress, a way out. In classical Greek, especially, of a way out of the sea. Hence, in later
Greek, of a landing-place. Compare Xenophon: "The ford that was over against the outlet leading to the mountains" ("Anabasis," 4. 3, 20). 110 For the sense of issue
or end, see on Hebrews 13:7. The words with the temptation and the way of escape imply an adjustment of the deliverance to each particular case.

To bear. Not the same as escape. Temptation which cannot be fed must be endured. Often the only escape is through endurance. See James 1:12.

14. Idolatry. Notice the article: the idolatry, the temptation of which is constantly present in the idol-feasts.

15. Wise (froni>moiv). See on wisdom, Luke 1:17; wisely, Luke 16:8. The warning against the sacrificial feasts and the allusion in ver. 3 suggest the eucharistic feast.
An act of worship is sacramental, as bringing the worshipper into communion with the unseen. Hence he who practices idolatry is in communion with demons (ver. 20),
as he who truly partakes of the Eucharist is in communion with Christ. But the two things are incompatible (ver. 21). In citing the Eucharist he appeals to them as
intelligent (wise) men, concerning a familiar practice.

16. The cup of blessing (torion th~v eujlogi>av). Lit., the blessing: the cup over which the familiar formula of blessing is pronounced. Hence the Holy Supper was often
styled Eulogia (Blessing). For blessing, see on blessed, 1 Peter 1:3. It is the same as eucharistia (thanksgiving), applied as the designation of the Lord's Supper:
Eucharist. See 1 Corinthians 14:16; 1 Timothy 4:4, 5. The cup is first mentioned, perhaps, because Paul wishes to dwell more at length on the bread; or possibly,
because drinking rather than eating characterized the idol-feasts.

Communion (koinwni>a). Or participation. See on fellowship, 1 John 1:3; Acts 2:42; partners, Luke 5:10. The Passover was celebrated by families, typifying an
unbroken fellowship of those who formed one body, with the God who had passed by the blood-sprinkled doors.

17. For (o[ti). Better, seeing that. It begins a new sentence which is dependent on the following proposition: Seeing that there is one bread, we who are many are one
body. Paul is deducing the mutual communion of believers from the fact of their communion with their common Lord. By each and all receiving a piece of the one loaf,
which represents Christ's body, they signify that they are all bound in one spiritual body, united to Christ and therefore to each other. So Rev., in margin. Ignatius says:
"Take  care to
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of His blood (Philadelphia, 4.).

Body. Passing from the literal sense, the Lord's body (ver. 16), to the figurative sense, the body of believers, the Church.
17. For (o[ti). Better, seeing that. It begins a new sentence which is dependent on the following proposition: Seeing that there is one bread, we who are many are one
body. Paul is deducing the mutual communion of believers from the fact of their communion with their common Lord. By each and all receiving a piece of the one loaf,
which represents Christ's body, they signify that they are all bound in one spiritual body, united to Christ and therefore to each other. So Rev., in margin. Ignatius says:
"Take care to keep one eucharistic feast only; for there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto unity of His blood;" i.e., that all may be one by partaking
of His blood (Philadelphia, 4.).

Body. Passing from the literal sense, the Lord's body (ver. 16), to the figurative sense, the body of believers, the Church.

Partake of (ejk mete>comen). Or partake from. That which all eat is taken from (ejk) the one loaf, and they eat of it mutually, in common, sharing it among them
(meta>). So Ignatius: "That ye come together e[na a]rton klw~ntev breaking one loaf" (Ephesians, 20.).

18. Showing that partaking of the idol-feasts is idolatry, by the analogy of the Israelite who, by partaking of the sacrifices puts himself in communion with Jehovah's
altar.

Partakers of the altar (koinwnoiou). An awkward phrase. Rev., better, bringing out the force of koinwnoi communers: have not they - communion with the altar? The
Israelite who partook of the sacrifices (Leviticus 8:31) united himself with the altar of God. Paul says with the altar rather than with God, in order to emphasize the
communion through the specific act of worship or sacrifice; since, in a larger sense, Israel after the flesh, Israel regarded as a nation, was, in virtue of that fact, in
fellowship with God, apart from his partaking of the sacrifices. Possibly, also, to suggest the external character of the Jewish worship in contrast with the spiritual
worship of Christians. Philo calls the Jewish priest koinwnomou partaker of the altar.

20. Devils (daimoni>oiv). See on Mark 1:34. Used here, as always in the New Testament, of diabolic spirits. 111 Daimo>nion the neuter of the adjective daimo>niov
divine, occurs in Paul's writings only here and 1 Timothy 4:1. It is used in the Septuagint, Deuteronomy 32:17 to translate the Hebrew word which seems, originally, to
have meant a supernatural being inferior to the gods proper, applied among the Assyrians to the bulldeities which guarded the entrances to temples and palaces. Among
the Israelites it came to signify all gods but the God of Israel. Compare Isaiah 65:11 where Gad (good fortune, probably the star-God Jupiter) is rendered in the
Septuagint tw|~ daimoni>w| the demon. See Rev, O.T. Also Psalms 96:5 (Sept. 95.), where elilim things of nought, A.V. idols, is rendered by daimo>nia demons. 112

21. The cup of devils. Representing the heathen feast. The special reference may be either to the drinking-cup, or to that used for pouring libations.

The Lord's table. Representing the Lord's Supper. See 1 Corinthians 11:20 sqq. The Greeks and Romans, on extraordinary occasions, placed images of the gods
reclining on couches, with tables and food beside them, as if really partakers of the things offered in sacrifice. 113 Diodorus, describing the temple of Bel at Babylon,
mentions a large table of beaten gold, forty feet by fifteen, standing before the colossal statues of three deities. Upon it were two drinking-cups. See, also, the story of
"Bel and the Dragon," vers. 10-15. 114 The sacredness of the table in heathen worship is apparent from the manner in which it is combined with the altar in solemn
formulae; as ara et mensa. Allusions to the table or to food and drink-offerings in honor of heathen deities occur in the Old Testament: Isaiah 65:11; Jeremiah 7:18;
Ezekiel 16:18, 19; 23:41. In Malachi 1:7 the altar of burnt-offering is called "the table of the Lord." 115

22. Do we provoke - to jealousy (h} parazhlou~men). The A.V. does not translate h} or, and thus breaks the connection with what precedes. You cannot be at the
same time in communion with the Lord and with demons, or will you ignore this inconsistency and provoke God? For the verb, see on Romans 10:19.

Are we stronger. The force of the interrogative particle is, surely we are not stronger.

24. Another's wealth (torou). Lit., that which is the other's. Wealth, inserted by A.V. is used in the older English sense of well-being. See on Acts 19:25. The A.V. also
ignores the force of the article, the other. Rev., much better, his neighbor's good.

25. The shambles (make>llw). Only here in the New Testament. It is a Latin word, which is not strange in a Roman colony like Corinth. In sacrifices usually only a part
of the victim was consumed. The rest was given to the priests or to the poor, or sold again in the market. Any buyer might therefore unknowingly purchase meat offered
to idols.

Asking no question. As to whether the meat had been used in idol sacrifice. See on 1 Corinthians 2:14.

26. The earth is the Lord's, etc. The common form of Jewish thanksgiving before the meal. For fullness, see on Romans 11:12.

28. Any man. Some fellow-guest, probably a gentile convert, but, at all events, with a weak conscience.

Shewed (mhnu>santa) See on Luke 20:37 It implies the disclosure of a secret which the brother reveals because he thinks his companion in danger

30. By grace (ca>riti). Better, as Rev., in margin, with thankfulness: with an unsullied conscience, so that I can sincerely give thanks for my food. Compare Romans
14:6; 1 Timothy 4:4, 5

Am I evil-spoken of (blasfhmou~mai). In the gospels this word, of which blaspheme is a transcript, has, as in the Septuagint, the special sense of treating the name of
God with scorn. So Matthew 9:3; 26:65; John 10:36. In the epistles frequently as here, with the classical meaning of slandering or defaming.

CHAPTER 11

1. Followers (mimhtai>). Lit., imitators, as Rev. This verse belongs to the closing section of 1 Corinthians 10.

2. Ordinances - delivered (parado>seiv - pare>dwka). There is a play of two hundred words, both being derived from paradi>dwmi to give over. Ordinances is a
faulty rendering. Better, Rev., traditions. By these words Paul avoids any possible charge of imposing his own notions upon the Church. He delivers to them what had
been delivered to him. Compare 1 Timothy 1:11; 2 Thessalonians 2:15.

4. Having his head covered (kata). Lit., having something hanging down from his head. Referring to the tallith, a four-cornered shawl having fringes consisting of eight
threads, each knotted five times, and worn over the head in prayer. It was placed upon the worshipper's head at his entrance into the synagogue. The Romans, like the
Jews, prayed with the head veiled. So Aeneas: "And our heads are shrouded before the altar with a Phrygian vestment" (Virgil, "Aeneid," iii., 545). The Greeks
remained bareheaded during prayer or sacrifice, as indeed they did in their ordinary outdoor life. The Grecian usage, which had become prevalent in the Grecian
churches, seems to have commended itself to Paul as more becoming the superior position of the man.

5. Her head uncovered. Rev., unveiled. The Greek women rarely appeared in public, but lived in strict seclusion. Unmarried women never quitted their apartments,
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Thus Euripides: "As to that which brings the reproach of a bad reputation upon her who remains not at home, giving up the desire of this, I tarried in my
dwelling" ("Troades," 649). And Menander: "The door of the court is the boundary fixed for the free woman." The head-dress of Greek women consisted of nets, hair-
churches, seems to have commended itself to Paul as more becoming the superior position of the man.

5. Her head uncovered. Rev., unveiled. The Greek women rarely appeared in public, but lived in strict seclusion. Unmarried women never quitted their apartments,
except on occasions of festal processions, either as spectators or participants. Even after marriage they were largely confined to the gynaeconitis or women's rooms.
Thus Euripides: "As to that which brings the reproach of a bad reputation upon her who remains not at home, giving up the desire of this, I tarried in my
dwelling" ("Troades," 649). And Menander: "The door of the court is the boundary fixed for the free woman." The head-dress of Greek women consisted of nets, hair-
bags, or kerchiefs, sometimes covering the whole head. A shawl which enveloped the body was also often thrown over the head, especially at marriages or funerals.
This costume the Corinthian women had disused in the christian assemblies, perhaps as an assertion of the abolition of sexual distinctions, and the spiritual equality of
the woman with the man in the presence of Christ. This custom was discountenanced by Paul as striking at the divinely ordained subjection of the woman to the man.
Among the Jews, in ancient times, both married and unmarried women appeared in public unveiled. The later Jewish authorities insisted on the use of the veil.

All one as if she were shaven. Which would be a sign either of grief or of disgrace. The cutting off of the hair is used by Isaiah as a figure of the entire destruction of a
people by divine retribution. Isaiah 7:20 Among the Jews a woman convicted of adultery had her hair shorn, with the formula: "Because thou hast departed from the
manner of the daughters of Israel, who go with their head covered, therefore that has befallen thee which thou hast chosen." According to Tacitus, among the Germans
an adulteress was driven from her husband's house with her head shaved; and the Justinian code prescribed this penalty for an adulteress, whom, at the expiration of
two years, her husband refused to receive again. Paul means that a woman praying or prophesying uncovered puts herself in public opinion on a level with a courtesan.

6. Shorn or shaven (kei>rasqai h} xura~sqai). To have the hair cut close, or to be entirely shaved as with a razor.

7. Image and glory (eijkwxa) For image, see on Revelation 13:14. Man represents God's authority by his position as the ruler of the woman. In the case of the woman,
the word image is omitted, although she, like the man, is the image of God. Paul is expounding the relation of the woman, not to God, but to man.

10. Power on her head (ejxousi>an). Not in the primary sense of liberty or permission, but authority. Used here of the symbol of power, i.e., the covering upon the
head as a sign of her husband's authority. So Rev., a sign of authority.

Because of the angels. The holy angels, who were supposed by both the Jewish and the early Christian Church to be present in worshipping assemblies. More,
however, seems to be meant than "to avoid exciting disapproval among them." The key-note of Paul's thought is subordination according to the original divine order.
Woman best asserts her spiritual equality before God, not by unsexing herself, but by recognizing her true position and fulfilling its claims, even as do the angels, who
are ministering as well as worshipping spirits (Hebrews 1:4). She is to fall in obediently with that divine economy of which she forms a part with the angels, and not to
break the divine harmony, which especially asserts itself in worship, where the angelic ministers mingle with the earthly worshippers; nor to ignore the example of the
holy ones who keep their first estate, and serve in the heavenly sanctuary. 116

14. Nature (fu>siv). The recognized constitution of things. In this case the natural distinction of the woman's long hair. 117

16. Custom. Not the custom of contentiousness, but that of women speaking unveiled. The testimonies of Tertullian and Chrysostom show that these injunctions of Paul
prevailed in the churches. In the sculptures of the catacombs the women have a close-fitting head-dress, while the men have the hair short.

17. I declare (paragge>llw). Wrong. It means in the New Testament only command. See on Luke 5:14; Acts 1:4.

18. In the church (ejn ejkklhsi>a|). See on Matthew 16:18. Not the church edifice, a meaning which the word never has in the New Testament, and which appears first
in patristic writings. The marginal rendering of the Rev. is better: in congregation.

19. Heresies (aiJrejseiv). See on 2 Peter 2:1. In Paul only here and Galatians 5:20. Better, parties or factions, as the result of the divisions.

20. This is not (oujk e]stin). Rev., correctly, it is not possible.

The Lord's Supper (kuriako). The emphasis is on Lord's. Dei~pnon supper, represented the principal meal of the day, answering to the late dinner. The Eucharist
proper was originally celebrated as a private expression of devotion, and in connection with a common, daily meal, an agape or love-feast. In the apostolic period it
was celebrated daily. The social and festive character of the meal grew largely out of the gentile institution of clubs or fraternities, which served as savings-banks,
mutual-help societies, insurance offices, and which expressed and fostered the spirit of good-fellowship by common festive meals, usually in gardens, round an altar of
sacrifice. The communion-meal of the first and second centuries exhibited this character in being a feast of contribution, to which each brought his own provision. It also
perpetuated the Jewish practice of the college of priests for the temple-service dining at a common table on festivals or Sabbaths, and of the schools of the Pharisees in
their ordinary life.

Indications of the blending of the eucharistic celebration with a common meal are found here, Acts 2:42; 20:7 and more obscurely, Acts 27:35. 118

21. Taketh before other. Not waiting for the coming of the poor to participate.

22. Them that have not. Not, that have not houses, but absolutely, the poor. In thus shaming their poorer comrades they imitated the heathen. Xenophon relates of
Socrates that, at feasts of contribution, where some brought much and others little, Socrates bade his attendant either to place each small contribution on the table for
the common use, or else to distribute his share of the same to each. And so those who had brought much were ashamed not to partake of that which was placed for
general use, and not, in return, to place their own stock on the table ("Memorabilia," iii., 14, 1).

23. I received (ejgwlabon). I is emphatic, giving the weight of personal authority to the statement. The question whether Paul means that he received directly from
Christ, or mediately through the apostles or tradition, turns on a difference between two prepositions. Strictly, ajpo from or of, with the Lord, would imply the more
remote source, from the Lord, through the apostles; but Paul does not always observe the distinction between this and para>, from the preposition of the nearer source
(see Greek, Colossians 1:7; 3:24); and this latter preposition compounded with the verb received, the emphatic I, and the mention of the fact itself, are decisive of the
sense of an immediate communication from Christ to Paul. 119

Also (kai). Important as expressing the identity of the account of Jesus with his own.

He was betrayed (paredi>deto). Imperfect tense, and very graphic. he was being betrayed. He instituted the Eucharist while His betrayal was going on.

24. Had given thanks (eujcaristh>v). Eucharistesas. Hence in post-apostolic and patristic writers, Eucharist was the technical term for the Lord's Supper as a sacrifice
of thanksgiving for all the gifts of God, especially for the "unspeakable gift," Jesus Christ. By some of the fathers of the second century the term was sometimes applied
to the consecrated elements. The formula of thanksgiving cited in "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" is, for the cup first, 'We give thanks to Thee, our Father, for
the holy vine of David Thy servant, which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus, Thy servant: to Thee be the glory forever." And for the bread: "We give thanks
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to Thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus Thy servant: to Thee be the glory forever. As thisPage     broken86  / 567
                                                                                                                                                                bread  was
scattered upon the mountains and, gathered together, became one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy Kingdom, for Thine is
the glory and the power through Jesus Christ forever."
24. Had given thanks (eujcaristh>v). Eucharistesas. Hence in post-apostolic and patristic writers, Eucharist was the technical term for the Lord's Supper as a sacrifice
of thanksgiving for all the gifts of God, especially for the "unspeakable gift," Jesus Christ. By some of the fathers of the second century the term was sometimes applied
to the consecrated elements. The formula of thanksgiving cited in "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" is, for the cup first, 'We give thanks to Thee, our Father, for
the holy vine of David Thy servant, which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus, Thy servant: to Thee be the glory forever." And for the bread: "We give thanks
to Thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus Thy servant: to Thee be the glory forever. As this broken bread was
scattered upon the mountains and, gathered together, became one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy Kingdom, for Thine is
the glory and the power through Jesus Christ forever."

Brake. Bengel says: "The very mention of the breaking involves distribution and refutes the Corinthian plan - every man his own" (ver. 21).

Do (poiei~e). Be doing or continue doing.

In remembrance (eijv). Strictly, for or with a view to, denoting purpose. These words do not occur in Matthew and Mark. Paul's account agrees with Luke's.
Remembrance implies Christ's bodily absence in the future.

25. After supper. Only Luke records this detail. It is added to mark the distinction between the Lord's Supper and the ordinary meal.

Testament (diaqh>kh). Rev., correctly, covenant. See on Matthew 26:28. The Hebrew word is derived from a verb meaning to cut. Hence the connection of dividing
the victims with the ratification of a covenant. See Genesis 15:9-18. A similar usage appears in the Homeric phrase o[rkia pista, lit., to cut trustworthy oaths, whence
the word oaths is used for the victims sacrificed in ratification of a covenant or treaty. See Homer, "Iliad," ii., 124; 3. 73, 93. So the Latin foedus ferire "to kill a league,"
whence our phrase to strike a compact. In the Septuagint proper, where it occurs nearly three hundred times, diaqh>kh, in all but four passages, is the translation of the
Hebrew word for covenant (berith). In those four it is used to render brotherhood and words of the covenant. In Philo it has the same sense as in the Septuagint, and
covenant is its invariable sense in the New Testament.

26. Ye do shew (katagge>llete). Rev., better, proclaim. It is more than represent or signify. The Lord's death is preached in the celebration of the Eucharist. Compare
Exodus 13:8 thou shalt shew. In the Jewish passover the word Haggadah denoted the historical explanation of the meaning of the passover rites given by the father to
the son. Dr. Schaff says of the eucharistic service of the apostolic age: "The fourteenth chapter of first Corinthians makes the impression - to use an American phrase -
of a religions meeting thrown open. Everybody who had a spiritual gift, whether it was the gift of tongues, of interpretation, of prophecy, or of sober, didactic teaching,
had a right to speak, to pray, and to sing. Even women exercised their gifts" ("Introduction to the Didache"). See, further, on ch. 14:33.

27. Unworthily (ajnaxi>wv). Defined by "not discerning the Lord's body," ver. 29.

Guilty (e]nocov). See on Mark 3:29; James 2:10.

28. So. After self-examination and consequent knowledge of his spiritual state.

29. Unworthily. Omit.

Damnation (kri~ma). See on Mark 16:16; John 9:39. This false and horrible rendering has destroyed the peace of more sincere and earnest souls than any other
misread passage in the New Testament. It has kept hundreds from the Lord's table. Kri~ma is a temporary judgment, and so is distinguished from kata>krima
condemnation, from which this temporary judgment is intended to save the participant. The distinction appears in ver. 32 (see note). The A.V. of the whole passage,
28-34, is marked by a confusion of the renderings of kri>nein to judge and its compounds. 120

Not discerning (mhnwn). Rev., if he discern not, bringing out the conditional force of the negative particle. The verb primarily means to separate, and hence to make a
distinction, discriminate. Rev., in margin, discriminating. Such also is the primary meaning of discern (discernere to part or separate), so that discerning implies a mental
act of discriminating between different things. So Bacon: "Nothing more variable than voices, yet men can likewise discern these personally." This sense has possibly
become a little obscured in popular usage. From this the transition is easy and natural to the sense of doubting, disputing, judging, all of these involving the recognition of
differences. The object of the discrimination here referred to, may, I think, be regarded as complex. After Paul's words (vers. 20, 22), about the degradation of the
Lord's Supper, the discrimination between the Lord's body and common food may naturally be contemplated; but further, such discernment of the peculiar significance
and sacredness of the Lord's body as shall make him shrink from profanation and shall stimulate him to penitence and faith.

The Lord's body. Omit Lord's and read the body. This adds force to discerning.

30. Weak and sickly. Physical visitations on account of profanation of the Lord's table.

Many sleep (koimw~ntai iJkanoi>). The word for many means, primarily, adequate, sufficient. See on Romans 15:23. Rev., not a few hardly expresses the ominous
shading of the word: quite enough have died. Sleep. Better, are sleeping. Here simply as a synonym for are dead, without the peculiar restful sense which christian
sentiment so commonly conveys into it. See on Acts 7:60; 2 Peter 3:4.

31. We would judge (diekri>nomen). An illustration of the confusion in rendering referred to under ver. 29. This is the same word as discerning in ver. 29, but the A.V.
recognizes no distinction between it, and judged (ejkrino>meqa) immediately following. Render, as Rev., if we discerned ourselves; i.e., examined and formed a right
estimate.

We should not be judged (oujk ajn ejkrino>meqa). By God. Here judged is correct. A proper self-examination would save us from the divine judgment.

32. When we are judged (krino>menoi). Correct. The same word as the last. With this construe by the Lord; not with chastened. The antithesis to judging ourselves is
thus preserved. So Rev., in margin.

Condemned (katakriqw~men). Signifying the final condemnatory judgment; but in ver. 29 the simple kri~ma temporary judgment, is made equivalent to this. See note.

33. Tarry (ejkde>cesqe). In the usual New-Testament sense, as John 5:3; Acts 17:16; though in some cases the idea of expectancy is emphasized, as Hebrews 10:13;
11:10; James 5:7. Some render receive ye one another, in contrast with despising the poorer guests; but this is not according to New-Testament usage.

34. Will I set in order (diata>xomai). Referring to outward, practical arrangements. See on Matthew 11:1 and compare 1 Corinthians 9:14; 16:1; Galatians 3:19.

CHAPTER 12

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                                                                                                                                                                 a higher
power than their own, the ordinary and natural faculties of the human mind seemed to retire, to make way for loftier aspirations, more immediate intimations of the
divine will, more visible manifestations of the divine power.... It resembled in some degree the inspiration of the Jewish judges, psalmists, and prophets; it may be
34. Will I set in order (diata>xomai). Referring to outward, practical arrangements. See on Matthew 11:1 and compare 1 Corinthians 9:14; 16:1; Galatians 3:19.

CHAPTER 12

1. Spiritual gifts. The charismata, or special endowments of supernatural energy, such as prophecy and speaking with tongues. "Before this consciousness of a higher
power than their own, the ordinary and natural faculties of the human mind seemed to retire, to make way for loftier aspirations, more immediate intimations of the
divine will, more visible manifestations of the divine power.... It resembled in some degree the inspiration of the Jewish judges, psalmists, and prophets; it may be
illustrated by the ecstasies and visions of prophets in all religions; but in its energy and universality it was peculiar to the christian society of the apostolic age" (Stanley).

2. Ye were carried away (ajpago>menoi). Blindly hurried. Rev., led.

Dumb idols. Compare Psalms 115:5, 7. And Milton:

"The oracles are dumb,

No voice or hideous hum

Runs through the arched roof in words deceiving."

"Hymn on the Nativity"

The contrast is implied with the living vocal spirit, which dwells and works in Christ's people, and responds to their prayers.

Even as ye were led (wJv a}n h}gesqe). Rev., howsoever ye might be led. Better, Ellicott: "As from time to time ye might be led. The imperfect tense with the indefinite
particle signifies habitually, whenever the occasion might arise. Compare Greek of Mark 6:56. "Now the fatal storm carried the blinded gentile, with a whole
procession, to the temple of Jupiter; again it was to the altars of Mars or Venus, always to give them over to one or other of their deified passions" (Godet).

3. Calleth Jesus accursed (le>gei >qema x~v). Lit., saith Anathema Jesus. Rev., preserving the formula, saith Jesus is Anathema. Compare Acts 18:6 and see on
offerings, Luke 21:5. Paul uses only the form ajna>qema, and always in the sense of accursed.

4. Diversities (diaire>seiv). Only here in the New Testament. It may also be rendered distributions. There is no objection to combining both meanings, a distribution of
gifts implying a diversity. Ver. 11, however, seems to favor distributions.

Gifts (carisma>twn). See on Romans 1:11.

Administrations (diakoniw~n). Rev., better, ministrations. Compare Ephesians 4:12. In the New Testament commonly of spiritual service of an official character. See
Acts 1:25; 6:4; 20:24; Romans 11:13; 1 Timothy 1:12; and on minister, Matthew 20:26.

6. Operations (ejnergh>mata). Rev., workings. Outward manifestations and results of spiritual gifts. The kindred word ejne>rgeia energy is used only by Paul: and only
of superhuman good or evil. Compare Ephesians 1:19; 3:7; Colossians 2:12. See on Mark 6:14.

Worketh (ejnergw~n). Etymologically akin to operations. See on Mark 6:14; James 5:16.

All (tanta). Or them all. The article shows that they are regarded collectively.

9. Faith. Not saving faith in general, which is the common endowment of all Christians, but wonder-working faith.

10. Prophecy. Not mere foretelling of the future. Quite probably very little of this element is contemplated; but utterance under immediate divine inspiration: delivering
inspired exhortations, instructions, or warnings. See on prophet, Luke 7:26. The fact of direct inspiration distinguished prophecy from "teaching."

Discerning of spirits. Rev., correctly, discernings. Distinguishing between the different prophetic utterances, whether they proceed from true or false spirits. See 1
Timothy 4:1; 1 John 4:1, 2.

Divers kinds of tongues (ge>nh glwssw~n).

I.PASSAGES RELATING TO THE GIFT OF TONGUES. Mark 16:17; Acts 2:3-21; 10:46; 19:6; 1 Corinthians 12:10, 28; 13:1; 14. Possibly Ephesians 5:18; 1
Peter 4:11.

II.TERMS EMPLOYED. New tongues (Mark 16:17): other or different tongues (e[terai, Acts 2:4): kinds (ge>nh) of tongues (1 Corinthians 12:10): simply tongues or
tongue (glw~ssai glw~ssa, 1 Corinthians 14.): to speak with tongues or a tongue (glw>ssaiv or glw>ssh| lalei~n, Acts 2:4; 10:46; 19:6; 1 Corinthians 14:2, 4, 13, 14,
19, 27): to pray in a tongue (proseu>cesqai glw>ssh|, 1 Corinthians 14:14, 15), equivalent to praying in the spirit as distinguished from praying with the understanding:
tongues of men and angels (1 Corinthians 13:1).

III.RECORDED FACTS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.

(1.)The first recorded bestowment of the gift was at Pentecost (Acts 2.). The question arises whether the speakers were miraculously endowed to speak with other
tongues, or whether the Spirit interpreted the apostle's words to each in his own tongue. Probably the latter was the case, since there is no subsequent notice of the
apostles preaching in foreign tongues; there is no allusion to foreign tongues by Peter, nor by Joel, whom he quotes. This fact, moreover, would go to explain the
opposite effects on the hearers.

(2.)Under the power of the Spirit, the company addressed by Peter in the house of Cornelius at Caesarea spake with tongues. Acts 10:44-46.

(3.)Certain disciples at Ephesus, who received the Holy Spirit in the laying on of Paul's hands, spake with tongues and prophesied, Acts 19:6.

IV.MEANING OF THE TERM "TONGUE." The various explanations are: the tongue alone, inarticulately: rare, provincial, poetic, or archaic words: language or
dialect. The last is the correct definition. It does not necessarily mean any of the known languages of men, but may mean the speaker's own tongue, shaped in a peculiar
manner by the Spirit's influence; or an entirely new spiritual language.
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V. NATURE OF THE GIFT IN THE CORINTHIAN CHURCH.
IV.MEANING OF THE TERM "TONGUE." The various explanations are: the tongue alone, inarticulately: rare, provincial, poetic, or archaic words: language or
dialect. The last is the correct definition. It does not necessarily mean any of the known languages of men, but may mean the speaker's own tongue, shaped in a peculiar
manner by the Spirit's influence; or an entirely new spiritual language.

V. NATURE OF THE GIFT IN THE CORINTHIAN CHURCH.

(1.)The gift itself was identical with that at Pentecost, at Caesarea, and at Ephesus, but differed in its manifestations, in that it required an interpreter. 1 Corinthians
12:10, 30; 14:5, 13, 26, 27.

(2.)It was closely connected with prophesying: 1 Corinthians 14:1-6, 22, 25; Acts 2:16-18; 19:6. Compare 1 Thessalonians 5:19, 20. It was distinguished from
prophesying as an inferior gift, 1 Corinthians 14:4, 5; and as consisting in expressions of praise or devotion rather than of exhortation, warning, or prediction, 1
Corinthians 14:14-16.

(3.)It was an ecstatic utterance, unintelligible to the hearers, and requiring interpretation, or a corresponding ecstatic condition on the part of the hearer in order to
understand it. It was not for the edification of the hearer but of the speaker, and even the speaker did not always understand it, 1 Corinthians 14:2, 19. It therefore
impressed unchristian bystanders as a barbarous utterance, the effect of madness or drunkenness, Acts 2:13, 15; 1 Corinthians 14:11, 23. Hence it is distinguished
from the utterance of the understanding, 1 Corinthians 14:4, 14-16, 19, 27.

VI.PAUL ESTIMATE OF THE GIFT. He himself was a master of the gift (1 Corinthians 14:18), but he assigned it an inferior position (1 Corinthians 14:4, 5), and
distinctly gave prophesying and speaking with the understanding the preference (1 Corinthians 14:2, 3, 5, 19, 22).

VII.RESULTS AND PERMANENCE. Being recognized distinctly as a gift of the Spirit, it must be inferred that it contributed in some way to the edification of the
Church; but it led to occasional disorderly outbreaks (1 Corinthians 14:9, 11, 17, 20-23, 26-28, 33, 40). As a fact it soon passed away from the Church. It is not
mentioned in the Catholic or Pastoral Epistles. A few allusions to it occur in the writings of the fathers of the second century. Ecstatic conditions and manifestations
marked the Montanists at the close of the second century, and an account of such a case, in which a woman was the subject, is given by Tertullian. Similar phenomena
have emerged at intervals in various sects, at times of great religious excitement, as among the Camisards in France, the early Quakers and Methodists, and especially
the Irvingites. 121

13. Made to drink (ejpoti>sqhmen). The verb means originally to give to drink, from which comes the sense of to water or irrigate. The former is invariably the sense in
the gospels and Revelation; the latter in 1 Corinthians 3:6-8 and by some here. The reference is to the reception of the Spirit in baptism. Omit into before one Spirit.

14. The body. The student will naturally recall the fable of the body and the members uttered by Menenius Agrippa, and related by Livy, ii., 32; but the illustration
seems to have been a favorite one, and occurs in Seneca, Marcus Antoninus, and others. 122

18. Set (e]qeto). See on John 15:16 where the same word is used by Christ of appointing His followers.

22. Seem to be (dokou~nta - uJpa>rcein). The allusion is probably to those which seem to be weaker in their original structure, naturally. This may be indicated by the
use of uJpa>rcein to be (see on James 2:15); compare ei+nai to be, in ver. 23. Others explain of those which on occasion seem to be weaker, as when a member is
diseased.

23. We bestow (periti>qemen). Elsewhere in the New Testament the word is used, without exception, of encircling with something; either putting on clothing, as
Matthew 27:28; or surrounding with a fence, as Matthew 21:33; or of the sponge placed round the reed, as Mark 15:36; John 19:29. So evidently here. Rev., in
margin, put on. The more abundant honor is shown by the care in clothing.

Uncomely - comeliness (ajsch>mona - eujschmosu>nhn). See on honorable, Mark 15:43; shame, Revelation 16:15. Compare ajschmonei~n behaveth uncomely, 1
Corinthians 7:36. The comeliness is outward, as is shown by the verb we put on, and by the compounds of och~ma fashion. See on transfigured, Matthew 17:2.

24. Tempered together (sune>krasen). Only here and Hebrews 4:2. Lit., mixed together. Here the idea of mutual adjustment is added to that of mingling. Compare
Plato on God's creating the soul and body. "He made her out of the following elements, and on this manner. Of the unchangeable and indivisible, and also of the
divisible and corporeal He made (xunekera>sato compounded) a third sort of intermediate essence, partaking of the same and of the other, or diverse" (see the whole
passage, "Timaeus," 35).

26. Suffer with it. Compare Plutarch of Solon's Laws: "If any one was beaten or maimed or suffered any violence, any man that would and was able might prosecute
the wrongdoer; intending by this to accustom the citizens, like members of the same body, to resent and be sensible of one another's injuries" (Solon). And Plato: "As in
the body, when but a finger is hurt, the whole frame, drawn towards the soul and forming one realm under the ruling power therein, feels the hurt and sympathizes all
together with the part affected" ("Republic," v., 462).

Is honored (doxa>zetai). Or glorified. Receives anything which contributes to its soundness or comeliness. So Chrysostom: "The head is crowned, and all the members
have a share in the honor; the eyes laugh when the mouth speaks."

27. In particular (ejk me>rouv). Rev., better, severally. Each according to his own place and function. See on part, Romans 11:25.

28. Hath set (e]qeto). See on ver. 18. The middle voice implies for His own use.

Miracles. Note the change from endowed persons to abstract gifts, and compare the reverse order, Romans 12:6-8.

Helps (ajntilh>myeiv). Rendered to the poor and sick as by the deacons. See on hath holpen, Luke 1:54.

Governments (kubernh>seiv). Only here in the New Testament. From kuberna>w to steer. The kindred kubernh>thv shipmaster or steersman, occurs Acts 27:11;
Revelation 18:17. Referring probably to administrators of church government, as presbyters. The marginal wise counsels (Rev.) is based on Septuagint usage, as
Proverbs 1:5; 20:21. Compare Proverbs 11:14; 24:6. Ignatius, in his letter to Polycarp says: "The occasion demands thee, as pilots (kubernh~tai) the winds." The
reading is disputed, but the sense seems to be that the crisis demands Polycarp as a pilot. Lightfoot says that this is the earliest example of a simile which was afterward
used largely by christian writers - the comparison of the Church to a ship. Hippolytus represents the mast as the cross; the two rudders the two covenants; the
undergirding ropes the love of Christ. The ship is one of the ornaments which Clement of Alexandria allows a Christian to wear ("Apostolic Fathers," Part ii., Ignatius to
Polycarp, 2.).

31. The best(c)
 Copyright   (tattona). The correct
                2005-2009,          reading
                             Infobase  Mediais Corp.
                                               tazona the greater. So Rev.                                                                                  Page 89 / 567
Yet (e]ti). Some construe with more excellent, rendering yet more excellent. So Rev. Others render moreover, and give the succeeding words a superlative force: "and
moreover a most excellent way," etc. See on with excellency, 1 Corinthians 2:1.
used largely by christian writers - the comparison of the Church to a ship. Hippolytus represents the mast as the cross; the two rudders the two covenants; the
undergirding ropes the love of Christ. The ship is one of the ornaments which Clement of Alexandria allows a Christian to wear ("Apostolic Fathers," Part ii., Ignatius to
Polycarp, 2.).

31. The best (tattona). The correct reading is tazona the greater. So Rev.

Yet (e]ti). Some construe with more excellent, rendering yet more excellent. So Rev. Others render moreover, and give the succeeding words a superlative force: "and
moreover a most excellent way," etc. See on with excellency, 1 Corinthians 2:1.

Way. To attain the higher gifts. The way of love as described in 1 Corinthians 13. "Love is the fairest and best in himself, and the cause of what is fairest and best in all
other things" (Plato, "Symposium," 197).

CHAPTER 13

"Love is our Lord - supplying kindness and banishing unkindness; giving friendship and forgiving enmity; the joy of the good, the wonder of the wise, the amazement of
the gods; desired by those who have no part in him, and precious to those who have the better part in him.... In every word, work, wish, fear-pilot (kubernh>thv,
compare governments, 12:28), comrade, helper, savior; glory of gods and men, leader best and brightest; in whose footsteps let every man follow, sweetly singing in his
honor that sweet strain with which love charms the souls of gods and men" (Plato, "Symposium," 197). "He interprets between gods and men, conveying to the gods
the prayers and sacrifices of men, and to men the commands and replies of the gods: he is the mediator who spans the chasm which divides them, and in him all is
bound together.... Through love all the intercourse and speech of God with man, whether awake or asleep, is carried on. The wisdom which understands this is
spiritual" (Id., 202-3).

Trench cites the following Italian proverbs: "He who has love in his heart has spurs in his sides." "Love rules without law." "Love rules his kingdom without a sword."
"Love is the master of all arts." See, also, Stanley's essay on "The Apostolic Doctrine of Love;" Commentary, p. 237.

1. Tongues. Mentioned first because of the exaggerated importance which the Corinthians attached to this gift.

Angels. Referring to the ecstatic utterances of those who spoke with tongues.

Charity (ajga>phn). Rev., love. The word does not occur in the classics, though the kindred verbs ajgapa>w and ajgapa>zw to love, are common. It first appears in
the Septuagint, where, however, in all but two of the passages, it refers to the love of the sexes. Eleven of the passages are in Canticles. See, also, 2 Samuel 13:15
Sept. The change in the Rev. from charity to love, is a good and thoroughly defensible one. Charity follows the caritas of the Vulgate, and is not used consistently in the
A.V. On the contrary, in the gospels, ajga>ph is always rendered love, and mostly elsewhere, except in this epistle, where the word occurs but twice. Charity, in
modern usage, has acquired the senses of tolerance and beneficence, which express only single phases of love. There is no more reason for saying "charity envieth not,"
than for saying "God is charity;" "the charity of Christ constraineth us;" "the charity of God is shed abroad in our hearts." The real objection to the change on the part of
unscholarly partisans of the A.V. is the breaking of the familiar rhythm of the verses.

Sounding brass (calko). The metal is not properly brass, the alloy of copper and zinc, but copper, or bronze, the alloy of copper and tin, of which the Homeric
weapons were made. Being the metal in common use, it came to be employed as a term for metal in general. Afterward it was distinguished; common copper being
called black or red copper, and the celebrated Corinthian bronze being known as mixed copper. The word here does not mean a brazen instrument, but a piece of
unwrought metal, which emitted a sound on being struck. In the streets of Seville one may see pedlers striking, together two pieces of brass instead of blowing a horn
or ringing a bell.

Tinkling cymbal (ku>mbalon ajlala>zon). The verb rendered tinkling, alalazo, originally meant to repeat the cry alala, as in battle. It is used by Mark 6:38 of the wailings
of hired mourners. Hence, generally, to ring or clang. Rev., clanging. Ku>mbalon cymbal, is derived from ku>mbov a hollow or a cup. The cymbal consisted of two
half-globes of metal, which were struck together. In middle-age Latin, cymbalum was the term for a church or convent-bell. Ducange defines: "a bell by which the
monks are called to meals, and which is hung in the cloister." The comparison is between the unmeaning clash of metal, and music; between ecstatic utterances which
are jargon, and utterances inspired by love, which, though unintelligible to the hearers, may carry a meaning to the speaker himself and to God, 1 Corinthians 14:4, 7.

2. All mysteries (taria pa>nta). The mysteries, all of them. See on Romans 11:25. The article indicates the well-known spiritual problems which exercise men's minds.

All faith (pa~san thstin). All the special faith which works miracles.

3. Bestow (ywmi>sw). Only here and Romans 12:20. See on sop, John 13:26. The verb means to feed out in morsels, dole out.

To be burned (i[na kauqh>swmai). The latest critical text reads kauch>swmai in order that I may glory, after the three oldest MSS. The change to burned might have
been suggested by the copyist's familiarity with christian martyrdoms, or by the story of the three Hebrews. Bishop Lightfoot finds a possible reference to the case of an
Indian fanatic who, in the time of Augustus, burned himself alive at Athens. His tomb there was visible in Paul's time, and may have been seen by him. It bore the
inscription: "Zarmochegas the Indian from Bargosa, according to the ancient customs of India, made himself immortal and lies here." Calanus, an Indian gymnosophist
who followed Alexander, in order to get rid of his sufferings, burned himself before the Macedonian army (see Plutarch, "Alexander"). Martyrdom for the sake of
ambition was a fact of early occurrence in the Church, if not in Paul's day. Farrar says of his age, "both at this time and in the persecution of Diocletian, there were
Christians who, oppressed by debt, by misery, and sometimes even by a sense of guilt, thrust themselves into the glory and imagined redemptiveness of the baptism of
blood.... The extravagant estimate formed of the merits of all who were confessors, became, almost immediately, the cause of grave scandals. We are horified to read
in Cyprian's letter that even in prison, even when death was imminent, there were some of the confessors who were puffed up with vanity and pride, and seemed to
think that the blood of martyrdom would avail them to wash away the stains of flagrant and even recent immoralities" ("Lives of the Fathers," ch. vi., sec. 2.).

4. Suffereth long (makroqumei~). See on James 5:7.

Is kind (crhsteu>etai). Only here in the New Testament. See on crhsto, A.V., easy, Matthew 11:30 and crhsto>thv good, Romans 3:12.

"The high charity which makes us servants

Prompt to the counsel which controls the world."

DANTE, "Paradiso," xxi., 70, 71.

Vaunteth (perpereu>etai). From pe>rperov a braggart. Used of one who sounds his own praises. Cicero introduces a compound of the word in one of his letters to
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                                               of Pompey, who had just addressed the senate on his return from the Mithridatic war. He says: "Heavens!   90I /showed
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off (ejneperpereusa>mhn) before my new auditor Pompey," and describes the various rhetorical tricks which he employed.
DANTE, "Paradiso," xxi., 70, 71.

Vaunteth (perpereu>etai). From pe>rperov a braggart. Used of one who sounds his own praises. Cicero introduces a compound of the word in one of his letters to
Atticus, describing his speech in the presence of Pompey, who had just addressed the senate on his return from the Mithridatic war. He says: "Heavens! How I showed
off (ejneperpereusa>mhn) before my new auditor Pompey," and describes the various rhetorical tricks which he employed.

Puffed up (fusiou~tai). See on 1 Corinthians 4:6, and compare 1 Corinthians 8:1. Of inward disposition, as the previous word denotes outward display. The opposite is
put by Dante:

"That swells with love the spirit well-disposed."

"Paradiso," x., 144.

5. Easily provoked (paroxu>netai). Easily is superfluous, and gives a wrong coloring to the statement, which is absolute: is not provoked or exasperated. The verb
occurs only here and Acts 17:16. The kindred noun paroxusmo>v, in Acts 15:39 describes the irritation which arose between Paul and Barnabas. In Hebrews
10:24stimulating to good works. It is used of provoking God, Deuteronomy 9:8; Psalms 105:29; Isaiah 65:3.

Thinketh no evil (ouj logi>zetai ton). Lit., reckoneth not the evil. Rev., taketh not account of. The evil; namely, that which is done to love. "Love, instead of entering evil
as a debt in its account-book, voluntarily passes the sponge over what it endures" (Godet).

6. Rejoiceth in the truth (sugcai>rei th|~ aJlhqei>a|). Rev., correctly, rejoiceth with. Truth is personified as love is. Compare Psalms 85:10.

7. Beareth (ste>gei). See on suffer, 1 Corinthians 9:12. It keeps out resentment as the ship keeps out the water, or the roof the rain.

Endureth (uJpome>nei). An advance on beareth: patient acquiescence, holding its ground when it can no longer believe nor hope.

"All my days are spent and gone;

And ye no more shall lead your wretched life,

Caring for me. hard was it, that I know,

My children! Yet one word is strong to loose,

Although alone, the burden of these toils,

For love in larger store ye could not have

From any than from him who standeth here."

SOPHOCLES, "Oedipus at Colonus," 613-618.

8. Faileth (ejkpi>pei). Falls off (ejk) like a leaf or flower, as James 1:11; 1 Peter 1:24. In classical Greek it was used of an actor who was hissed off the stage. But the
correct reading is pi>ptei falls, in a little more general sense, as Luke 16:17. Love holds its place.

11. A child. See on 1 Corinthians 3:1; 2:6.

I understood (ejfro>noun). See on Romans 8:5. The kindred noun fre>nev occurs only once in the New Testament, 1 Corinthians 14:20 where also it is associated
with children in the sense of reflection or discrimination. Rev. renders felt; but the verb, as Edwards correctly remarks, is not the generic term for emotion, though it may
be used for what includes emotion. The reference here is to the earlier undeveloped exercise of the childish mind; a thinking which is not yet connected reasoning. This
last is expressed by elogi>zomhn I thought or reasoned. There seems to be a covert reference to the successive stages of development; mere idle prating; thought, in
the sense of crude, general notions; consecutive reasoning.

When I became (o]te ge>gona). Rev., better, giving the force of the perfect tense, now that I am become. Hence I have put away for I put away. Lit., have brought
them to nought.

12. Through a glass (dij ejso>ptrou). Rev., in a mirror. Through (dia>) is by means of. Others, however, explain it as referring to the illusion by which the mirrored
image appears to be on the other side of the surface: others, again, think that the reference is to a window made of horn or other translucent material. This is quite
untenable. &Esoptron mirror occurs only here and James 1:23. The synonymous word ka>toptron does not appear in the New Testament, but its kindred verb
katoptri>zomai to look at one's self in a mirror, is found, 2 Corinthians 3:18. The thought of imperfect seeing is emphasized by the character of the ancient mirror, which
was of polished metal, and required constant polishing, so that a sponge with pounded pumice-stone was generally attached to it. Corinth was famous for the
manufacture of these. Pliny mentions stone mirrors of agate, and Nero is said to have used an emerald. The mirrors were usually so small as to be carried in the hand,
though there are allusions to larger ones which reflected the entire person. The figure of the mirror, illustrating the partial vision of divine things, is frequent in the
rabbinical writings, applied, for instance, to Moses and the prophets. Plato says: "There is no light in the earthly copies of justice or temperance or any of the higher
qualities which are precious to souls: they are seen through a glass, dimly" ("Phaedrus," 250). Compare "Republic," vii., 516.

Darkly (ejn aijni>gmati). Lit., in a riddle or enigma, the word expressing the obscure form in which the revelation appears. Compare dij aijnigma>twn in dark speeches,
Numbers 12:8.

Face to face. Compare mouth to mouth, Numbers 12:8.

Shall I know (ejpignw>somai). American Rev., rightly, "I shall fully know." See on knowledge, Romans 3:20. The A.V. has brought this out in 2 Corinthians 6:9well
known.

I am known (ejpegnw>sqhn). The tense is the aorist, "was known," in my imperfect condition. Paul places himself at the future stand-point, when the perfect has come.
The compound verb is the same as the preceding. Hence American Rev., "I was fully known."
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13. And now (nuni). Rev., but; better than and, bringing out the contrast with the transient gifts. Now is logical and not temporal. Thus, as it is.

Abideth. Not merely in this life. The essential permanence of the three graces is asserted. In their nature they are eternal.
I am known (ejpegnw>sqhn). The tense is the aorist, "was known," in my imperfect condition. Paul places himself at the future stand-point, when the perfect has come.
The compound verb is the same as the preceding. Hence American Rev., "I was fully known."

13. And now (nuni). Rev., but; better than and, bringing out the contrast with the transient gifts. Now is logical and not temporal. Thus, as it is.

Abideth. Not merely in this life. The essential permanence of the three graces is asserted. In their nature they are eternal.

CHAPTER 14

3. To edification - exhortation - comfort (oijkodomh - para>klhsin - paramuqi>an). Omit to. For edification see on build up, Acts 20:32. Exhortation, so American
Rev. Rev., comfort. See on Luke 6:24. Paramuqi>a comfort, Rev., consolation, occurs only here in the New Testament. Paramu>qion, which is the same, in
Philippians 2:1. The two latter words are found together in Philippians 2:1 and their kindred verbs in 1 Thessalonians 2:11. The differences in rendering are not
important. The words will bear either of the meanings in the two Revisions. If para>klhsin be rendered as Rev., comfort, paramuqi>a might be rendered incentive,
which implies exhortation. Consolation and comfort border a little too closely on each other.

7. Voice (fwnh). See on sound, Romans 10:18. The sound generally. Used sometimes of sounds emitted by things without life, as a trumpet or the wind. See Matthew
24:31; John 3:8.

Harp (kiqa>ra). See on Revelation 5:8.

Distinction (diastolh). Proper modulation. Compare the use of the word in Romans 3:22; 10:12.

Sounds (fqo>ggoiv). The distinctive sounds as modulated. See on Romans 10:18.

8. The trumpet (sa>lpigx). Properly, a war-trumpet.

Sound (fwnh). Rev., much better, voice, preserving the distinction between the mere sound of the trumpet and the modulated notes. The case might be illustrated by the
bugle calls or points by which military commands are issued, as distinguished from the mere blare of the trumpet.

10. Voices - without signification (fwnw~n - a]fwnwn). The translation loses the word-play. So many kinds of voices, and no kind is voiceless. By voices are meant
languages.

11. Meaning (du>namin). Lit., force.

Barbarian. Supposed to be originally a descriptive word of those who uttered harsh, rude accents - bar bar. Homer calls the Carians, barbaro>fwnoi barbar-voiced,
harsh-speaking ("Illiad," 2, 867). Later, applied to all who did not speak Greek. Socrates, speaking of the way in which the Greeks divide up mankind, says: "Here
they cut off the Hellenes as one species, and all the other species of mankind, which are innumerable and have no connection or common language, they include under
the single name of barbarians" (Plato, "Statesman," 262). So Clytaemnestra of the captive Cassandra: "Like a swallow, endowed with an unintelligible barbaric
voice" (Aeschylus, "Agamemnon," 1051). Prodicus in Plato's "Protagoras" says: "Simonides is twitting Pittacus with ignorance of the use of terms, which, in a Lesbian,
who has been accustomed to speak in a barbarous language, is natural" (341). Aristophanes calls the birds barbarians because they sing inarticulately ("Birds," 199);
and Sophocles calls a foreign land a]glwssov without a tongue. "Neither Hellas nor a tongueless land" ("Trachiniae," 1060). Later, the word took the sense of outlandish
or rude.

12. Spiritual gifts (pneuma>twn). Lit., spirits. Paul treats the different spiritual manifestations as if they represented a variety of spirits. To an observer of the unseemly
rivalries it would appear as if not one spirit, but different spirits, were the object of their zeal.

13. Pray that he may interpret (proseuce>sqw i[na diermhneu>h|). Not, pray for the gift of interpretation, but use his unknown tongue in prayer, which, above all other
spiritual gifts, would minister to the power of interpreting.

14. Spirit (pneu~ma). The human spirit, which is moved by the divine Spirit. See on Romans 8:4.

Understanding (nou~v). See on Romans 7:23.

Is unfruitful (a]karpo>v ejstin). Furnishes nothing to others.

15. I will sing (yalw~). See on James 5:13. The verb, a|]dw is also used for sing, Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16; Revelation 5:9; 14:3; 15:3. In the last two passages
it is combined with playing on harps. In Ephesians 5:19 we have both verbs. The noun yalmo>v psalm (Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16; 1 Corinthians 14:26), which is
etymologically akin to this verb, is used in the New Testament of a religious song in general, having the character of an Old Testament psalm; though in Matthew 26:30;
Mark 14:26uJmne>w hymneo, whence our hymn, is used of singing an Old Testament psalm. Here applied to such songs improvised under the spiritual ecstasy (ver.
26). Some think that the verb has here its original signification of singing with an instrument. This is its dominant sense in the Septuagint, and both Basil and Gregory of
Nyssa define a psalm as implying instrumental accompaniment; and Clement of Alexandria, while forbidding the use of the flute in the agapae, permitted the harp. But
neither Basil nor Ambrose nor Chrysostom, in their panegyrics upon music, mention instrumental music, and Basil expressly condemns it. Bingham dismisses the matter
summarily, and sites Justin Martyr as saying expressly that instrumental music was not used in the Christian Church. The verb is used here in the general sense of singing
praise.

16. The place (topon). Some explain of a particular seat in the assembly. Rather it expresses the condition of those who are unintelligent as regards the utterance in an
unknown tongue.

The unlearned (ijdiw>tou). Only once outside of the Corinthian Epistles: Acts 4:13 (see note). In the Septuagint it does not occur, but its kindred words are limited to
the sense of private, personal. Trench ("Synonyms") illustrates the fact that in classical Greek there lies habitually in the word "a negative of the particular skill,
knowledge, profession, or standing, over against which it is antithetically set; and not of any other except that alone." As over against the physician, for instance, he is
ijdiw>thv in being unskilled in medicine. This is plainly the case here - the man who is unlearned as respects the gift of tongues. From the original meaning of a private
individual, the word came to denote one who was unfit for public life, and therefore uneducated, and finally, one whose mental powers were deficient. Hence our idiot.
Idiot, however, in earlier English, was used in the milder sense of an uneducated person. Thus "Christ was received of idiots, of the vulgar people, and of the simpler
sort" (Blount). "What, wenest thou make an idiot of our dame?" (Chaucer, 5893). "This plain and idiotical style of Scripture." "Pictures are the scripture of idiots and
simple persons" (Jeremy Taylor).
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Amen. Rev., correctly, the Amen. The customary response of the congregation, adopted from the synagogue worship. See Deuteronomy 27:15 sqq.; Nehemiah 8:6.
The Rabbins have numerous sayings about the Amen. "Greater is he who responds Amen than he who blesses." "Whoever answers Amen, his name shall be great and
individual, the word came to denote one who was unfit for public life, and therefore uneducated, and finally, one whose mental powers were deficient. Hence our idiot.
Idiot, however, in earlier English, was used in the milder sense of an uneducated person. Thus "Christ was received of idiots, of the vulgar people, and of the simpler
sort" (Blount). "What, wenest thou make an idiot of our dame?" (Chaucer, 5893). "This plain and idiotical style of Scripture." "Pictures are the scripture of idiots and
simple persons" (Jeremy Taylor).

Amen. Rev., correctly, the Amen. The customary response of the congregation, adopted from the synagogue worship. See Deuteronomy 27:15 sqq.; Nehemiah 8:6.
The Rabbins have numerous sayings about the Amen. "Greater is he who responds Amen than he who blesses." "Whoever answers Amen, his name shall be great and
blessed, and the decree of his damnation is utterly done away." "To him who answers Amen the gates of Paradise are open." An ill-considered Amen was styled "an
orphan Amen." "Whoever says an orphan Amen, his children shall be orphans." The custom was perpetuated in Christian worship, and this response enters into all the
ancient liturgies. Jerome says that the united voice of the people in the Amen sounded like the fall of water or the sound of thunder.

19. Teach (kathch>sw). Orally. See on Luke 1:4.

20. Understanding (sresi>n). Only here in the New Testament. Originally, in a physical sense, the diaphragm. Denoting the reasoning power on the reflective side, and
perhaps intentionally used instead of nou~v (ver. 15), which emphasizes the distinction from ecstasy.

Children - be ye children (paidi>a - nhpia>zete). The A.V. misses the distinction between children and babes, the stronger term for being unversed in malice. In
understanding they are to be above mere children. In malice they are to be very babes. See on child, 1 Corinthians 13:11.

Malice (kaki>a|). See on James 1:21.

Men (te>leioi). Lit., perfect. See on 1 Corinthians 2:6.

21. It is written, etc. From Isaiah 28:11, 12. The quotation does not correspond exactly either to the Hebrew or to the Septuagint. Heb., with stammerings of lip. Sept.,
By reason of contemptuous words of lips. Paul omits the Heb.: This is the rest, give ye rest to the weary, and this is the repose. Sept.: This is the rest to him who is
hungry, and this is the ruin. The point of the quotation is that speech in strange tongues was a chastisement for the unbelief of God's ancient people, by which they were
made to hear His voice "speaking in the harsh commands of the foreign invader." So in the Corinthian Church, the intelligible revelation of God has not been properly
received.

24. Convinced (ejle>gcetai). Of his sins. See on tell him his fault, Matthew 18:15; convinced, James 2:9; reproved, John 3:20. Rev., reproved: convicted in margin.

Judged (ajnakri>netai). Examined and judged. The word implies inquiry rather than sentence. Each inspired speaker, in his heart-searching utterances, shall start
questions which shall reveal the hearer to himself. See on discerned, 1 Corinthians 2:14. On the compounds of kri>nw, see on 1 Corinthians 11:29, 31, 32.

27. By two, etc. That is, to the number of two or three at each meeting. 123

By course (ajna me>rov). Rev., correctly, in turn. Edwards' explanation, antiphonally, is quite beside the mark.

29. Judge. See on 1 Corinthians 11:29. Referring to the gift of the discernment of spirits. See on 1 Corinthians 12:10.

30. That sitteth. Rev., sitting by. The speaker standing.

32. The spirits. The movements and manifestations of the divine Spirit in the human spirit, as in 1 Corinthians 12:10.

Are subject. "People speak as if the divine authority of the prophetic word were somehow dependent on, or confirmed by, the fact that the prophets enjoyed visions....
In the New Testament Paul lays down the principle that, in true prophecy, self-consciousness, and self-command are never lost. 'The spirits of the prophets are subject
to the prophets'" (W. Robertson Smith, "The Prophets of Israel").

33. Confusion (ajkatastasi>av). See on commotions, Luke 21:9; and unruly, James 3:8. Compare 2 Corinthians 6:5.

As in all the churches of the saints. Many connect these words with let the women, etc. The old arrangement is retained by Rev. and by Westcott and Hort, though the
latter regard the words and the spirits - of peace as parenthetical. I see no good reason for departing from the old arrangement. 124

38. Let him be ignorant (ajgnoei>tw). Let him remain ignorant. The text is doubtful. Some read ajgnoei~tai he is not known; i.e., he is one whom God knows not.

CHAPTER 15

1. I declare (gnwri>zw). Reproachfully, as having to declare the Gospel anew.

2. If ye keep in memory what, etc. I see no good reason for departing from the arrangement of the A.V., which states that the salvation of the readers depends on their
holding fast the word preached. 125 Rev. reads: through which ye are saved; I make known, I say, in what words I preached it unto you, if ye hold it fast, etc. This is
certainly very awkward, making Paul say that their holding it fast was the condition on which he preached it. American Rev. as A.V.

3. That Christ, etc. Stanley remarks that vers. 1-11 contain the earliest known specimen of what may be called the creed of the early Church, differing, indeed, from
what is properly called a creed, in being rather a sample of the exact form of the apostle's early teaching, than a profession of faith on the part of converts. See his
dissertation in the commentary on Corinthians.

4. Rose (ejgh>gertai). Rev., correctly, hath been raised. Died and was buried are in the aorist tense. The change to the perfect marks the abiding state which began
with the resurrection. He hath been raised and still lives.

5. Was seen (w]fqh). Rev., appeared. The word most commonly used in the New Testament for seeing visions. See on Luke 22:43. Compare the kindred ojptasi>a
vision, Luke 1:22; Acts 26:19; 2 Corinthians 12:1.

8. One born out of due time (tw|~ ejktrw>mati). Only here in the New Testament. It occurs, Numbers 12:12; Job 3:16; Ecclesiastes 6:3. The Hebrew nephel, which it
is used to translate, occurs in the same sense in Psalms 58:8 where the Septuagint follows another reading of the Hebrew text. In every case the word means an
abortion, a still-born embryo. In the same sense it is found frequently in Greek medical writers, as Galen and Hippocrates, and in the writings of Aristotle on physical
science. This is the rendering of the Rheims Version: an abortive. Wyc., a dead-born child. The rendering of the A.V. and Rev. is unsatisfactory, since it introduces the
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                                                                                                                                                                        but living
and not dead. The word does not mean an untimely living birth, but a dead abortion, and suggests no notion of lateness of birth, but rather of being born before the
time. The words as unto the abortion are not to be connected with last of all - last of all as to the abortion - because there is no congruity nor analogy between the
8. One born out of due time (tw|~ ejktrw>mati). Only here in the New Testament. It occurs, Numbers 12:12; Job 3:16; Ecclesiastes 6:3. The Hebrew nephel, which it
is used to translate, occurs in the same sense in Psalms 58:8 where the Septuagint follows another reading of the Hebrew text. In every case the word means an
abortion, a still-born embryo. In the same sense it is found frequently in Greek medical writers, as Galen and Hippocrates, and in the writings of Aristotle on physical
science. This is the rendering of the Rheims Version: an abortive. Wyc., a dead-born child. The rendering of the A.V. and Rev. is unsatisfactory, since it introduces the
notion of time which is not in the original word, and fails to express the abortive character of the product; leaving it to be inferred that it is merely premature, but living
and not dead. The word does not mean an untimely living birth, but a dead abortion, and suggests no notion of lateness of birth, but rather of being born before the
time. The words as unto the abortion are not to be connected with last of all - last of all as to the abortion - because there is no congruity nor analogy between the
figure of an abortion and the fact that Christ appeared to him last. Connect rather with He appeared: last of all He appeared unto me as unto the abortion. Paul means
that when Christ appeared to him and called him, he was - as compared with the disciples who had known and followed Him from the first, and whom he had been
persecuting - no better than an unperfected foetus among living men. The comparison emphasizes his condition at the time of his call. The attempt to explain by a
reference to Paul's insignificant appearance, from which he was nicknamed "The Abortion" by his enemies, requires no refutation. 126

10. Was not (ouj ejgenh>qh). Rev., better, was not found: did not turn out to be.

11. Ye believed (ejpisteu>sate). When the Gospel was first preached: with a suggestion of a subsequent wavering from the faith.

12. There is no resurrection. Compare Aeschylus: "But who can recall by charms a man's dark blood shed in death, when once it has fallen to the ground at his feet?
Had this been lawful, Zeus would not have stopped him who knew the right way to restore men from the dead" 127 ("Agamemnon," 987-992).

14. Vain (keno). Empty, a mere chimaera

17. Vain (matai>a). A different word, signifying fruitless. The difference is between reality and result.

19. Only. To be taken with the whole clause, at the end of which it stands emphatically. If in this life we are hopers in Christ, and if that is all. If we are not such as shall
have hope in Christ after we shall have fallen asleep.

20. The first-fruits (ajparch). See on James 1:18. Omit become. Compare Colossians 1:18 and see on Revelation 1:5.

22. All - all. What the all means in the one case it means in the other.

23. Order (ta>gmati). Only here in the New Testament. In Sept., a band, troop, or cohort; also a standard; Numbers 10:14; 18:22, 25. How the one idea ran into the
other may be perceived from the analogy of the Latin manipulus, a handful of hay twisted round a pole and used by the Romans as the standard of a company of
soldiers, from which the company itself was called manipulus. In classical Greek, besides the meaning of company, it means an ordinance and a fixed assessment. Here
in the sense of band, or company, in pursuance of the principle of a descending series of ranks, and of consequent subordinations which is assumed by Paul. The series
runs, God, Christ, man. See 1 Corinthians 3:21-23; 11:3. The reference is not to time or merit, but simply to the fact that each occupies his own place in the economy
of resurrection, which is one great process in several acts. Band after band rises. First Christ, then Christians. The same idea appears in the first-fruits and the harvest.

24. Rule - authority - power (ajrch, ejxousi>an, du>namin). Abstract terms for different orders of spiritual and angelic powers; as Ephesians 1:21; 3:10; 6:12;
Colossians 1:16.

27. When He saith (o[tan ei]ph). God, speaking through the Psalmist (Psalms 8:6). Some, however, give a future force to the verb, and render but when He shall have
said; i.e., when, at the end, God shall have said, "All things are put under Him. The subjection is accomplished." See Rev., margin.

29. What shall they do (ti> poih>sousin). What will they effect or accomplish. Not, What will they have recourse to? nor, How will it profit them? The reference is to
the living who are baptized for the dead.

Baptized for the dead (baptizo>menoi uJpe). Concerning this expression, of which some thirty different explanations are given, it is best to admit frankly that we lack
the facts for a decisive interpretation. None of the explanations proposed are free from objection. Paul is evidently alluding to a usage familiar to his readers; and the
term employed was, as Godet remarks, in their vocabulary, a sort of technical phrase. A large number of both ancient and modern commentators 128 adopt the view
that a living Christian was baptized for an unbaptized dead Christian. The Greek expositors regarded the words the dead as equivalent to the resurrection of the dead,
and the baptism as a manifestation of belief in the doctrine of the resurrection. Godet adopts the explanation which refers baptism to martyrdom - the baptism of blood
- and cites Luke 12:50 and Mark 10:38. In the absence of anything more satisfactory I adopt the explanation given above.

31. I protest, etc. I protest is not expressed, but merely implied, in the particle of adjuration, nh by. The order of the Greek is noteworthy. I die daily, by your rejoicing,
etc.

Your rejoicing (thteran kau>chsin). Rev., better, that glorying in you which I have. Paul would say: "You Corinthian Christians are the fruit of my apostolic labor which
has been at a daily risk to life; and as truly as I can point to you as such fruit, so truly can I say, 'I die daily."'

I die daily. I am in constant peril of my life. Compare 2 Corinthians 4:11; 11:23; Romans 8:36. So Clytaemnestra: "I have no rest by night, nor can I snatch from the
day a sweet moment of repose to enfold me; but Time, ever standing over me, was as a jailer who conducted me to death" (Sophocles, "Electra," 780, 781). And
Philo: "And each day, nay, each hour, I die beforehand, enduring many deaths instead of one, the last."

32. After the manner of men (kata). As men ordinarily do, for temporal reward; and not under the influence of any higher principle or hope.

I have fought with beasts (ejqhrioma>chsa). Only here in the New Testament. Figuratively. Paul, as a Roman citizen, would not have been set to fight with beasts in the
arena; and such an incident would not have been likely to be passed over by Luke in the Acts. Compare similar metaphors in 1 Corinthians 4:9, 2 Timothy 4:17; Titus
1:12; Psalms 22:12, 13, 20, 21. Some, however, think it is to be taken literally. 129 They refer to the presence at Ephesus of the Asiarchs (Acts 19:31), who had
charge of the public games, as indicating that the tumult took place at the season of the celebration of the games in honor of Diana; to the fact that the young men at
Ephesus were famous for their bull-fights; and to the words at Ephesus as indicating a particular incident. On the assumption that he speaks figuratively, the natural
reference is to his experience with the ferocious mob at Ephesus. There was a legend that Paul was thrown, first of all, to a lion; then to other beasts, but was left
untouched by them all. In the Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans occur these words: "From Syria even unto Rome, I fight with beasts, both by land and sea, both night
and day, being bound to ten leopards. I mean a band of soldiers, who, even when they receive benefits, show themselves all the worse" (v.). Compare Epistle to
Tralles, 10.: "Why do I pray that I may fight with wild beasts?" So in the Epistle to Smyrna he says: "I would put you on your guard against these monsters in human
shape" (qhri>wn tw~n ajnqrwpomo>rfwn); and in the Antiochene "Acts of Martyrdom" it is said: "He (Ignatius) was seized by a beastly soldiery, to be led away to
Rome as a prey for carnivorous beasts" (ii.).

Let  us eat and
 Copyright   (c)drink, etc. Cited,
                2005-2009,         after the
                               Infobase      Septuagint,
                                          Media  Corp. from Isaiah 22:13. It is the exclamation of the people of Jerusalem during the siege by the Assyrians.
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traditional founder of Tarsus was Sardanapalus, who was worshipped, along with Semiramis, with licentious rites which resembled those of the Feast of Tabernacles.
Paul had probably witnessed this festival, and had seen, at the neighboring town of Anchiale, the statue of Sardanapalus, represented as snapping his fingers, and with
the inscription upon the pedestal, "Eat, drink, enjoy thyself. The rest is nothing." Farrar cites the fable of the Epicurean fly, dying in the honey-pot with the words, "I
Tralles, 10.: "Why do I pray that I may fight with wild beasts?" So in the Epistle to Smyrna he says: "I would put you on your guard against these monsters in human
shape" (qhri>wn tw~n ajnqrwpomo>rfwn); and in the Antiochene "Acts of Martyrdom" it is said: "He (Ignatius) was seized by a beastly soldiery, to be led away to
Rome as a prey for carnivorous beasts" (ii.).

Let us eat and drink, etc. Cited, after the Septuagint, from Isaiah 22:13. It is the exclamation of the people of Jerusalem during the siege by the Assyrians. The
traditional founder of Tarsus was Sardanapalus, who was worshipped, along with Semiramis, with licentious rites which resembled those of the Feast of Tabernacles.
Paul had probably witnessed this festival, and had seen, at the neighboring town of Anchiale, the statue of Sardanapalus, represented as snapping his fingers, and with
the inscription upon the pedestal, "Eat, drink, enjoy thyself. The rest is nothing." Farrar cites the fable of the Epicurean fly, dying in the honey-pot with the words, "I
have eaten and drunk and bathed, and I care nothing if I die." Among the inscriptions from the catacombs, preserved in the Vatican are these: "To the divine shade of
Titus, who lived fifty-seven years. Here he enjoys everything. Baths and wine ruin our constitutions, but they make life what it is. Farewell, farewell." "While I lived I
lived well. My play is now ended - soon yours will be. Farewell and applaud me." Compare Wisdom of Solomon, 2:1-9.

33. Communications (oJmili>ai). Wrong. Lit., companionships. Rev., company.

Manners (h]qh). Only here in the New Testament. Originally h+qov means an accustomed seat or haunt; thence custom, usage; plural, manners, morals, character. The
passage, "Evil company doth corrupt good manners," is an iambic line; either the repetition of a current proverb, or a citation of the same proverb from the poet
Menander. Compare Aeschylus: "Alas for the ill-luck in mortals that brings this honest man into company with those who have less regard for religion. In every matter,
indeed, nothing is worse than evil-fellowship" (oJmili>av) ("Seven against Thebes," 593-595).

34. Awake (ejknh>yate). Only here in the New Testament. It means to awake from a drunken stupor. Compare Joel 1:5 Sept. The kindred verb ajnanh>fw return to
soberness (A.V. and Rev., recover), occurs at 2 Timothy 2:26.

Have not the knowledge (ajgnwsi>an e]cousin). Lit., have an ignorance. Stronger than ajgnoei~n to be ignorant. They have and hold it. For the form of expression, see
on have sorrow, John 16:29. The word for ignorance is found only here and 1 Peter 2:15 (see note).

35. How - with what (pw~v - poi>w|). Rev., correctly, with what manner of. There are two questions: the first as to the manner, the second as to the form in which
resurrection is to take place. The answer to the first, How, etc., is, the body is raised through death (ver. 36); to the second, with what kind of a body, the answer,
expanded throughout nearly the whole chapter, is, a spiritual body.

Body (sw>mati). Organism. The objection assumes that the risen man must exist in some kind of an organism; and as this cannot be the fleshly body which is corrupted
and dissolved, resurrection is impossible. Sw~ma body is related to sa>rx flesh, as general to special; sw~ma denoting the material organism, not apart from any
matter, but apart from any definite matter; and sa>rx the definite earthly, animal organism. See on Romans 6:6. The question is not, what will be the substance of the
risen body, but what will be its organization (Wendt)?

36. Thou sowest (sureiv). Thou is emphatic. Every time thou sowest, thou sowest something which is quickened only through dying. Paul is not partial to metaphors
from nature, and his references of this character are mostly to nature in connection with human labor. Dean Howson says: "We find more of this kind of illustration in the
one short epistle of St. James than in all the writings of St. Paul" ("Metaphors of St. Paul." Compare Farrar's "Paul," i., 20, 21).

Die. Become corrupted. Applied to the seed in order to keep up the analogy with the body.

37. Not that body that shall be. Or, more literally, that shall come to pass. Meeting the objector's assumption that either the raised body must be the same body, or that
there could be no resurrection. Paul says: "What you sow is one body, and a different body arises;" yet the identity is preserved. Dissolution is not loss of identity. The
full heads of wheat are different from the wheat-grain, yet both are wheat. Clement of Rome, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, arguing for the resurrection of the
body, cites in illustration the fable of the phoenix, the Arabian bird, the only one of its kind, and which lives for a hundred years. When the time of its death draws near
it builds itself a nest of frankincense, myrrh, and other spices, and entering it, dies. In the decay of its flesh a worm is produced, which, being nourished by the juices of
the dead bird, brings forth feathers. Then, when it has acquired strength, it takes up the nest with the bones of its parent and bears them to Heliopolis in Egypt.

Bare (gumno). Naked. The mere seed, without the later investiture of stalk and head.

It may chance (eij tu>coi). Lit., if it happen to be: i.e., whatever grain you may chance to sow.

38. As it hath pleased (kaqwlhsen). Lit., even as He willed; at the creation, when He fixed the different types of grain, so that each should permanently assume a form
according to its distinctive type - a body of its own: that wheat should always be wheat, barley barley, etc. Compare Genesis 1:11, 12.

39. All flesh is not the same flesh. Still arguing that it is conceivable that the resurrection-body should be organized differently from the earthly body, and in a way which
cannot be inferred from the shape of the earthly body. There is a great variety of organization among bodies which we know: it may fairly be inferred that there may be
a new and different organization in those which we do not know. Flesh is the body of the earthly, living being, including the bodily form. See on Romans 7:5 sec. 3.

40. Celestial bodies (sw>mata ejpoura>nia). Not angels. For the meaning of sw>mata bodies is not limited to animate beings (see vers. 37, 38), and "the scoffers who
refused to believe in the existence of the future body would hardly have admitted the existence of angelic bodies. To convince them on their own ground, the apostle
appeals exclusively to what is seen" (Godet). The sense is, the heavenly bodies, described more specifically in ver. 41.

Bodies terrestrial (sw>mata ejpi>geia). Looking back to ver. 39, and grouping men, beasts, birds, fishes under this term. It is to be observed that the apostle makes
two general categories - terrestrial and celestial bodies, and shows the distinctions of organization subsisting between the members of each - men, beasts, fishes, birds,
and the sun, moon, stars; and that he also shows the distinction between the two categories regarded as wholes. "The glory of the celestial is one, and the glory of the
terrestrial is different."

41. Glory (do>xa). Lustre; beauty of form and color.

"As heaven's high twins, whereof in Tyrian blue

The one revolveth, through his course immense

Might love his fellow of the damask hue,

For like and difference."

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Of blue and red and argent worlds that mount
Might love his fellow of the damask hue,

For like and difference."

" - the triple whirl

Of blue and red and argent worlds that mount

Or float across the tube that Herschel sways,

Like pale-rose chaplets, or like sapp'hire mist,

Or hang or droop along the heavenly ways,

Like scarves of amethyst."

Jean Ingelow, "Honors."

Herodotus, describing the Median city of Agbatana, says that it is surrounded by seven walls rising in circles, one within the other, and having their battlements of
different colors - white, black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver, and gold. These seven colors were those employed by the Orientals to denote the seven great heavenly
bodies: Saturn black, Jupiter orange, Mars scarlet, the sun gold, Mercury blue, the Moon green or silver, and Venus white. The great temple of Nebuchadnezzar at
Borsippa was built in seven platforms colored in a similar way. See the beautiful description of the Astrologer's Chamber in Schiller's "Wallenstein," Part I., act ii., sc. 4.
There is no allusion to the different degrees of glory among the risen saints.

42. So also. Having argued that newness of organization is no argument against its possibility, Paul now shows that the substantial diversity of organism between the
earthly and the new man is founded in a diversity of the whole nature in the state before and in the state after the resurrection. Earthly beings are distinguished from the
risen as to duration, value, power, and a natural as distinguished from a spiritual body. 130

It is sown. Referring to the interment of the body, as is clear from vers. 36, 37. 131

43. Weakness. Compare Homer: "The feeble hands of the dead" ("Odyssey," v., 21); and the shade of Agamemnon stretching out his hands to Ulysses, "for no firm
force or vigor was in him" (Id., xi., 393). See Isaiah 14:10.

44. A natural body (sw>ma yuciko>n). See on 1 Corinthians 2:14. The word yuciko>n natural occurs only twice outside this epistle; James 3:15; Jude 1:19. The
expression natural body signifies an organism animated by a yuch> soul (see on Romans 11:4); that phase of the immaterial principle in man which is more nearly allied
to the sa>rx flesh, and which characterizes the man as a mortal creature; while pneu~ma spirit is that phase which looks Godward, and characterizes him as related to
God. "It is a brief designation for the whole compass of the non-corporeal side of the earthly man" (Wendt). "In the earthly body the yuch> soul, not the pneu~ma spirit
is that which conditions its constitution and its qualities, so that it is framed as the organ of the yuch>. In the resurrection-body the pneu~ma spirit, for whose life-activity
it is the adequate organ, conditions its nature" (Meyer). Compare Plato: "The soul has the care of inanimate being everywhere, and traverses the whole heaven in divers
forms appearing; when perfect and fully winged she soars upward, and is the ruler of the universe; while the imperfect soul loses her feathers, and drooping in her flight,
at last settles on the solid ground - there, finding a home, she receives an earthly frame which appears to be self-moved, but is really moved by her power; and this
composition of soul and body is called a living and mortal creature. For immortal no such union can be reasonably believed to be; although fancy, not having seen nor
surely known the nature of God, may imagine an immortal creature having a body, and having also a soul which are united throughout all time" ("Phaedrus," 246).

Spiritual body (sw>ma pneumatiko>n). A body in which a divine pneu~ma spirit supersedes the yuch> soul, so that the resurrection-body is the fitting organ for its
indwelling and work, and so is properly characterized as a spiritual body.

"When, glorious and sanctified, our flesh

Is reassumed, 132 then shall our persons be

More pleasing by their being all complete;

For will increase whate'er bestows on us

Of light gratuitous the Good Supreme,

Light which enables us to look on Him;

Therefore the vision must perforce increase,

Increase the ardor which from that is kindled,

Increase the radiance from which this proceeds.

But even as a coal that sends forth flame,

And by its vivid whiteness overpowers it

So that its own appearance it maintains,

Thus the effulgence that surrounds us now

Shall be o'erpowered in aspect by the flesh,

Which still to-day the earth doth cover up;

Nor can so great
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For strong will be the organs of the body
Shall be o'erpowered in aspect by the flesh,

Which still to-day the earth doth cover up;

Nor can so great a splendor weary us,

For strong will be the organs of the body

To everything which hath the power to please us."

"Paradiso," xiv., 43-60.

There is. The best texts insert if. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body. The existence of the one forms a logical presumption for the existence of the
other.

45. A living soul (yuch). See Genesis 2:7. Here yuch> passes into its personal sense - an individual personality (see Romans 11:4), yet retaining the emphatic reference
to the yuch> as the distinctive principle of that individuality in contrast with the pneu~ma spirit following. Hence this fact illustrates the general statement there is a natural
body: such was Adam's, the receptacle and organ of the yuch> soul.

Last Adam. Christ. Put over against Adam because of the peculiar relation in which both stand to the race: Adam as the physical, Christ as the spiritual head. Adam the
head of the race in its sin, Christ in its redemption. Compare Romans 5:14.

Quickening spirit (pneu~ma zwopoiou~n). Rev., life-giving. Not merely living, but imparting life. Compare John 1:4; 3:36; 5:26, 40; 6:33 35; 10:10; 11:25; 14:6. The
period at which Christ became a quickening Spirit is the resurrection, after which His body began to take on the characteristics of a spiritual body. 133 See Romans
6:4; 1 Peter 1:21.

46. Not first - spiritual - natural. A general principle, illustrated everywhere in human history, that the lower life precedes the higher.

47. Earthy (coi`ko>v). Only in this chapter. The kindred noun cou~v dust appears Mark 6:11; Revelation 18:19. From ce>w to pour; hence of earth thrown down or
heaped up: loose earth. Compare Genesis 2:7 Sept., where the word is used.

From heaven (ejz oujranou~). out of, marking the origin, as ejk gh~v out of the earth. Meyer acutely remarks that "no predicate in this second clause corresponds to
the earthy of the first half of the verse, because the material of the glorified body of Christ transcends alike conception and expression." The phrase includes both the
divine origin and the heavenly nature; and its reference, determined by the line of the whole argument, is to the glorified body of Christ - the Lord who shall descend
from heaven in His glorified body. See Philippians 3:20, 21. 134

49. We shall bear (faore>somen). The great weight of authority is in favor of fore>swmen let us bear. This reading presents a similar difficulty to that of let us have in
Romans 5:1 (see note). The context and the general drift of the argument are certainly against it. The perceptive or hortative subjunctive is, as Ellicott remarks,
singularly out of place and unlooked for. It may possibly be a case of itacism, i.e., the confusing of one vowel with another in pronunciation leading to a loose mode of
orthography.

51. We shall not all sleep (pa>ntev ouj koimhqhso>meqa). Not, there is not one of us now living who shall die before the Lord's coming, but, we shall not all die. There
will be some of us Christians living when the Lord comes, but we shall be changed. The other rendering would commit the apostle to the extent of believing that not one
Christian would die before the coming of Christ.

52. Moment (ajto>mw|). Only here in the New Testament. Atomos, from aj not and te>mnw to cut, whence our atom. An undivided point of time. The same idea of
indivisibility appears in ajkarh>v (not in the New Testament), from aj not and kei>rw to shear; primarily of hair too short to be cut, and often used in classical Greek of
time, as in the phrase ejn ajkarei~ cronou~ in a moment of time.

Twinkling (rJiph|~). Only here in the New Testament. Originally the swing or force with which a thing is thrown; a stroke or beat. Used in the classics of the rush of a
storm, the flapping of wings; the buzz of a gnat; the quivering of a harpstring; the twinkling of the stars. Generally of any rapid movement, as of the feet in running, or the
quick darting of a fish.

53. This corruptible. As if pointing to his own body. Compare these hands, Acts 20:34; this tabernacle, 2 Corinthians 5:1.

Put on (ejndu>sasqai) The metaphor of clothing. Compare 2 Corinthians 5:2-4. Incorruption and immortality are to invest the spiritually-embodied personality like a
garment.

54. Is swallowed up (katepo>qh). From Isaiah 25:8. The quotation agrees with the Hebrew: He shall swallow up death forever, rather than with the Septuagint, Death
has prevailed and swallowed men up, which reverses the meaning of the Hebrew. Compare 2 Corinthians 5:4.

In victory (eijv ni~kov). Lit., unto victory, so that victory is to be established.

55. O death, where, etc. From Hosea 13:14 a free version of the Sept.: "Where is thy penalty, O Death? Where thy sting, O Hades? Heb.: Where are thy plagues, O
Death? Where thy pestilence, O Sheol?

O grave (a[dh). Which is the reading of the Septuagint. The correct reading is qa>nate O death. So Rev. Hades does not occur in Paul's writings. In Romans 10:7 he
uses abyss. Edwards thinks that this is intentional, and suggests that Paul, writing to Greeks, may have shunned the ill-omened name which people dreaded to utter. So
Plato: "People in general use the word (Pluto) as a euphemism for Hades, which their fears lead them to derive erroneously from ajeidh>v the invisible" ("Cratylus,"
403).

Sting (ke>ntron). In the Septuagint for the Hebrew pestilence. See on Revelation 9:9. The image is that of a beast with a sting; not death with a goad, driving men.

57. Giveth. The present participle marking the certainty of the future victory. 135 Contrast Sir Walter Raleigh's words in concluding his "History of the World." "It is
therefore Death alone that can make any man suddenly know himself. He tells the proud and insolent that they are but abjects, and humbles them at the instant; makes
them cry, complain, and repent; yea, even to hate their forepassed happiness. He takes the account of the rich, and proves him a beggar - a naked beggar - which hath
interest in nothing, but in the gravel that fills his mouth. He holds a glass before the eyes of the most beautiful, and makes them see therein their deformity and rottenness;
and  they acknowledge
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"O eloquent, just and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou hast persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all the world hath flattered, thou
only hast cast out of the world and despised. Thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man; and covered it all over
57. Giveth. The present participle marking the certainty of the future victory. 135 Contrast Sir Walter Raleigh's words in concluding his "History of the World." "It is
therefore Death alone that can make any man suddenly know himself. He tells the proud and insolent that they are but abjects, and humbles them at the instant; makes
them cry, complain, and repent; yea, even to hate their forepassed happiness. He takes the account of the rich, and proves him a beggar - a naked beggar - which hath
interest in nothing, but in the gravel that fills his mouth. He holds a glass before the eyes of the most beautiful, and makes them see therein their deformity and rottenness;
and they acknowledge it.

"O eloquent, just and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou hast persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all the world hath flattered, thou
only hast cast out of the world and despised. Thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man; and covered it all over
with these two narrow words:

HIC JACET."

58. Steadfast, unmovable. The former refers to their firm establishment in the faith; the latter to that establishment as related to assault from temptation or persecution.
Fixedness is a condition of abounding in work. All activity has its center in rest. 136

CHAPTER 16

1. Collection (logi>av). Peculiar to the New Testament, and occurring only here and ver. 2. The classical word is sullo>gh, Vulg., collecta, which latter is also used of
the assemblies in which the collections took place. From le>gw to collect. For such material ministries Paul uses a variety of words; as ca>riv bounty, ver. 3; koinwni>a
contribution, Romans 15:26; eujlogi>a. blessing, 2 Corinthians 9:5; leitoupgi>a ministration, 2 Corinthians 9:12; ejlehmosu>nai alms, Acts 24:17. The word e]ranov
was used by the Greeks to denote a feast of contribution or picnic; a club for mutual relief, and a contribution, made as a club-subscription, or for the support of the
poor.

The saints. At Jerusalem. Evidently the community of property (Acts 2:44) had been abandoned; and Augustine supposes that the poverty of the Jerusalem Christians
was due to that practice. See note on Romans 15:26. The precise causes of the destitution in that church can be only conjectured.

2. Upon the first day of the week (kataan sabba>tou). Kata has a distributive force, every first day. For week, lit., Sabbath, see on Acts 20:7.

Lay by him in store (parj eJautw|~ tiqe>tw qhsauri>zwn). Lit., put by himself treasuring. Put by at home. 137

As God hath prospered (o[ ti a}n eujodw~tai). Lit., whatsoever he may prosper in. See on Romans 1:10; 3 John 1:2; and on Acts 11:29 for the verb eujpore>w in the
similar sense of making a prosperous journey.

No gatherings, etc. Rev., collections. The amount would be greater through systematic weekly saving than through collections made once for all on his arrival.

When I am come (o[tan e]lqw to>te). Lit., then whenever I may have come. The indefinite whenever and the emphatic then indicate his unwillingness to rely upon a
special contribution called forth by his arrival at any uncertain time. Christian beneficence is to be the outcome of a settled principle, not of an occasional impulse.

3. Approve by your letters. So A.V. and Rev. Others, however, connect by letters with will I send, making the letters to be Paul's introduction to the church at
Jerusalem. The latter is preferable. The givers are to choose the bearers of the collection; Paul, as the originator and apostolic steward of the collection, will send the
money.

4. Meet for me to go (a]xion tou~ kajmeesqai). Lit., if it be worthy of my going, i.e., if the gift be sufficiently large to warrant an apostolic journey to Jerusalem. This is
better than if it be becoming.

9. Great and effectual door. Door metaphorically for opportunity: great as to its extent; effectual as to the result. The figure of an effectual door, as it stands, is of course
clumsy, but the idea as a whole is clear: a great opportunity for effective work.

15. Achaia. In a restricted sense, the northwest of Peloponnesus; but often used by the poets for the whole of Greece. Under the Romans Greece was divided into two
provinces, Macedonia and Achaia; the former including Macedonia proper, with Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly, and the latter all that lay south of these. In this latter
acceptation the word is uniformly employed in the New Testament.

17. That which was lacking on your part (totero uJste>rhma). Or the (i.e. my) lack of you. The Greek will bear either rendering. Compare Philippians 2:30; 2
Corinthians 8:14; 9:12. The latter is preferable. Edwards, somewhat naively says: "I do not see what could be lacking on the part of the Corinthians which Stephanas
and his two friends could supply at Ephesus."

19. Asia. See on Acts 2:9.

Aquila and Prisca. See on Romans 16:3.

22. Maran-atha. Not to be joined with anathema as one phrase. Rev., properly, a period after anathema. Maranatha means the Lord cometh. 138 It was a reminder of
the second coming. The reason for the use of the Aramaic phrase is unknown. It is found in "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," ch. x., at the conclusion of the
post-communion prayer. Compare Revelation 22:20.

THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS
CHAPTER 1

1. Timothy our brother. Lit., the brother. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:1. Well known in the Christian brotherhood. When Paul writes to Timothy himself he calls him
son" (Bengel). Timothy appears, not as amanuensis, nor as joint-author, but as joint-sender of the epistle.

Achaia. See on 1 Corinthians 16:15.

3. The Father of mercies (oJ path). Equivalent to the compassionate Father. Compare the phrases Father of glory, Ephesians 1:17; spirits, Hebrews 12:9; lights, James
1:17. Oijktirmo>v mercy, from oi+ktov pity or mercy, the feeling which expresses itself in the exclamation oi] oh! on seeing another's misery. The distinction between
this and e]leov, according to which oijktirmo>v signifies the feeling, and e]leov the manifestation, cannot be strictly held, since the manifestation is often expressed by
oijktirmo>v. See Sept., Psalms 24:6; 102:4; 118:77.
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All comfort (pa>shv paraklh>sewv). The earliest passage in the New Testament where this word comfort or its kindred verb is applied to God. Compare para>klhtov
comforter, advocate, of the Holy Spirit, in John 14:16, 26 etc. All is better rendered every: the God of every consolation.
3. The Father of mercies (oJ path). Equivalent to the compassionate Father. Compare the phrases Father of glory, Ephesians 1:17; spirits, Hebrews 12:9; lights, James
1:17. Oijktirmo>v mercy, from oi+ktov pity or mercy, the feeling which expresses itself in the exclamation oi] oh! on seeing another's misery. The distinction between
this and e]leov, according to which oijktirmo>v signifies the feeling, and e]leov the manifestation, cannot be strictly held, since the manifestation is often expressed by
oijktirmo>v. See Sept., Psalms 24:6; 102:4; 118:77.

All comfort (pa>shv paraklh>sewv). The earliest passage in the New Testament where this word comfort or its kindred verb is applied to God. Compare para>klhtov
comforter, advocate, of the Holy Spirit, in John 14:16, 26 etc. All is better rendered every: the God of every consolation.

4. In all our tribulation - in any trouble (ejpish th|~ qli>yei hJmw~n - ejn pa>sh| qli>yei). Note the nice use of the article: all our tribulation, collectively; any or every
trouble, specifically. In is literally upon; the trouble forming the ground of the comfort. So in hope, Romans 4:18; 5:2.

We ourselves are comforted. An illustration of the personal character which pervades this epistle. Paul had been oppressed with anxiety concerning the reception of his
first epistle by the Corinthian Church, by the delay of tidings, and by his disappointment in meeting Titus. The tidings, when at last they did arrive, aroused his gratitude
for the wholesome effect of his rebuke upon the Church, and his indignation at the aggressions of the Judaizing teachers. With these feelings mingled his anxiety to
hasten, in the Corinthian Church, the contribution for the poor saints in Judaea. This second letter therefore bears the marks of the high tension of feeling which finds
expression in frequent personal allusions, especially to his afflictions. 139

5. Sufferings of Christ. Not things suffered for Christ's sake, but Christ's own sufferings as they are shared by His disciples. See Matthew 20:22; Philippians 3:10;
Colossians 1:24; 1 Peter 4:13. Note the peculiar phrase abound (perisseu>ei) in us, by which Christ's sufferings are represented as overflowing upon His followers.
See on Colossians 1:24.

6. And whether we be, etc. The MSS. differ in their arrangement of this verse. The main points of difference may be seen by comparing the A.V. and Rev. The sense is
not affected by the variation.

Is effectual (ejnergoume>nhv). See on Mark 6:14; James 5:16.

8. We would not have you ignorant. See on Romans 1:13.

Came to us in Asia. Rev., better, befell. The nature of the trouble is uncertain. The following words seem to indicate inward distress rather than trouble from without,
such as he experienced at Ephesus.

Were pressed out of measure (kaq' uJperbolhqhmen). Rev., better, were weighed down, thus giving the etymological force of the verb, from ba>rov burden. For out of
measure, Rev, exceedingly; see on 1 Corinthians 2:1.

We despaired (ejxaporhqh~nai). Only here and 2 Corinthians 4:8. From ejx out and out, and ajpore>w to be without a way of escape. See on did many things, Mark
6:20.

9. Sentence of death (ajpo>krima tou~ qana>tou). >krima, occurs only here in the New Testament, and not in classical Greek nor in the Septuagint. In the latter the
kindred words have, almost uniformly, the meaning of answer. Josephus used it of a response of the Roman senate. Sentence, which occurs in some inscriptions, if a
legitimate rendering at all, is a roundabout one, derived from a classical use of the verb ajpokri>nw to reject on inquiry, decide. Rev., therefore, correctly, answer of
death. The sense is well given by Stanley: "When I have asked myself what would be the issue of this struggle, the answer has been, 'death."'

Doth deliver (rJu>etai). The correct reading is rJu>setai will deliver, Rev.

11. Persons (prosw>pwn). Face is the usual rendering of the word in the New Testament. Even when rendered person the usage is Hebraistic for face. See on James
2:1 There is no reason for abandoning that sense here. The expression is pictorial; that thanksgiving may be given from many faces; the cheerful countenances being an
offering of thanks to God.

12. Godly sincerity (eijlikrinei>a| tou~ Qeou~). Lit., sincerity of God, as Rev. See on 2 Peter 3:1.

We have had our conversation (ajnestra>fhmen). Rev., behaved ourselves. See on 1 Peter 1:15.

13. Read - acknowledge (ajnaginw>skete - ejpiginw>skete). The word-play cannot be reproduced in English.

14. In part (ajporouv). Referring to the partial understanding of his character and motives by the Corinthians.

15 Before (pro>teron). Rather, first of all. Instead of going first to the Macedonians, as he afterward decided. See 1 Corinthians 16:5.

Second benefit (deute>ran ca>rin). Benefit is, literally, grace. Not a mere pleasurable experience through Paul's visit, but a divine bestowal of grace. Compare Romans
1:11. Second refers to his original plan to visit Corinth twice, on his way to Macedonia and on his return.

17. Did I use lightness (th|~ ejlafri>a| ejcrhsamhn). Rev., shew fickleness. a>a, lightness, only here in the New Testament. Compare ejlafro>v light, Matthew 11:30; 2
Corinthians 4:17. His change of plan had given rise to the charge of fickleness.

The yea, yea, and the nay, nay. That I should say "yes" at one time and "no" at another; promising to come and breaking my promise.

18. As God is true (pisto). Not to be taken as a formula of swearing. He means that God will answer for him against the charge of fickleness by the power and blessing
(benefit) which will attend his presence. Hence the meaning is: faithful is God (in this) that our speech, etc.

19. Was not (oujk ejge>neto). Rather, did not prove to be, in the result.

In Him was yea (naigonen). Lit., yea has come to pass in Him. He has shown Himself absolutely the truth. Compare John 14:6; Revelation 3:7, 14.

20. All (o[sai). Wrong. As many as.

Are yea, etc. Making this the predicate of promises, which is wrong. The meaning is that how many soever are God's promises, in Christ is the incarnate answer, "yea!"
to the question, "Will they be fulfilled?" Hence Rev., correctly: How many soever be the promises of God, in Him is the yea.
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And in Him Amen (kai). The correct reading is: dio Wherefore also through Him is the Amen. In giving this answer in His person and life, Christ puts the emphatic
confirmation upon God's promises, even as in the congregation the people say Amen, verily. In Him is in His person: through Him, by His agency.
20. All (o[sai). Wrong. As many as.

Are yea, etc. Making this the predicate of promises, which is wrong. The meaning is that how many soever are God's promises, in Christ is the incarnate answer, "yea!"
to the question, "Will they be fulfilled?" Hence Rev., correctly: How many soever be the promises of God, in Him is the yea.

And in Him Amen (kai). The correct reading is: dio Wherefore also through Him is the Amen. In giving this answer in His person and life, Christ puts the emphatic
confirmation upon God's promises, even as in the congregation the people say Amen, verily. In Him is in His person: through Him, by His agency.

By us (dij hJmw~n). Through our ministration. Christ, in and through whom are the yea and the amen, is so proclaimed by us as to beget assurance of God's promises,
and so to glorify Him.

21. Stablisheth - in Christ (bebaiw~n - eijv). The present participle with eijv into indicates the work as it is in progress toward a final identification of the believers with
Christ.

22. Sealed (sfragisa>menov). See on John 3:33; Revelation 22:10.

Earnest (ajrJrjabw~na). Only here, 2 Corinthians 5:5, and Ephesians 1:14. It means caution-money, deposited by a purchaser in pledge of full payment.

Of the Spirit. Not the foretaste or pledge of the Spirit, but the Spirit Himself in pledge of the fulfillment of the promises. By a common Greek usage the words are in
apposition: the earnest which is the Spirit.

23. I call God for a record (to). Rev., better, witness. A common classical idiom. Compare Plato: "Next will follow the choir of young men under the age of thirty, who
will call upon the God Paean to testify to the truth of these words" ("Laws," 664). Homer: "For the gods will be the best witnesses" ("Iliad," xxii., 254). Compare
Romans 1:9; Galatians 1:20; Philippians 1:8; 1 Thessalonians 2:5, 10; Genesis 31:50 Sept. This particular form of expression occurs nowhere else in the New
Testament. The verb is often translated appeal, as Acts 25:11, 12. Also to call upon, in the sense of supplication, Romans 10:12, 13, 14; 1 Corinthians 1:2.

CHAPTER 2

1. With myself (ejmautw|~). Rev., better, for myself. Paul, with affectionate tact, puts it as if he had taken this resolution for his own pleasure.

In heaviness (ejn lu>ph|). Meaning, apparently, the apostle's own sorrowful state of mind. This is wrong. He refers to the sorrow which his coming would bring to the
Church. Compare to spare, 2 Corinthians 1:23. Rev., with sorrow.

Again. Referring to a former unrecorded visit.

2. If I make, etc. I is emphatic, implying that there are enough others who caused them trouble.

Who then is he, etc. The thought underlying the passage, 2 Corinthians 1:24-2:1-3, is that the apostle's own joy is bound up with the spiritual prosperity of the Church.
Compare Philippians 4:1. As the helper of their joy he would receive joy through their faith and obedience. So long as their moral condition compelled him to come,
bringing rebuke and pain, they could not be a source of joy to him. If I must needs make you sorry with merited rebuke, who can give me joy save you who are thus
made sorry?

4. Anguish (sunoch~v). Only here and Luke 21:25. Lit., a holding together, constraining, or compressing. See on taken, Luke 4:38. So anguish, from the Latin, angere
to choke: anger, which, in earlier English, means affiction, mental torture: anxious: the Latin anguis a snake, marking the serpent by his throttling. In Sanscrit, anhas, from
the same root, was the name for sin, the throttler. It reappears obscurely in our medical term quinsy, which was originally quinancy, Greek kuna>gkh dog-throttling,
med., cynanche.

5. Any. Referring to the incestuous person.

Not to me. Not that Paul did not grieve over the offender; but he desires to emphasize the fact that the injury caused by the sin was not to him personally, but to the
Church.

But in part, that I may not overcharge you all (ajllarouv i[na mhntav uJma~v). For overcharge, Rev., press too heavily, in order to bring out more distinctly the idea of
the verb, laying a burden (ba>rov) upon. Overcharge, however, is not incorrect, though possibly ambiguous in the light of the various uses of charge. Charge is from the
Latin carrus a wagon. Compare the low Latin carricare to load a wagon, and carica a freight-ship. Hence charge is a load; compare the interchange of charge and load
applied to the contents of a gun. So cargo, and caricature, which is an exaggerated or overloaded drawing. Hence expense, cost, commission, accusation, all implying a
burden, either of pecuniary or of other responsibility, or of guilt. In part does not refer to Paul, as if he had said, "You have not grieved me alone and principally, but in
part, since my sorrow is shared by the Church." With in part is to be construed, parenthetically, that I press not too heavily, that is, on the offender: the whole clause
being intended to mitigate the charge against the offender of having wounded the whole Church. Thus you all depends upon he hath caused sorrow, not upon that I
press not too heavily upon. Render, as Rev., He hath caused sorrow, not to me, but in part (that I press not too heavily) to you all.

6. Many (tw~n pleio>nwn). Rev., correctly, the many: the majority of the Church.

7. Forgive (cari>sasqai). The idea of freeness (ca>riv, see on Luke 1:30) lies in the word forgive, which is forth-give.

Overmuch sorrow (th|~ perissote>ra| lu>ph|). Rev. gives the force of the article, his sorrow. Overmuch, excessive, through the refusal of pardon.

8. Confirm your love (kurw~sai ajga>phn). The verb is found only here and Galatians 3:15. From ku>rov supreme power, authority. Hence to take judicial resolution
to treat the offender with brotherly love.

9. The proof of you (th). See on Romans 5:4. Your tried quality. See on 1 Peter 1:7. Compare Philippians 2:22.

10. In the person (ejn prosw>pw|). Better, as Rev., in margin, presence; or face, as if Christ were looking on. See on 2 Corinthians 1:11.

11. Lest Satan should get an advantage of us (i[na mh). Lit., in order that we be not made gain of, or overreached, by Satan. Rev., that no advantage may be gained
over us. The verb, from ple>on more, and e]cw to have, appears in the noun pleonexi>a greed of gain, covetousness. See on Romans 1:29.

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                                     - noh>mata).                                                                                         Page 100 / 567

12. I came to Troas. Bengel remarks: "The whole epistle is an itinerary." The fact is another illustration of the strong personal feeling which marks the letter. "The very
11. Lest Satan should get an advantage of us (i[na mh). Lit., in order that we be not made gain of, or overreached, by Satan. Rev., that no advantage may be gained
over us. The verb, from ple>on more, and e]cw to have, appears in the noun pleonexi>a greed of gain, covetousness. See on Romans 1:29.

Are ignorant - devices (ajgnoou~men - noh>mata). A paronomasia (see on Romans 1:29-31. As nearly as possible, "not know his knowing plots."

12. I came to Troas. Bengel remarks: "The whole epistle is an itinerary." The fact is another illustration of the strong personal feeling which marks the letter. "The very
stages of his journey are impressed upon it; the troubles at Ephesus, the repose at Troas, the anxiety and consolation of Macedonia, the prospect of moving to
Corinth."

Troas. The full name of the city was Alexandria Troas. It was founded by Antigonos, one of the successors of Alexander the Great, and originally called by him
Antigonia Troas. It was finished by Lysimachus, another of Alexander's generals, and called by him Alexandria Troas. It stood upon the seashore, about four miles
from ancient Troy, and six miles south of the entrance to the Hellespont. It was, for many centuries, the key of the traffic between Europe and Asia, having an artificial
port consisting of two basins. Its ruins, with their immense arches and great columns of granite, indicate a city of much splendor. The Romans had a peculiar interest in
it, connected with the tradition of their own origin from Troy; and the jus Italicum was accorded it by Augustus, by which its territory enjoyed the same immunity from
taxation which attached to land in Italy. Both Julius Caesar and Constantine conceived the design of making it a capital. The ruins enclose a circuit of several miles, and
include a vast gymnasium, a stadium, a theatre, and an aqueduct The Turks call it "Old Constantinople." The harbor is now blocked up.

A door. See on 1 Corinthians 16:9.

13. Rest (a]nesin). Rev., relief. See on liberty, Acts 24:23.

Taking my leave (ajpotaxa>menov). The verb means, primarily, to set apart or separate; hence to separate one's self, withdraw, and so to take leave of. The A.V.
gives this sense in every case, except Mark 6:46 where it wrongly renders sent away. See Luke 9:61; Acts 18:18, 21. Ignatins, ajpota>xamenov tw|~ bi>w| having bid
farewell to the life, that is, this lower life (Epistle to Philadelphia, 11.).

14. Causeth to triumph (qriambeu>onti). This rendering is inadmissible, the word being habitually used with the accusative (direct objective) case of the person or thing
triumphed over, and never of the triumphing subject. Hence, to lead in triumph. It occurs only here and Colossians 2:15. It is not found in any Greek author later than
Paul's date. It is derived from qri>ambov a hymn to Bacchus, sung in festal processions, and was used to denote the Roman "triumph," celebrated by victorious
generals on their return from their campaigns. The general entered the city in a chariot, preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, and followed by his troops,
and proceeded in state along the sacred way to the Capitol, where he offered sacrifices in the temple of Jupiter. He was accompanied in his chariot by his young
children, and sometimes by confidential friends, while behind him stood a slave, holding over his head a jewelled crown. The body of the infantry brought up the rear,
their spears adorned with laurel. They shouted "triumph!" and sang hymns in praise of the gods or of their leader. Paul describes himself and the other subjects of
Christ's grace under the figure of this triumphal pomp, in which they are led as trophies of the Redeemer's conquest. 140 Render, as Rev., which always leadeth us in
triumph in Christ. Compare 2 Corinthians 10:5.

The savor of His knowledge. According to the Greek usage, savor and knowledge are in apposition, so that the knowledge of Christ is symbolized as an odor
communicating its nature and efficacy through the apostle's work, "permeating the world as a cloud of frankincense" (Stanley). For a similar usage see on 2 Corinthians
1:22. The idea of the Roman triumph is still preserved in this figure. On these occasions the temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrine
and image, and incense smoked on every altar, so that the victor was greeted with a cloud of perfume. Compare Aeschylus on the festivities at the return of
Agamemnon from Troy:

"The altars blaze with gifts;

And here and there, heaven high the torch uplifts

Flame, - medicated with persuasions mild,

With foul admixture unbeguiled

Of holy unguent, from the clotted chrism

Brought from the palace, safe in its abysm."

"Agamemnon," 91-96, Browning's Translation.

15. A sweet savor of Christ (Cristou~ eujwdi>a). Compare Ephesians 5:2; Philippians 4:18. As so often in Paul's writings, the figure shifts; the apostolic teachers
themselves being represented as an odor, their Christian personality redolent of Christ. It is not merely a sweet odor produced by Christ, but Christ Himself is the savor
which exhales in their character and work.

16. To the one a savor, etc. (ojsmh). Returning to the word used in ver. 14, which is more general than eujwdi>a sweet savor, denoting an odor of any kind, salutary or
deadly, and therefore more appropriate here, where it is used in both senses. The two words are combined, Ephesians 5:2; Philippians 4:18.

Of death (ejk qana>tou). Rev., better, giving the force of the preposition, proceeding from, wafted from death. The figure is carried out with reference to the different
effects of the Gospel, as preached by the apostles, upon different persons. The divine fragrance itself may have, to Christ's enemies, the effect of a deadly odor. The
figure was common in rabbinical writings. Thus: "Whoever bestows labor on the law for the sake of the law itself, it becomes to him a savor of life; and whoever does
not bestow labor on the law for the law's sake, it becomes a savor of death." "Even as the bee brings sweetness to its own master, but stings others, so also are the
words of the law; a saving odor to the Israelites, but a deadly odor to the Gentiles." These are specimens of a great many.

Some find here an allusion to a revolting feature of the Roman triumph. Just as the procession was ascending the Capitoline Hill, some of the captive chiefs were taken
into the adjoining prison and put to death. "Thus the sweet odors which to the victor - a Marius or a Julius Caesar - and to the spectators were a symbol of glory and
success and happiness, were to the wretched victims - a Jugurtha or a Vercingetorix - an odor of death" (Farrar). 141

Sufficient (iJkano>v). See on Romans 15:23.

17. Which corrupt (kaphleu>ontev). Only here in the New Testament. From ka>phlov a huckster or pedler; also a tavernkeeper. The ka>phloi formed a distinct class
among the Greek dealers, distinguished from the ejupo>roi merchants or wholesale dealers. So Plato: "Is not retailer (kaph>louv) the term which is applied to those
who  sit in the
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                              Infobase   selling,Corp.
                                                  while those who wander from one city to another are called merchants?" ("Republic," 371; comparePage
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The term included dealers in victuals and all sorts of wares, but was especially applied to retailers of wine, with whom adulteration and short measure were matters of
course. Galen speaks of wine-dealers kaphleu>ontev tou playing tricks with their wines; mixing the new, harsh wines, so as to make them pass for old. These not only
sold their wares in the market, but had kaphlei~a wine-shops all over the town, where it was not thought respectable to take refreshments. The whole trade was greatly
Sufficient (iJkano>v). See on Romans 15:23.

17. Which corrupt (kaphleu>ontev). Only here in the New Testament. From ka>phlov a huckster or pedler; also a tavernkeeper. The ka>phloi formed a distinct class
among the Greek dealers, distinguished from the ejupo>roi merchants or wholesale dealers. So Plato: "Is not retailer (kaph>louv) the term which is applied to those
who sit in the market-place buying and selling, while those who wander from one city to another are called merchants?" ("Republic," 371; compare "Statesman," 260)
The term included dealers in victuals and all sorts of wares, but was especially applied to retailers of wine, with whom adulteration and short measure were matters of
course. Galen speaks of wine-dealers kaphleu>ontev tou playing tricks with their wines; mixing the new, harsh wines, so as to make them pass for old. These not only
sold their wares in the market, but had kaphlei~a wine-shops all over the town, where it was not thought respectable to take refreshments. The whole trade was greatly
despised. In Thebes no one who had sold in the market within the last ten years was allowed to take part in the government. So Plato, speaking of the evils of luxury
and poverty: "What remedy can a city of sense find against this disease? In the first place, they must have as few retail traders as possible" ("Laws," 919. The whole
passage is well worth reading). The moral application of the term was familiar in classical Greek. Lucian says: "The philosophers deal out their instructions like
hucksters." Plato: "Those who carry about the wares of knowledge, and make the round of the cities, and sell or retail them to any customer who is in want of them,
praise them all alike; though I should not wonder if many of them were really ignorant of their effect upon the soul; and their customers equally ignorant, unless he who
buys of them happens to be a physician of the soul" ("Protagoras," 313). Paul here uses the term of those who trade in the word of God, adulterating it for the purpose
of gain or popularity. Compare 1 Timothy 6:5 Rev. In the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" occurs the word criste>mporov a Christ-monger (ch. 12:5).

CHAPTER 3

1. Do we begin again. Rev., are we beginning. As if anticipating, the taunt so often repeated, that he had no commendatory letters, and therefore was forced to
commend himself by self-laudation and by dishonest means. See 2 Corinthians 4:2; 10:12. You will say, "You are beginning again the old strain of self-commendation
as in the first epistle." See 1 Corinthians 9:15-21.

To commend (sunista>nai). See on Romans 3:5.

Some others. Others is superfluous. The reference is to certain false teachers accredited by churches or by other well-known teachers.

2. Our epistle. The figure which follows is freely and somewhat loosely worked out, and presents different faces in rapid succession. The figure itself is that of a
commendatory letter representing the Corinthian Church: "Ye are our letter." This figure is carried out in three directions:

1.As related to the apostles' own consciousness. The Corinthian Church is a letter written on the apostles' hearts. Their own consciousness testifies that that Church is
the fruit of a divinely accredited, honest, and faithful ministry.

2.As related to the Corinthians themselves. The Church needs no letter to commend the apostles to it. It is its own commendation. As the visible fruit of the apostles'
ministry they are a commendatory letter to themselves. If the question arises among them, "Were Paul and his colleagues duly commissioned?" - the answer is, "We
ourselves are the proof of it."

3.As related to others outside of the Corinthian Church. The answer to the charge that the Corinthians have been taught by irregular and uncommissioned teachers is
the same: "Behold the fruit of their labors in us. We are their commission."

At this point the figure again shifts; the letter being now conceived as written on the Corinthians' hearts, instead of on the hearts of the apostles: written by Christ through
the apostles' ministry. This suggests the comparison with the law written on tables of stone, which are used as a figure of the heart, fleshy tables, thus introducing two
incongruities, namely, an epistle written on stone, and writing with ink on stone tables.

Written in our hearts. See above. Compare Plato: "I am speaking of an intelligent writing which is graven in the soul of him who has learned, and can defend
itself" ("Phaedrus," 276).

3. An epistle of Christ ministered by us (ejpistolh' hJmw~n). An epistle written by Christ through our ministry; that is, you, as the converted subjects of our ministry, are
an epistle of Christ. Others explain: an epistle of which Christ forms the contents, thus making the apostles the writers. For the expression ministered by us, compare 2
Corinthians 8:19, 20; 1 Peter 1:12.

Ink (me>lani). From me>lav black. Only here, 2 John 1:12 (see note), and 3 John 1:13.

The Spirit. Instead of ink.

Fleshy tables of the heart (plaxiav sarki>naiv). The best texts read kardi>aiv the dative case in apposition with tables. Render, as Rev., tables which are hearts of flesh.
Compare Ezekiel 11:19; Jeremiah 17:1; 31:33. For of flesh, see on Romans 7:14.

4. Confidence. In the fact that he may appeal to them, notwithstanding their weaknesses and errors.

Through Christ to God-ward (dian). Through Christ who engenders the confidence, toward God, with reference to God who gives us success, and to whom we must
account for our work.

6. Hath made us able ministers (iJka>nwsen hJma~v diako>nouv). An unfortunate translation, especially in view of the conventional sense of able. The verb iJkano>w
from iJkano>v sufficient (see on Romans 15:23), means to make sufficient or fit. It occurs only here and Colossians 1:12. The correct sense is given by Rev., hath
made us sufficient as ministers. Compare enabled (ejndunamw>santi), 1 Timothy 1:12.

Of the new testament (kainh~v diaqh>khv). See on Matthew 26:28, 29. There is no article. Render, as Rev., of a new covenant, in contrast with the Mosaic. See on
Hebrews 9:15. Of course the term is never applied in the gospels or epistles to the collection of New-Testament writings.

Of the letter (gra>mmatov). Depending on ministers, not on covenant. For letter, see on writings, John 5:47. Here used of the mere formal, written ordinance as
contrasted with the Gospel, which is "spirit and life." Compare Romans 2:29; 7:6.

Killeth. See on Romans 5:12, 13; 7:9; 8:2. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:56. "The living testimony borne to his authority in the Corinthian Church suggests strongly the
contrast of the dreary, death-like atmosphere which surrounded the old, graven characters on which his opponents rested their claims" (Stanley).

7. The ministration of death (hJ diakoni>a tou~ qana>tou). Because it is the ministry of the letter which killeth. The law meant death to the sinner.

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                                 (ejn gra>mmasin   ejntetupwme>nh li>qoiv). Lit., engraven on stones by means of letters. The use of these words toPage           102
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ministration is peculiar. The ministration of death (see above) is that of Moses, and does not apply to his entire career as Israel's lawgiver, but to his particular ministry
in receiving on Sinai and transmitting to the people the law of God. The ministration may be said to have been graven on stones, since the whole purport of that
contrast of the dreary, death-like atmosphere which surrounded the old, graven characters on which his opponents rested their claims" (Stanley).

7. The ministration of death (hJ diakoni>a tou~ qana>tou). Because it is the ministry of the letter which killeth. The law meant death to the sinner.

Written and engraven in stones (ejn gra>mmasin ejntetupwme>nh li>qoiv). Lit., engraven on stones by means of letters. The use of these words to describe a
ministration is peculiar. The ministration of death (see above) is that of Moses, and does not apply to his entire career as Israel's lawgiver, but to his particular ministry
in receiving on Sinai and transmitting to the people the law of God. The ministration may be said to have been graven on stones, since the whole purport of that
economy which he represented was contained in the tables, and he was its minister in being the agent through whom God delivered it to the people.

Was glorious (ejgenh>qh ejn do>xh|). A very inadequate translation. >qh means came to pass or took place, not simply was. A glory passed from God to Moses, so
that his face became shining. It is much more graphic and truthful to render ejn do>xh| literally, in or with glory, than to convert the two words into a single adjective,
glorious. Rev., much better, came with glory.

Steadfastly behold (ajteni>sai). See on Luke 4:20.

Passing away (katargoume>nhn). Lit., being done away or brought to nought. See on Luke 13:7; Romans 3:3.

8. Glorious (ejn do>xh|). As in ver. 7, with glory.

9. Ministration of condemnation. Because Moses was the minister of the law. For the relation of the law to sin and condemnation, see Romans 5:20; 7:7-13.

10. That which was made glorious had no glory in this respect (ouj dedo>xastai tonon ejn tou>tw| tw~| me). Rev., that which hath been made glorious hath not been
made glorious. The peculiar form of expression is taken from Exodus 34:29, 35 Sept., "Moses knew not that the appearance of the skin of his face was glorified." "The
children of Israel saw the face of Moses that it was glorified." Much unnecessary difficulty has been made, chiefly about the connection and meaning of in this respect.
That which hath been made glorious is the ministry of death and condemnation (vers. 7, 9), the ministry of Moses in the giving of the law, which ministry was
temporarily glorified in the shining of Moses' face. Hath not been made glorious is only another way of expressing was passing away (ver. 7): of saying that the
temporary glory of Moses' ministry faded and paled before the glory of the ministry of Christ. The figure which pervades the whole passage (7-11) is that of a glorified
face. The ministration of the law, impersonated in Moses, is described as having its face glorified. It is to this that in this respect refers. Paul says that the ministry of the
law, which was temporarily glorified in the face of Moses, is no longer glorified in this respect; that is, it no longer appears with glorified face, because of the glory that
excelleth, the glory of Christ ministering the Gospel, before which it fades away and is as if it had not been. This accords with 2 Corinthians 4, where the theme is the
same as here, ministry or ministration (ver. 1); and where the christian revelation is described as "the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ" (ver. 6). This is the key to
our passage. To the same purpose is ver. 18, where the Christian is represented as gazing, through the Gospel, with unveiled face, upon the glory of God in Christ, and
as being changed thereby into the image of Christ. The glory of the law in the face of Moses has faded before the glory of the Gospel in the face of Jesus Christ.

11. That which is done away (tomenon). Lit., which is being done away; in course of abolition through the preaching of the Gospel. Both the A.V., and Rev. passeth
fail to bring, out the idea of process.

Was glorious (diaxhv). Lit., through glory. Rev., with glory. 142

12. Plainness (parjrJhsi>a|,). Rev., boldness. See on openly, John 7:13; confidence, 1 John 2:28; freely, Acts 2:29. The contrast is with the dissembling with which his
adversaries charged him.

13. Could not steadfastly look. Rev., should not. See Exodus 34:30-35 where the A.V., by the use of till, gives the wrong impression that Moses wore the veil while
speaking to the people, in order to hide the glory of his face. The true sense of the Hebrew is given by the Sept.: "When he ceased speaking he put a veil on his face;"
not because the Israelites could not endure the radiance, but that they should not see it fade away. Whenever Moses went into the presence of God he removed the
veil, and his face was again illumined, and shone while he delivered God's message to the people. Then, after the delivery of the message, and during his ordinary
association with the people, he kept his face covered. 143

To the end (eijv tolov). Rev., on the end. The termination.

Of that which is abolished (tou~ katargoume>nou). See ver. 11. The temporarily glorified ministration of Moses. The end of this, which the veil prevented the Israelites
from seeing, was the disappearance of the glory - the type of the termination of Moses' ministry. Paul's comparison is between the ministry of Moses, interrupted by
intervals of concealment, and the gospel ministry, which is marked by frank and full proclamation. "The opposition is twofold:

1.Between the veiled and the unveiled ministry, as regards the mere fact of concealment in the one case, and openness in the other.

2.Between the ministry which was suspended by the veiling that its end might not be seen, and that which proceeds 'from glory to glory,' having no
termination" (Alford). The face of Moses needed a continually renewed illumination: in the face of Christ the glory abides forever.

14. Minds (noh>mata). Originally, things which proceed out of the mind. Compare hearts and minds, Philippians 4:7 and devices, 2 Corinthians 2:11. Hence,
derivatively, the minds themselves. The word occurs but once outside of this epistle, Philippians 4:7. Some render here thoughts. So Rev., in margin.

Were blinded (ejpwrw>qh). See on the kindred noun pw>rwsiv hardening, Mark 3:5. Rev., correctly, were hardened.

The same veil (tolumma). The expression their minds were hardened is carried out figuratively. There is a veil over their minds when the law is read, as there was over
Moses' face. They cannot yet recognize the end of the Mosaic ministry.

Untaken away (mhmenon). Rev., admirably - giving the force of ajna> up-unlifted. But both A.V. and Rev. construe unlifted with veil: the same veil remaineth untaken
away (unlifted). This is objectionable, because katargei~tai is done away is used throughout the chapter of the glory of the Mosaic ministry, while another word is
employed in ver. 16 of the taking away of the veil. Further, the reading of the best texts is o[ti that or because, and not o[ ti which. Because is not true to the fact, since
the veil remains unlifted, not because it is done away in Christ, but because of the hardness of their hearts. It is better, therefore, to take mhmenon unlifted, as a
nominative absolute, and to render, it not being revealed that it (the veil) is being done away in Christ. This falls in naturally with the drift of the whole passage. The veil
remains on their hearts, since it is not revealed to them that the Mosaic economy is done away in Christ.

16. It shall turn. The heart of Israel.

Shall be taken away (periairei~tai). Rev., correctly, is taken away. The verb occurs twice in Acts (27:20, 40) of the taking away of hope, and of the unfastening of the
anchors in Paul's
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returned to commune with God. See Exodus 34:34.

17. Now the Lord is that Spirit. Ku>riov the Lord is used in Exodus 34:34 for Jehovah. The Lord Christ of ver. 16 is the Spirit who pervades and animates the new
16. It shall turn. The heart of Israel.

Shall be taken away (periairei~tai). Rev., correctly, is taken away. The verb occurs twice in Acts (27:20, 40) of the taking away of hope, and of the unfastening of the
anchors in Paul's shipwreck; and in Hebrews 10:11 of the taking away of sins. There is an allusion here to the removal of the veil from Moses' face whenever he
returned to commune with God. See Exodus 34:34.

17. Now the Lord is that Spirit. Ku>riov the Lord is used in Exodus 34:34 for Jehovah. The Lord Christ of ver. 16 is the Spirit who pervades and animates the new
covenant of which we are ministers (ver. 6), and the ministration of which is with glory (ver. 8). Compare Romans 8:9-11; John 14:16, 18.

Liberty. Compare Romans 8:15; Galatians 4:7.

18. All. Contrasted with Moses as the sole representative of the people.

Open (ajnakekalumme>nw|). Rev., correctly, unveiled, as Moses when the veil was removed.

"Vainly they tried the deeps to sound

E'en of their own prophetic thought,

When of Christ crucified and crown'd

His Spirit in them taught:

But He their aching gaze repress'd

Which sought behind the veil to see,

For not without us fully bless'd

Or perfect might they be.

The rays of the Almighty's face

No sinner's eye might then receive

Only the meekest man found grace

To see His skirts and live.

But we as in a glass espy

The glory of His countenance,

Not in a whirlwind hurrying by

The too presumptuous glance,

But with mild radiance every hour

From our dear Savior's face benign

Bent on us with transforming power,

Till we, too faintly shine.

Sprinkled with His atoning blood

Safely before our God we stand,

As on the rock the prophet stood,

Beneath His shadowing hand."

Keble, "Christian Year," Thirteenth Sunday after Trinity.

Beholding as in a glass (katoptrizo>menoi). So American Rev. Rev., reflecting. Only here in the New Testament. The verb in the active voice means to show in a
mirror; to cause to be reflected. In the middle voice, to took at or behold one's self in a mirror. Rev., reflecting seems to be preferred on internal grounds, as better
suiting the comparison with the divine glory as mirrored in the unveiled face of Moses. But this is unwarranted by usage. Stanley, who adopts this rendering, admits that
there is no actual instance of the sense of reflecting. This sense, however, is not sacrificed by the translation beholding, but is conveyed by the succeeding clause,
changed into the same image, etc. As Heinrici observes, beholding expresses the fact from which the process of change into God's image proceeds. When Moses
beheld Jehovah's glory, his own face reflected that glory. The mirror is the Gospel, which is called the Gospel of the glory of Christ, 2 Corinthians 4:4.

Are changed (metamorfou>meqa). Rev., transformed. See on Matthew 17:2. The present tense expresses the change as in progress; are being changed, which is
further defined by from glory to glory.

The same image (thna). See on Revelation 13:14. Compare especially 1 John 3:2; also Romans 8:29; John 17:24; Colossians 3:4; Romans 8:17; 1 Corinthians 15:48-
53.
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By the Spirit of the Lord (ajpoou pneu>matov). Better, as Rev., from the Lord the Spirit. Compare ver. 17. The preposition ajpo> from depicts the transformation as
proceeding from rather than as caused by.
further defined by from glory to glory.

The same image (thna). See on Revelation 13:14. Compare especially 1 John 3:2; also Romans 8:29; John 17:24; Colossians 3:4; Romans 8:17; 1 Corinthians 15:48-
53.

By the Spirit of the Lord (ajpoou pneu>matov). Better, as Rev., from the Lord the Spirit. Compare ver. 17. The preposition ajpo> from depicts the transformation as
proceeding from rather than as caused by.

CHAPTER 4

1. As we have received mercy. Construe with we have this ministry. Having this ministry as a gift of divine mercy. Compare 1 Corinthians 7:25. Bengel says: "The
mercy of God, by which the ministry is received, makes us earnest and sincere."

2. Dishonesty (th~v aijscu>nhv). Rev., more correctly, shame. Compare Ephesians 5:12.

Craftiness (panourgi>a|). See on Luke 20:23.

Handling deceitfully (dolou~ntev). Only here in the New Testament. Primarily, to ensnare; then to corrupt. Used of adulterating gold, wine, etc. See on which corrupt, 2
Corinthians 2:17. This verb has a narrower meaning than the one used there (kaphleu>ein); for, while that means also to corrupt, it adds the sense for gain's sake. The
Vulgate renders both by the same word, adulterantes. Compare Dante:

"Thus did Sabellius, Arias, and those fools

Who have been even as swords unto the Scriptures

In rendering distorted their straight faces."

"Paradiso," xiii., 128-130.

3. Hid (kekalumme>non). Rev., veiled, in accordance with the imagery of 2 Corinthians 3.

4. The God of this world (oJ qeotou). The phrase occurs only here. Compare Ephesians 2:2; 6:12; John 12:31; 14:30. Satan is called God in the rabbinical writings.

"The first God is the true God; but the second God is Samuel." "The matron said, 'Our God is greater than thy God; for when thy God appeared to Moses in the bush,
he hid his face; when, however, he saw the serpent, which is my God, he fled."'

The light (to). Only here and ver. 6. Lit., the illumination, act of enlightening.

Image of God. Compare Colossians 1:15; John 17:5; Philippians 2:6; 3:21. Christ's light is also God's. Compare Hebrews 1:3 Rev., effulgence (ajpau>gasma,
compare aujga>sai shine, in this passage). Theodoret says: "The effulgence is both from the fire and with the fire, and has the fire as its cause, yet is not divided from the
fire; for whence comes the fire, thence also comes the effulgence."

Shine (aujga>sai). Only here in the New Testament. From aujgh> brightness, which also occurs but once, Acts 20:11daybreak. In classical Greek of the sun especially.
Rev., dawn is legitimate as a translation, but hardly here, since Paul is going back to the figure of 2 Corinthians 3:18.

6. Who commanded the light to shine (oJ eijpwmyai). The correct reading is la>myei shall shine; so that we should render, it is God that said light shall shine. So Rev.

To give the light of the knowledge (prosewv). Lit., for the illumination, as ver. 4. In order that the knowledge may lighten. Knowledge, if not diffused, is not of the
nature of light.

In the face of Jesus Christ. Containing the thought of 2 Corinthians 3:18. The knowledge of the divine glory becomes clear revelation to men in the face of Christ as it
appears in the Gospel: "So that in this seen countenance that clear-shining knowledge has the source of its light, as it were, its focus" (Meyer). 144

7. This treasure. The divine light which is the guide and inspiration of the apostolic ministry.

In earthen vessels (ejn ojstraki>noiv skeu>esin). The adjective occurs only here and 2 Timothy 2:10. Herodotus says of the king of Persia: "The great king stores away
the tribute which he receives after this fashion: he melts it down, and, while it is in a liquid state, runs it into earthen vessels, which are afterward removed, leaving the
metal in a solid mass" (iii., 96). Stanley cites the story of a Rabbi who was taunted with his mean appearance by the emperor's daughter, and who replied by referring
to the earthen vessels in which her father kept his wines. At her request the wine was shifted to silver vessels, whereupon it turned sour. Then the Rabbi observed that
the humblest vessels contained the highest wisdom. The idea of light in earthen vessels is, however, best illustrated in the story of the lambs and pitchers of Gideon,
Judges 7:16. In the very breaking of the vessel the light is revealed.

Excellency (uJperbolh). Lit., a throwing beyond. Hence preeminence, excellence. See on exceeding, Romans 7:13. Rev. renders exceeding greatness. The reference is
to the fullness of power apparent in the apostolic ministry.

Of God - of us (tou~ Qeou~ - ejx hJmw~n). The A.V. misses the difference between the two expressions. Of God is belonging to God; God's property: from (ejx) is
proceeding from ourselves. Rev., of God - from ourselves.

8. Troubled (qlibo>menoi). See on tribulation, Matthew 13:21. The verb also has the meaning of to straiten, contract, as Matthew 7:14 where teqlimme>nh, A.V.
narrow, is properly rendered by Rev. straitened.

Distressed (stenocwrou>menoi). Only here and 2 Corinthians 6:12. From steno>v narrow, and cw~rov a space. Hence cramped. The A.V. gives no suggestion of the
figurative paradox. We are pressed closely, yet not cramped. Rev., pressed on every side, yet not straitened.

Perplexed (ajporou>menoi). From aj not, and po>rov a passage. Lit., to be unable to find a way out.

In despair (ejxaporou>menoi). Rev., very neatly, rendered unto despair. The word expresses an advance of thought on perplexed, yet on the same line. We are
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9. Persecuted - forsaken (diwko>menoi - ejgkataleipo>menoi). Rev., for persecuted, pursued, the primary meaning of the verb, thus giving vividness to the figure.
Perplexed (ajporou>menoi). From aj not, and po>rov a passage. Lit., to be unable to find a way out.

In despair (ejxaporou>menoi). Rev., very neatly, rendered unto despair. The word expresses an advance of thought on perplexed, yet on the same line. We are
perplexed, but not utterly perplexed. The play between the Greek words cannot be rendered.

9. Persecuted - forsaken (diwko>menoi - ejgkataleipo>menoi). Rev., for persecuted, pursued, the primary meaning of the verb, thus giving vividness to the figure.
Forsaken, lit., left behind in (some evil plight). The figure is, pursued by enemies, but not left to their power: left in the lurch.

Cast down - destroyed (kataballo>menoi - ajpollu>menoi). This carries on the previous figure. Though the pursuers overtake and smite down, yet are we not killed.
Rev., smitten down. In all these paradoxes the A.V. fails to bring out the metaphors.

10. Bearing about. Ignatius, addressing the Ephesians, says: "Ye are God-bearers, shrine-bearers, Christ-bearers" ("Epistle to Ephesians," 9.). In the Antiochene Acts,
Trajan alludes to Ignatius as "the one who declares that he bears about the crucified." Ignatius was known as Qeofo>rov God bearer, and so styles himself in the
introductions of his epistles.

Dying (ne>krwsin). Only here and Romans 4:19. Primarily a putting to death, and thence the state of deadness, as Romans 4:19. Here in the former sense. Paul says, in
effect, "our body is constantly exposed to the same putting to death which Jesus suffered. The daily liability to a violent death is something, which we carry about with
us." Compare 1 Corinthians 15:31; Romans 8:36. This parallel with Christ's death is offset by the parallel with Christ's triumph - life through resurrection.

That the life also (i[na). In order that. The purport, according to God's purpose, of this daily dying is to set forth the resurrection-life through Christ in us. Compare
Romans 5:10.

13. The same spirit of faith. The same, namely, which is set forth in the following passage. Spirit of faith: not distinctly the Holy Spirit, nor, on the other hand, a human
faculty or disposition, but blending both; faith as a gift of the Spirit of God. See on Spirit, Romans 8:4 sec. 5.

I believed, etc. Cited from Sept., Psalms 115:10. The Septuagint mistranslates the Hebrew, which is, "I believed though I said," etc.

15. The abundant grace (hJ ca>riv pleona>sasa). Lit., the grace having abounded. Rev., the grace being multiplied. Grace is the divine gift of spiritual energy which is
shown in the labor, suffering, and triumph of the apostles.

Might through the thanksgiving of many redound (dianwn than perisseu>sh). Numerous arrangements of these words are proposed. Through (dia>) should govern the
many, not thanksgiving; and redound should be transitive, cause to abound, and governing thanksgiving. So Rev., the grace, being multiplied through the many, may
cause the thanksgiving to abound. The thought is on the line of ver. 12, that the sufferings and risks of the apostles promote spiritual life in the Church. The grace of
God, thus manifest in the apostles, shall be multiplied through the increasing number of those who share it, and shall thus make thanksgiving more abundant for the fruits
of this grace as exhibited in the apostles and in the Church.

Redound (A.V.) is from the Latin redundare to surge back. Therefore, primarily, of a fullness or overflow from the setting back of a tide. So Milton:

"The evil, soon

Driven back, redounded as a flood on those

From whom it sprang."

Generally, to abound. From this arises the secondary sense, to conduce, contribute to; that is, to make the causes mount up, or abound, so as to produce the effect. So
Addison: "The care of our national commerce redounds more to the riches and prosperity of the public," etc.

16. Outward man - inward man. The material and spiritual natures.

Perish (diafqei>retai). Rev., much better, is decaying. Perish implies destruction: the idea is that of progressive decay.

Is renewed (ajnakainou~tai). Better, is being renewed, the process of renewal going on along with the process of decay. Stanley cites a line attributed to Michael
Angelo: "The more the marble wastes the more the statue grows." Compare Euripides: "Time does not depress your spirit, but it grows young again: your body,
however, is weak" ("Heraclidae," 702, 703)

Day by day (hJme>ra| kaira|). Lit., by day and day. A Hebrew form of expression.

17. Our light affliction which is but for a moment (toka ejlafroyewv hJmw~n). Lit., the present light (burden) of our affliction.

Worketh (katerga>zetai). Works out: achieves.

A far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory (kaq' uJperebolhnion ba>rov do>xhv). Rev., more and more exceedingly an eternal weight, etc. An expression after
the form of Hebrew superlatives, in which the emphatic word is twice repeated. Lit., exceedingly unto excess. The use of such cumulative expressions is common with
Paul. See, for example, Philippians 1:23 lit., much more better; Romans 8:37abundantly the conquerors; Ephesians 3:20 exceeding abundantly, etc. Note how the
words are offset: for a moment, eternal; light, weight; affliction, glory.

18. Seen - not seen. Compare the beautiful passage in Plato's "Phaedo," 79.

CHAPTER 5

1. Our earthly house of this tabernacle (hJ ejpi>geiov hJmw~n oijki>a tou~ skh>nouv). 145 Earthly, not, made of earth, which would be coi`ko>v as 1 Corinthians
15:47; but upon the earth, terrestrial, as 1 Corinthians 15:40; Philippians 2:10. Tabernacle (skh~nov) tent or hut. In later writers, especially the Platonists,
Pythagoreans, and medical authors, used to denote the body. Thus Hippocrates: "A great vein by which the whole body (skh~nov) is nourished." Some expositors
think that Paul uses the word here simply in this sense - the house which is the body. But while Paul does mean the body, he preserves the figurative sense of the word
tabernacle; for he never uses this term elsewhere as synonymous with the body. The figure of the tent suits the contrast with the building, and would naturally suggest
itself to the tent-maker. 146 The phrase earthly house of the tabernacle expresses a single conception - the dwelling which is, or consists in the tabernacle, the tent-
house.   The transient
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skhno>w to dwell in or to fix a tabernacle, John 1:14. Tabernacle is so habitually associated with a house of worship, and is so often applied to durable structures, that
the original sense of a tent is in danger of being lost. It would be better to translate here by tent. The word tabernacle is a diminutive of the Latin taberna a hut or shed,
which appears in tavern. Its root is ta, tan, to stretch or spread out.
think that Paul uses the word here simply in this sense - the house which is the body. But while Paul does mean the body, he preserves the figurative sense of the word
tabernacle; for he never uses this term elsewhere as synonymous with the body. The figure of the tent suits the contrast with the building, and would naturally suggest
itself to the tent-maker. 146 The phrase earthly house of the tabernacle expresses a single conception - the dwelling which is, or consists in the tabernacle, the tent-
house. The transient character of the body is thus indicated. Compare houses of clay, Job 4:19. See on the kindred words skh>nwma tabernacle, 2 Peter 1:13; and
skhno>w to dwell in or to fix a tabernacle, John 1:14. Tabernacle is so habitually associated with a house of worship, and is so often applied to durable structures, that
the original sense of a tent is in danger of being lost. It would be better to translate here by tent. The word tabernacle is a diminutive of the Latin taberna a hut or shed,
which appears in tavern. Its root is ta, tan, to stretch or spread out.

Dissolved (kataluqh|~). Lit., loosened down. Appropriate to taking down a tent. See on Mark 13:2; Luke 9:12; Acts 5:38; and compare 2 Peter 3:11, 12 and the
figure of the parting of the silver cord on which the lamp is suspended, Ecclesiastes 12:6. Also Job 4:21 where the correct rendering is: Is not their tent-cord plucked up
within them? So Rev. O.T.

We have. The building from God is an actual possession in virtue of the believer's union with Christ. It is just as we say of a minor, before he comes into possession of
his property, that he has so much. Compare Matthew 19:21.

Building of God (oijkodomh). In contrast with tent. The reference is to the resurrection body. Compare the city which hath the foundations, Hebrews 11:10. For of
God, read, as Rev., from, God; proceeding from (ejk). Heinrici, von Gott her: compare God giveth, 1 Corinthians 15:38 and e]cete ajpo ye have from God, where the
reference is to the natural body, 1 Corinthians 6:19. Construe from God with building, not with we have.

In the heavens. Construe with we have.

2. In this. Tabernacle. As if pointing to his own body. See on 1 Corinthians 15:54.

Earnestly desiring (ejpipoqou~ntev). The participle has an explanatory force, as Acts 27:7"because the wind did not suffer us." We groan because we long. Rev.,
longing. The compounded preposition ejpi> does not mark the intensity of the desire, but its direction.

To be clothed upon (ejpendu>sasqai). Only here and ver. 4. Compare ejpendu>thv fisher's coat, John 21:7 (see note). Lit., to put on over. The metaphor changes
from building to clothing, a natural transformation in the mind of Paul, to whom the hail-cloth woven for tents would suggest a vesture.

House (oijkhth>rion). Not oijki>a house, as ver. 1. This word regards the house with special reference to its inhabitant. The figure links itself with building, ver. 1, as
contrasted with the unstable tent.

From heaven (ejx oujranou~). As from God, ver. 1.

3. If so be (ei] ge). Assuming that.

Being clothed. Compare Job 10:11.

Naked (gumnoi). Without a body. The word was used by Greek writers of disembodied spirits. See the quotation from Plato's "Gorgias" in note on Luke 12:20; also
"Cratylus," 403, where, speaking of Pluto, Socrates says: "The foolish fears which people have of him, such as the fear of being always with him after death, and of the
soul denuded (gumnh) of the body going to him." Stanley cites Herodotus' story of Melissa, the Corinthian queen, who appeared to her husband after death, entreating
him to burn dresses for her as a covering for her disembodied spirit (v., 92). The whole expression, being clothed - naked is equivalent to we shall not be found naked
because we shall be clothed.

4. Being burdened (barou>menoi). Compare weight (ba>rov) of glory, 2 Corinthians 4:17.

Not for that we would be unclothed (ejf' w|= ouj qe>lomen ejkdu>sasqai). Lit., because we are not willing to divest ourselves (of the mortal body). Regarding the
coming of the Lord as near, the apostle contemplates the possibility of living to behold it. The oppression of soul (groan) is not from pains and afflictions of the body,
nor from the fear of death, but from the natural shrinking from death, especially if death is to deprive him of the body (unclothe) only to leave him without a new and
higher organism. Therefore he desires, instead of dying, to have the new being come down upon him while still alive, investing him with the new spiritual organism
(clothed upon), as a new garment is thrown over an old one, and absorbing (swallowed up) the old, sensuous life.

"For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey,

This pleadng anxious being e'er resigned,

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,

Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind?"

GRAY, "Elegy."

Swallowed up. A new metaphor. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:54.

5. Wrought (katergasa>menov). The compound is significant, indicating an accomplished fact. Through the various operations of His Spirit and the processes of His
discipline, God has worked us out (Stanley, worked up) for this change. The process includes the dissolution of what is mortal no less than the renewal. The one is a
step to the other. See 1 Corinthians 15:36.

Earnest of the Spirit. See on 2 Corinthians 1:22, and compare Romans 8:11. Of the Spirit is appositional, the Spirit as the earnest.

6. At home (ejndhmou~ntev). in, dh~mov people. Only in this chapter. To be among one's own people, and not to travel abroad.

We are absent (ejkdhmou~men). Lit., we live abroad. Only in this chapter. Compare Philippians 1:23; 3:20; Hebrews 11:13; 13:14. There is a play upon the words
which might be expressed by at home, from home.

7. By sight (dia). The correct rendering is appearance. The word is not used actively in the sense of vision. Faith is contrasted with the actual appearance of heavenly
things. Hence the marginal reading of the Rev. should go into the text.
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8. Are willing (eujdokou~men). The translation might well be made stronger as well as more literal: we are well-pleased.

To be absent - present (ejkdhmh~sai - ejndhmh~sai). The same verbs as in ver. 6: to be from home, at home.
which might be expressed by at home, from home.

7. By sight (dia). The correct rendering is appearance. The word is not used actively in the sense of vision. Faith is contrasted with the actual appearance of heavenly
things. Hence the marginal reading of the Rev. should go into the text.

8. Are willing (eujdokou~men). The translation might well be made stronger as well as more literal: we are well-pleased.

To be absent - present (ejkdhmh~sai - ejndhmh~sai). The same verbs as in ver. 6: to be from home, at home.

9. We labor (filotimou>meqa). Used by Paul only, here, Romans 15:20 (note), 1 Thessalonians 4:11. Labor is a feeble translation, not bringing out the idea of the end
contemplated, as the motive of the toil. Rev., we make it our aim.

10. Appear (fanerwqh~nai). Rev., better, be made manifest. Appear is not strong enough, since it implies only presence at the judgment-seat. The important fact is our
being revealed as we are.

Judgment seat (bh>matov). See on Acts 7:5.

May receive (komi>shtai). See on 1 Peter 1:8. Compare Ephesians 6:8; Colossians 3:25.

In the body (dia>). Lit., through the body as a medium.

Bad (fau~lon). See on James 3:16.

11. Terror of the Lord (fo>bon tou~ Kuri>ou). Rev., better, the fear of the Lord. Not that which is terrible in the Lord, but being conscious of fearing the Lord.

We persuade (pei>qomen). Convince of our integrity.

13. We are beside ourselves (ejxe>sthmen). See on Luke 24:22; Acts 2:7; and on the kindred e]kstasiv astonishment, Mark 5:42. Some such charge appears to have
been made, as at Acts 26:24.

14. The love of Christ. Christ's love to men. See on 1 John 2:5.

Constraineth (sune>cei). See on taken, Luke 4:38; Acts 18:5. It is the word rendered I am in a strait, Philippians 1:23. Compare Luke 12:50. The idea is not urging or
driving, but shutting up to one line and purpose, as in a narrow, walled road.

16. After the flesh (katarka). "He who knows no man after the flesh, has, for example, in the case of the Jew, entirely lost sight of his Jewish origin; in that of the rich
man, of his riches; in that of the learned of his learning; in that of the slave, of his servitude" (Alford). Compare Galatians 3:28.

Yea though (eij kai). Not with a climactic force, as A.V., and not with the emphasis on Christ, but on have known. The proper sense will be brought out in reading by
emphasizing have. We know no man henceforth after the flesh: even if we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now, etc. Paul refers to his knowledge of Christ before
his conversion, a hearsay knowledge, confined to reports of His personal appearance, His deeds, His relations to the Jews, His alleged crime and punishment. When
the glorified Christ first spoke to him out of heaven, he asked, "Who art thou?" Compare to reveal His Son in me, Galatians 1:16.

17. A new creature (kainhsiv). Or creation. Compare Galatians 6:15. The word kti>siv is used in three senses in the New Testament. The act of creating, as Romans
1:20. The sum of created things, as Revelation 3:14; Mark 13:19. A created thing or creature, as Romans 8:39. The Rabbins used the word of a man converted from
idolatry. "He who brings a foreigner and makes him a proselyte is as if he created him."

Old things (ta). Rev., correctly, the old things. See on 1 John 2:7 and Revelation 12:9.

Passed away (parh~lqen). Lit., passed by. So Luke 18:37; Mark 6:48. As here, James 1:10; Matthew 5:8; 24:34 etc.

Behold. As if contemplating a rapidly shifting scene. As in a flash, old things vanish, and all things become new.

18. And (de). Better, Rev., but; as if anticipating a possible failure to discern the primary agency of God in this moral transformation. All things - all that are involved in
this mighty change - are from God.

Reconciled. God is the prime-mover in the work of reconciliation. See on Romans 5:10through Christ, as the medium.

19. God. Emphatic. It was God, as in ver. 18.

Was - reconciling (h+n katalla>sswn). These words are to be construed together; the participle with the finite verb marking the process of reconciliation. The emphasis
is on the fact that God was reconciling, not on the fact that God was in Christ. God was all through and behind the process of reconciliation. The primary reference of
the statement is, no doubt, to God's reconciling manifestation in the incarnation and death of Christ; yet, as a fact, it includes much more. God was engaged in
reconciling the world from the very beginning, and that in Christ. See on John 1:4, 5, 9, 10.

Hath given to us (qe>menov ejn hJmi~n). Lit., lodged in us.

20. We are ambassadors (presbeu>omen). Only here and Ephesians 6:10.

21. For. Omit. It is a later addition, in order to soften the abruptness of the following clauses.

Made to be sin (aJmarti>an ejpoi>hsen). Compare a curse, Galatians 3:13. Not a sin-offering, nor a sinner, but the representative of sin. On Him, representatively, fell
the collective consequence of sin, in His enduring "the contradiction of sinners against Himself" (Hebrews 12:3), in His agony in the garden, and in His death on the
cross.

Who knew no sin (tonta aJmarti>an). Alluding to Christ's own consciousness of sinlessness, not to God's estimate of Him. The manner in which this reference is
conveyed, it is almost impossible to explain to one unfamiliar with the distinction between the Greek negative particles. The one used here implies the fact of sinlessness
as present to(c)
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                            Infobase   person Corp.
                                               concerning whom the fact is stated. Compare John 8:46.                                                Page 108 / 567

CHAPTER 6
cross.

Who knew no sin (tonta aJmarti>an). Alluding to Christ's own consciousness of sinlessness, not to God's estimate of Him. The manner in which this reference is
conveyed, it is almost impossible to explain to one unfamiliar with the distinction between the Greek negative particles. The one used here implies the fact of sinlessness
as present to the consciousness of the person concerning whom the fact is stated. Compare John 8:46.

CHAPTER 6

1. As workers together with Him (sunergou~ntev). Lit., working together. With Him is implied in the compounded ou>n with. That it refers to God, not to the fellow-
Christians, is evident from the parallel 1 Corinthians 3:9 laborers together with God, and because the act of exhortation or entreaty in which the fellowship is exhibited is
ascribed to God in 2 Corinthians 5:20. The phrase Qeou~ pa>redroi assessors of God, occurs in Ignatius' letter to Polycarp. Compare Mark 16:20.

In vain (eijv keno). Lit., to what is vain. Equivalent to the phrase to no purpose.

2. He saith, etc. From Isaiah 49:8 after Septuagint. The Hebrew is: "In the time of favor I answer thee, and in the day of salvation I succor thee." The words are
addressed to the servant of Jehovah, promising to invest him with spiritual power, that he may be a light to Israel and to others. Paul, taking the words in their messianic
sense, urges that now is the time when God thus dispenses His favor to Christ, and through Him to men. The application turns on the words acceptable time; a time in
which God receives. As He receives, receive ye Him.

The accepted time (kairosdektov). Rev., acceptable. Paul uses for the simple adjective of the Septuagint a compound "well-received," which is stronger, and which
occurs mostly in his own writings. See Romans 15:16, 31; 1 Peter 2:5; and compare acceptable year, Luke 4:19.

3. Ministry. Rev., ministration. See on Romans 12:7.

Blamed (mwmhqh|~). Only here and 2 Corinthians 8:20. The kindred mw~mov blemish, is found 2 Peter 2:13 and in the Septuagint of bodily defects. Similarly the
Septuagint a]mwmov spotless, without bodily defect; and, in the moral sense, 1 Peter 1:19 applied to Christ. Compare Hebrews 9:14; Ephesians 5:27; Jude 1:24.

4. Necessities (ajna>gkaiv). See on 1 Corinthians 7:26.

Distresses (stenocwri>aiv). See on Romans 2:9.

5. Imprisonments (fulakai~v). See on Acts 5:21.

Tumults (ajkatastasi>aiv). See on Luke 21:9 and compare ajkata>statov unstable, James 1:8. This is one of the words which show the influence of political changes.
From the original meaning of unsettledness, it developed, through the complications in Greece and in the East after the death of Alexander, into the sense which it has in
Luke - political instability. One of the Greek translators of the Old Testament uses it in the sense of dread or anxious care.

Watchings (ajgrupni>aiv). Only here and 2 Corinthians 11:27. See on the kindred verb, Mark 13:33. For the historical facts, see Acts 16:25; 20:7-11, 31; 2
Thessalonians 3:8.

Fastings (nhstei>aiv). Mostly of voluntary fasting, as Matthew 17:21; Acts 14:23; but voluntary fasting would be out of place in an enumeration of hardships.

7. Right - left. Right-hand and left-hand weapons. Offensive, as the sword, in the right hand, defensive, as the shield, in the left.

8. Deceivers. See 2 Corinthians 2:17; 4:2. The opinions concerning Paul as a deceiver are mirrored in the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, spurious writings,
ascribed to Clement of Rome, but emanating from the Ebionites, a Judaizing sect, in the latter half of the second century. In these Paul is covertly attacked, though his
name is passed over in silence. His glory as the apostle to the Gentiles is passed over to Peter. The readers are warned, in the person of Peter, to beware of any
teacher who does not conform to the standard of James, and come with witnesses (compare 2 Corinthians 3:1; 5:12; 10:12-18. Paul is assailed under the guise of
Simon Magus, and with the same words as those in this passage, deceiver and unknown.

9. Chastened. See 2 Corinthians 12:7-9, and compare Psalms 118:18.

10. Having - possessing (e]contev - kate>contev). The contrast is twofold: between having and not having, and between temporary and permanent having, or having
and keeping. Compare Luke 8:15; 1 Corinthians 15:2; 1 Thessalonians 5:21; Hebrews 3:6.

11. Ye Corinthians. The readers are addressed by name in only two other epistles, Galatians 3:1; Philippians 4:15.

Is enlarged (pepla>tuntai). Only here, ver. 13, and Matthew 23:5 where it is used of widening the phylacteries. From platu>v broad. Quite common in the Septuagint,
and with various shades of meaning, but usually rendered enlarge. Of worldly prosperity, "waxed fat," Deuteronomy 32:15; compare Genesis 9:27. Of pride,
Deuteronomy 11:16. Of deliverance in distress, Psalms 4:1. Expand with joy, Psalms 19:32. The idea of enlargement of heart in the sense of increased breadth of
sympathy and understanding, as here, is also expressed in the Old Testament by other words, as concerning Solomon, to whom God gave largeness of heart, Sept.,
cu>ma outpouring. Compare Isaiah 60:5.

12. Not straitened in us. It is not that our hearts are too narrow to take you in. Straitened in antithesis with enlarged.

In your own bowels (toi~v opla>gcnoiv uJmw~n). See on 1 Peter 3:8; James 5:11. Rev., affections. It is your love that is contracted.

14. Unequally yoked (eJterozugou~ntev). Only here in the New Testament. Not in classical Greek, nor in Septuagint, though the kindred adjective eJtero>zugov of a
diverse kind, occurs Leviticus 19:19. Unequally gives an ambiguous sense. It is not inequality, but difference in kind, as is shown by the succeeding words. The
suggestion was doubtless due to the prohibition in Deuteronomy 22:9 against yoking together two different animals. The reference is general, covering all forms of
intimacy with the heathen, and not limited to marriage or to idolfeasts.

The different shades of fellowship expressed by five different words in this and the two following verses are to be noted.

Fellowship (metoch). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred verb mete>cw to be partaker is found only in Paul's epistles and in Hebrews: me>tocov partner,
partaker, only in Hebrews and Luke 5:7. Having part with is the corresponding English expression.

 Copyright (c) -2005-2009,
Righteousness                Infobase
                 unrighteousness        Media Corp.
                                   (dikaiosu>nh                                                                                                     Page
                                                - ajnomi>a|). Lit., what sharing is there unto righteousness and lawlessness? Dikaiosu>nh| righteousness,    109the
                                                                                                                                                          though / 567
distinctively Pauline sense of righteousness by faith underlies it, is used in the general sense of rightness according to God's standard.
Fellowship (metoch). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred verb mete>cw to be partaker is found only in Paul's epistles and in Hebrews: me>tocov partner,
partaker, only in Hebrews and Luke 5:7. Having part with is the corresponding English expression.

Righteousness - unrighteousness (dikaiosu>nh - ajnomi>a|). Lit., what sharing is there unto righteousness and lawlessness? Dikaiosu>nh| righteousness, though the
distinctively Pauline sense of righteousness by faith underlies it, is used in the general sense of rightness according to God's standard.

Communion (koinwni>a). See on Luke 5:10; Acts 2:42.

15. Concord (sumfw>nhsiv). Only here in the New Testament. From su>n together, fwnh> voice. Primarily of the concord of sounds. So the kindred sufwni>a, A.V.,
music, see on Luke 15:25. Compare su>mfwnov with consent, 1 Corinthians 7:5; and sumfwne>w to agree, Matthew 18:19; Luke 5:36 etc.

Belial (beli>ar). Beliar. Belial is a transcript of the Hebrew, meaning worthlessness or wickedness. The Septuagint renders it variously by transgressor, impious, foolish,
pest. It does not occur in the Septuagint as a proper name. The form Beliar, which is preferred by critics, is mostly ascribed to the Syriac pronunciation of Belial, the
change of l into r being quite common. Others, however, derive from Belyar, Lord of the forest. Here a synonym for Satan. Stanley remarks that our associations with
the word are colored by the attributes ascribed to Belial by Milton ("Paradise Lost," B. 2.), who uses the word for sensual profligacy.

16. Agreement (sugkata>qesiv). Only here in the New Testament. Compare the kindred verb sugkatati>qemai to consent, Luke 23:51. Lit., a putting down or
depositing along with one. Hence of voting the same way with another, and so agreeing.

Ye are. Read, as Rev., we are.

God hath said, etc. The quotation is combined and condensed from Leviticus 27:11, 12; and Ezekiel 37:27 after the Septuagint. Paul treats it as if directly affirmed of
the christian Church, thus regarding that Church as spiritually identical with the true church of Israel.

17. Come out, etc. Isaiah 52:11, 12 after the Septuagint, with several changes.

18. I will be to you, etc. From 2 Samuel 7:14 where the Septuagint and Hebrew agree. Paul says sons and daughters for son.

Almighty (pantokra>twr). The word is peculiar to Revelation, occurring nowhere else in the New Testament. Here it is a quotation. Frequent in the Septuagint.

CHAPTER 7

1. Filthiness (molusmou~). Rev., defilement. Only here in the New Testament. For the kindred verb molu>nw to defile, see on Revelation 14:4. Compare 1 Corinthians
8:7.

2. Receive (cwrh>sate). From cw~rov place or space. Primarily, to leave a space, make room for. See on containing, John 2:6; 8:37. The meaning here is make room
for us. Rev., open your hearts to us, which is felicitous in view of the reference to 2 Corinthians 6:12. It is equivalent to saying enlarge your hearts to take us in, as our
heart is enlarged (2 Corinthians 6:11).

Defrauded (ejpleonekth>samen). Used by Paul only. It adds the idea of wrong for the sake of gain, which is not necessarily implied in either of the other verbs.

4. My boldness. Note the change for the first time to the first person singular.

Comfort. The Greek has the comfort, the article apparently pointing to the special comfort he had received through the coming of Titus (ver. 6).

I am exceeding joyful (uJperperisseu>mai th|~ cara~|). Lit., I superabound with the joy. Rev., I overflow with joy. Note the article again, the joy.

5. Rest (a]nesin). Rev., relief. See on liberty, Acts 24:23.

6. God. The Rev. improves on the A.V. by putting God in its emphatic place at the end of the clause. "He that comforteth," etc. - "even God."

Those that are cast down (tou). Rev., the lowly. See on Matthew 11:29. Here the A.V. is more nearly true to the idea, which is that of depression through
circumstances, rather than of lowliness of character. The neater rendering would be the downcast.

7. Comfort. The manner in which Paul, so to speak, fondles this word, is most beautiful. Compare 2 Corinthians 1:4-6.

Mourning (ojdurmo>n). Only here and Matthew 2:18. It implies a verbal expression of grief. Cebes, a disciple of Socrates, in his Pinax 147 represents Lu>ph Lupe,
Sorrow, as a woman, with her head bowed upon her breast; >nh Odune, consuming Grief, follows, tearing her hair. By her side is bh>v Odurmos, Lamentation, a
revolting, emaciated figure, whose sister is b>a Athumia, Despondency.

8. Repent (metame>lomai). See on Matthew 21:29. Rev., regret it.

Though I did repent. Punctuate as Am. Rev., I do not regret it: though (even if) I did regret it (for I see that that epistle made you sorry, though but for a season) I now
rejoice.

9. Repentance (meta>noian). See on the kindred verb repent, Matthew 3:2 and compare on Matthew 21:29. Repentance is different from regret of ver. 8, indicating a
moral change, as is shown by the next clause.

Ye might receive damage (zhmiwqh~te). Rev., might suffer loss. See on Matthew 16:26; Luke 9:25. This somewhat obscure sentence means that the salutary moral
results of the apostle's letter compensated for the sorrow which it caused. The epistle which won them to repentance was no damage to them.

10. Sorrow - repentance (lu>ph - meta>noian). Paul's words strike effectively at the popular identification of sorrow with repentance.

Not to be repented of (ajmetame>lhton). Construe with repentance. The Rev., in order to bring out this connection, amplifies the translation: a repentance which
bringeth no regret. The oxymoron (see on Romans 1:20; 4:18) is in the A.V. rather than in the Greek. It should be carefully observed that the two words, repentance,
not to be repented of, represent different roots and different ideas: repentance (meta>noian) denoting the moral change, and to be repented of denoting the sentiment of
 Copyrightor(c)
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             regret          Infobase21:29),
                    (see on Matthew     MediaandCorp.                                                                                                Page148
                                                   so answering to lu>ph sorrow. The Rev. brings out the distinction by substituting regret for repentance. 110 / 567

Sorrow of the world. Antithesis with the sorrow which is according to God (A.V., godly sorrow). Sorrow which is characteristic of the world; grief for the
Not to be repented of (ajmetame>lhton). Construe with repentance. The Rev., in order to bring out this connection, amplifies the translation: a repentance which
bringeth no regret. The oxymoron (see on Romans 1:20; 4:18) is in the A.V. rather than in the Greek. It should be carefully observed that the two words, repentance,
not to be repented of, represent different roots and different ideas: repentance (meta>noian) denoting the moral change, and to be repented of denoting the sentiment of
misgiving or regret (see on Matthew 21:29), and so answering to lu>ph sorrow. The Rev. brings out the distinction by substituting regret for repentance. 148

Sorrow of the world. Antithesis with the sorrow which is according to God (A.V., godly sorrow). Sorrow which is characteristic of the world; grief for the
consequences rather than for the sin as sin.

Worketh (katerga>zetai). Brings to pass. Notice that the simple verb ejrga>zeti is used in the previous clause, the distinction from this verb being obliterated by
rendering both worketh. The difference is between contributing to a result and achieving it.

11. Sorrowed (luphqh~nai). Rev., correctly, were made sorry. The verb is in the passive voice, and is so rendered by the A.V. in ver. 9, but, inconsistently, sorrowed
in the next clause.

Carefulness (spoudh>n). See on diligence, Romans 12:8. Rev., earnest care.

Clearing of yourselves (ajpologi>an). See on 1 Peter 3:15. Exculpation or self-defense from complicity with the incestuous person by their neglect and refusal to humble
themselves.

Indignation (ajgana>kthsin). Only here in the New Testament. Compare the kindred verb ajganakte>w to be indignant, Matthew 20:24; Mark 10:14 etc.

Revenge (ejkdi>khsin). An unfortunate rendering, because of the personal feeling of vindictiveness which attaches to the popular usage. Rev. avenging is little, if any,
better. It is rather meting out of justice; doing justice to all parties. See on Luke 18:3; 21:22. The word has, however, the sense of requital (see on Romans 12:19;
compare 2 Thessalonians 1:8), and carries with it, etymologically, the sense of vindication, as Luke 18:7, 8. Bengel remarks that the six results of godly sorrow fall into
pairs: clearing and indignation relating to the disgrace of the Church; fear and longing (vehement desire) to the apostle; zeal and avenging to the offender.

12. Our care for you (th). The correct text reverses the pronouns and reads your care for us. This difficult passage means that while Paul did desire the punishment and
reformation of the offender, and the vindication of the wronged party, his main object was that the fidelity and zeal of the Church toward God should be manifested, as
it was (ver. 11). This would appear in the manifestation of their zealous interest for him as God's minister. He states this as if it were his only object. Manifest unto you
is rather among you (pro>v), as in 2 Corinthians 1:12; 1 Corinthians 16:7.

13. Were comforted in your comfort (parakeklh>meqa ejpisei uJmw~n). The best texts place a period after were comforted, transfer the de and (yea) from after ejpi>
exceedingly the more to directly after ejpi> in (your comfort), and instead of your read our. The whole, as Rev., therefore we have been comforted. And in our comfort
we joyed the more exceedingly, etc.

In our comfort (ejpi>). In addition to. Stanley, with this comfort before me, I was still more rejoiced, etc.

16. I have confidence in you (qarjrJw~ ejn uJmi~n). Wrong. Rev., correctly, I am of good courage. In you expresses the ground of his encouragement as lying in them.

CHAPTER 8

1. We do you to wit (gnwri>zomen). An obsolete, though correct rendering. Do is used in the sense of cause or make, as Chaucer:

"She that doth me all this woe endure."

To wit is to know: Anglo-Saxon, witan; German, wissen; English, wit. So "Legend of King Arthur:" "Now go thou and do me to wit (make me to know) what
betokeneth that noise in the field." Rev., we make known.

Trial of affliction (dokimh|~ qli>yewv). Rev., better, proof. See on experience, Romans 5:4. In much affliction, which tried and proved their christian character, their joy
and liberality abounded.

Deep (kataqouv). An adverbial expression: their poverty which went down to the depths.

Liberality (aJplo>thtov). Or singleness. See on simplicity, Romans 12:8. It is better to throw the verse into two parallel clauses, instead of making abundance of joy and
deep poverty the joint subject of abounded. Render: How that in much proof of affliction was the abundance of their joy, and their deep poverty abounded unto the
riches, etc.

3. They were willing (aujqai>retoi). The adjective stands alone. Only here and ver. 17. Lit., self-chosen, and so Rev., of their own accord.

4. Praying us - that we would receive the gift and take upon us the fellowship (deo>menoi hJmw~n thrin kaian). Rev., beseeching us, etc., in regard of this grace and
the fellowship in the ministering. The Greek reads simply, praying us for the favor and the fellowship of the ministry. The renderings of both A.V. and Rev. are clumsy.
Paul means that they earnestly besought him as a favor that they might have a share in ministering to the poor saints. Ca>riv means grace, gift, and favor. Here the last.

5. As we hoped (kaqwsamen). Better, expected. They took part in this contribution in a manner beyond our expectation. Supply, as A.V., this they did, or, Rev., and
this.

Their own selves. Their liberality began in self-surrender to God and to the apostles as His agents: to us by the will of God.

6. Had begun (proenh>rxato). Only here and ver. 10. Rev., giving the force of pro> before, had made a beginning before: on his first visit to Corinth.

Complete - this grace also (ejpitele>sh| kairin tau>thn). Should complete among you the act of love (ca>rin), the contribution already begun, in addition to whatever
else He has yet to complete among you (kai also).

8. Sincerity (gnh>sion). Used by Paul only. Contracted from genh>siov legitimately born: hence genuine. Paul calls Timothy his lawful son in the faith (1 Timothy 1:2).
The kindred adverb gnhsi>wv sincerely (A.V. naturally), occurs once, Philippians 2:20. See note.

9.Copyright
   He became(c)poor
                2005-2009,  InfobaseOnly
                    (ejptw>ceusen).  Media
                                         hereCorp.
                                               in the New Testament. Primarily of abject poverty, beggary (see on Matthew 5:3), though used ofPage     poverty111     / 567
                                                                                                                                                                 generally.
"Became poor" is correct, though some render "was poor," and explain that Christ was both rich and poor simultaneously; combining divine power and excellence with
human weakness and suffering. But this idea is foreign to the general drift of the passage. The other explanation falls in better with the key-note - an act of self-devotion
8. Sincerity (gnh>sion). Used by Paul only. Contracted from genh>siov legitimately born: hence genuine. Paul calls Timothy his lawful son in the faith (1 Timothy 1:2).
The kindred adverb gnhsi>wv sincerely (A.V. naturally), occurs once, Philippians 2:20. See note.

9. He became poor (ejptw>ceusen). Only here in the New Testament. Primarily of abject poverty, beggary (see on Matthew 5:3), though used of poverty generally.
"Became poor" is correct, though some render "was poor," and explain that Christ was both rich and poor simultaneously; combining divine power and excellence with
human weakness and suffering. But this idea is foreign to the general drift of the passage. The other explanation falls in better with the key-note - an act of self-devotion
- in ver. 5. The aorist tense denotes the entrance into the condition of poverty, and the whole accords with the magnificent passage, Philippians 2:6-8. Stanley has some
interesting remarks on the influence of this passage in giving rise to the orders of mendicant friars. See Dante, "Paradiso," xi., 40-139; xii., 130 sqq.

11. Out of that which ye have (ejk tou~ e]cein). Wrong. Meyer justly remarks that it would be an indelicate compliment to the inclination of the readers, that it had
originated from their possession. Render, according to your ability; better than Rev. out of your ability.

12. If there be first a willing mind (eij hJ proqumi>a prokeitai). The error of the A.V. consists in regarding pro> in pro>keitai as indicating priority in time; be first;
whereas it signifies position, before one; as "the hope, or the race, or the joy which is set before us." Hebrews 6:18; 12:1, 2; or "the example which is set forth," Jude
1:7. Hence Rev., correctly, if the readiness is there.

14. By an equality (ejx ijso>thtov). as in ver. 11, according to. I speak on the principle that your abundance should go to equalize the difference created by their want.

18. The brother whose praise is in the Gospel. Is should be joined with throughout all the churches; as Rev., whose praise in the Gospel is spread throughout, etc. The
person referred to has been variously identified with Titus' brother, Barnabas, Mark, Luke, and Epaenetus, mentioned in Romans 16:5. The reference to Epaenetus has
been urged on the ground of a supposed play upon the word praise, epainos; Epaenetus meaning praiseworthy; and the parallel is cited in the case of Onesimus
profitable, of whom Paul says that he will henceforth be useful, Philemon 1:11. 149

19. With this grace (ejn th|~ ca>riti tau>th|). An obscure rendering, not much bettered by Rev. Grace is ambiguous. The reference is, of course, to the contribution as a
work of love; ca>riv being used in the sense of benefaction or bounty. Paul says that the brother was appointed as his fellow-traveller in the matter of this bounty; in the
prosecution of this kindly act. For appointed, see on Acts 14:23; 10:41.

20. Avoiding this (stello>menoi tou~to). The verb, which occurs only here and 2 Thessalonians 3:6 means to arrange or provide for. As preparation involves a getting
together of things, it passes into the meaning of collect, gather: then contract, as the furling of sails; so, to draw back, draw one's self away, as 2 Thessalonians 3:6.
Connect with we have sent, ver. 18. Compare 2 Corinthians 12:17, 18, where it appears that he had been charged with collecting money for his own purposes. 150

Abundance (aJdro>thti). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., thickness, and so, of the vigor or strength of the human body or of plants. Thus Hesiod speaks of the
ears of corn nodding in their thickness. Herodotus: "When the harvest was ripe or full grown, (a[drov), he (Alyattes) marched his army into Milesia" (1:17). Homer of
Patroclus: "His soul departed, leaving behind his strength (aJdroth~ta," 151 "Iliad," 16. 857). Herodotus uses it of thickly-falling snow (4:31). In the Septuagint it is used
of the rich or great, 1 Kings 1:9princes (A.V., men of Judah); 2 Kings 10:6great men. The A.V. abundance is better than Rev. bounty, which, though properly implying
abundance, is currently taken as synonymous with gift. The reference is to the large contribution.

21. We take thought (pronoou>menoi). Beforehand (pro>). See on Romans 12:17. The words are from Proverbs 3:4 where the Septuagint reads, take thought for
honorable things in the sight of the Lord and of men.

CHAPTER 9

4. Confident boasting (uJposta>sei). Primarily something put under, foundation, ground; so substance (sub, stans, standing under), substantial quality: thence steadiness,
confidence. Compare Hebrews 3:14; 11:1. In the Septuagint the word represents fifteen different Hebrew words.

5. Go before. Notice the thrice repeated before, emphasizing the injunction to have everything ready before Paul's arrival.

Make up beforehand (prokatarti>swsin). Adjust. See on Matthew 4:21; 21:16; Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10.

Bounty (eujlogi>an). Lit., blessing. In this sense only here in the New Testament. In the Septuagint indifferently of gift or blessing. See Genesis 33:11; Judges 1:15;
Ezekiel 34:26. In Proverbs 11:25liberal soul is rendered by Sept., eujlogou>menh blessed.

Whereof ye had notice before (proephggelhme>nhn). Rev., better, your afore-promised bounty. The bounty promised by you, or by me on your behalf.

6. Bountifully (ejp' eujlogi>aiv). Lit., with blessings. Compare 1 Corinthians 9:10"plow in hope (ejp' ejlpi>di)."

7. Purposeth (proairei>tai). Read proh|>rhtai, perfect tense, hath purposed.

Grudgingly (ejk lu>phv). Lit., out of sorrow.

Cheerful (iJlaro). Only here in the New Testament. See on the kindred iJlaro>thv cheerfulness, note on Romans 12:8.

God loveth, etc. From Proverbs 22:9 where the Hebrew is, a kind man shall be blessed. Sept., God blesseth a man who is cheerful and a giver.

8. Always - all - in everything. Nearly reproducing the play on the word all in the Greek.

Sufficiency (aujta>rkeian). Only here and 1 Timothy 6:6. The kindred adjective aujtarkhv A.V., content, occurs Philippians 4:11 (see note). The word properly means
self-sufficiency, and is one of those which show Paul's acquaintance with Stoicism, and the influence of its vocabulary upon his own. It expressed the Stoic conception
of the wise man as being sufficient in himself, wanting nothing and possessing everything. 152 Here, not in the sense of sufficiency of worldly goods, but of that moral
quality, bound up with self-consecration and faith, which renders the new self in Christ independent of external circumstances.

9. He hath dispersed abroad (ejsko>rpisen). As in sowing, ver. 6. Psalms 112:9. Almost literally after the Hebrew and Septuagint.

10. Ministereth (ejpicorhgw~n). Rev., supplieth. See on add, 2 Peter 1:5.

Both minister bread, etc. Construe bread with supplieth, as Rev., supplieth seed to the sow and bread for food.
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Minister and multiply (corhgh>sai kainai). The correct reading is the future, corhgh>sei kai shall supply and multiply.
10. Ministereth (ejpicorhgw~n). Rev., supplieth. See on add, 2 Peter 1:5.

Both minister bread, etc. Construe bread with supplieth, as Rev., supplieth seed to the sow and bread for food.

Minister and multiply (corhgh>sai kainai). The correct reading is the future, corhgh>sei kai shall supply and multiply.

The fruits (tamata). Lit., what has been begotten or born. Used of men, Matthew 3:7 A.V., generation, Rev., offspring. Elsewhere of fruits, as fruit of the vine, Mark
14:25.

11. Liberality (aJploth>ta). Better singleness or simplicity of heart. See on Romans 12:8.

12. Service (leitourgi>av). Also rendered ministry or ministration (A.V. and Rev.), as Luke 1:23; Hebrews 8:6; 9:21. See on Luke 1:23. The word is used of this same
contribution, Romans 15:7.

Supplieth (ejsti). Lit., fills up by adding to. Only here and 2 Corinthians 11:9. Supplementing what the saints lack.

Through many thanksgivings. The need of the poor is filled, like an empty vessel, to the brim, and the supply overflows in the thanksgiving which it calls out. Thus
christian beneficence does a double work, in giving relief and in generating thankfulness.

13. Experiment of this ministration (dokimh~v th~v diakoni>av tau>thv). Commentators differ as to the interpretation; the difference hinging on the question whether the
trial (experiment) applies to the service itself, or to those who render it: hence either "the proving of you by this ministration," as Rev., or the tried character of this
ministration. Dokimh> may mean, either the process of proving or the state of being approved, approvedness. The difference is immaterial.

Your professed subjection (uJpotagh|~ th~v oJmologi>av uJmw~n). A vicious hendiadys. Lit., as Rev., the obedience of your confession; that is, the obedience which
results from your christian confession. >a is once rendered in A.V. confession, 1 Timothy 6:13; and elsewhere profession. Both renderings occur in 1 Timothy 6:12, 13.
Rev., in every case, confession. A similar variation occurs in the rendering of oJmologe>w, though in all but five of the twenty-three instances confess is used. Rev.
retains profess in Matthew 7:23; Titus 1:16 and changes to confess in 1 Timothy 6:12. In Matthew 14:7promised (A.V. and Rev., see note), and in Hebrews
13:15giving thanks; Rev., which make confession. Etymologically, confession is the literal rendering of oJmologi>a, which is from oJmo>n together, le>gw to say; con
together, fateor to say. The fundamental idea is that of saying the same thing as another; while profess (pro forth, fateor to say) is to declare openly. Hence, to profess
Christ is to declare Him publicly as our Lord: to confess Christ is to declare agreement with all that He says. When Christ confesses His followers before the world, He
makes a declaration in agreement with what is in His heart concerning them. Similarly, when He declares to the wicked "I never knew you" ("then will I profess,
oJmologh>sw"), a similar agreement between His thought and His declaration is implied. The two ideas run into each other, and the Rev. is right in the few cases in
which it retains profess, since confess would be ambiguous. See, for example, Titus 1:16.

Liberal distribution (aJplo>thti th~v koinwni>av). Rev., correctly, liberality of your contribution. Koinwni>a communion includes the idea of communication of material
things, and hence sometimes means that which is communicated. See on Acts 2:42; so Romans 15:26; Hebrews 13:16. Compare the similar use of koinwne>w,
Romans 12:13distributing; Philippians 4:15communicated.

15. Thanks, etc. These abrupt thanksgivings are common in Paul's writings. See Romans 9:5; 11:33; 1 Corinthians 15:57; Galatians 1:5; Ephesians 3:20.

Unspeakable (ajnekdihgh>tw|). Lit., not to be told throughout. Only here in the New Testament.

CHAPTER 10

1. I Paul myself. "This emphatic stress on his own person is the fit introduction to the portion of the epistle which, beyond any other part of his writings, is to lay open
his individual life and character" (Stanley). "Paul boldly casts into the scales of his readers the weight of his own personality over against his calumniators" (Meyer).

Meekness - gentleness. See on Matthew 5:5; 1 Peter 2:18.

Base (tapeino>v). Better, as Rev., lowly. The sneer of his opponents that he was unassuming in their presence, but bold when absent. "It was easy to satirize and
misrepresent a depression of spirits, a humility of demeanor, which were either the direct results of some bodily affliction, or which the consciousness of this affliction
had rendered habitual. We feel at once that this would be natural to the bowed and weak figure which Albrecht Durer has represented; but that it would be impossible
to the imposing orator whom Raphael has placed on the steps of the Areopagus" (Farrar).

This is the only passage in the New Testament in which tapeino>v lowly, bears the contemptuous sense which attaches to it in classical usage, an illustration of which
may be found in Xenophon's story of Socrates' interview with the painter Parrhasius. "Surely meanness and servility (ton teqeron) show themselves in the looks
(diapou, the same word as Paul's) and gestures of men" ("Memorabilia," iii., 10, 5). So Aristotle says that frequently to submit to receive service from another, and to
disparage whatever he himself has done well, are signs of littleness of soul (mikroyuci>av) and meanness (tapeino>thtov). In the Septuagint the words pe>nhv poor,
prau`>v meek, ptwco>v destitute, and tapeino>v lowly, are used interchangeably to translate the same Hebrew words; the reference ordinarily being to the oppressed,
in contrast with their rich and powerful oppressors, or to the quiet, in contrast with lawless wrong-doers. Compare Deuteronomy 15:11; 2 Samuel 22:28; Psalms 18:
(Sept. 17.) 27; Isaiah 26:6; Psalms 10:17 (Sept. 9:38); Proverbs 14:21; 3:34; Numbers 12:3; Exodus 23:6, 11; Isaiah 32:7; Exodus 23:3; Ruth 3:10; Isaiah 11:4; 2
Samuel 12:1, 3, 4; Proverbs 13:8; 1 Samuel 18:23. The Septuagint usage therefore goes to show that these four words are all names for one class - the poor peasantry
of an oppressed country, the victims of ill-treatment and plunder at the hands of tyrants and rich neighbors. 153

2. But I beseech you (de>omai de). In ver. 1, parakalw~ is used for beseech. It is doubtful whether the two words can be strictly distinguished as indicating different
degrees of feeling. It may be said that de>omai and its kindred noun de>hsiv are frequently used of prayer to God, while parakalw~ occurs only twice in this sense,
Matthew 26:53; 2 Corinthians 12:8. On the other hand, parakalw~ is used of God's pleading with men, while in the same passage de>omai is used of men's entreating
men; 2 Corinthians 5:20. Rev., in ver. 1, renders entreat, which, according to older English usage, is the stronger word, meaning to prevail by entreaty, just as
persuade, which originally meant to use persuasion, now signifies to prevail by persuasion.

The construction of the passage is difficult. Literally it is: I pray the not showing courage when present, with the confidence, etc. The sense is: I pray you that you may
not make it necessary for me to show, when I am present, that official peremptoriness which I am minded to show against those who charge me with unworthy motives.

May not be bold - think to be bold (qarjrJh~sai - tolmh~sai). The A.V. thus misses the distinction between the two verbs. The former signifies to be stout-hearted or
resolutely confident in view of one's conscious strength or capacity; the latter, to carry this feeling into action; to dare. The distinction is not easy to represent by single
English words. It might be approximately given by brave and bold, though, in common usage, this distinction practically disappears. QarjrJh~sai does not so much
emphasize
 Copyrightfearlessness   as theInfobase
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as gay (see the various uses in Shakespeare). Hence Rev. is on the right line in the use of courage, from cor heart, through the French coeur. Rev. renders, show
courage - be bold. In classical Greek, the kindred noun qa>rsov is sometimes, though not often, used in a bad sense, audacity, as in Homer, where Minerva is rebuking
Mars for exciting strife among the gods with stormy or furious courage (qa>rsov a]hton "Iliad," xxi., 395). So the reckless daring of Hector is described qa>rsov
May not be bold - think to be bold (qarjrJh~sai - tolmh~sai). The A.V. thus misses the distinction between the two verbs. The former signifies to be stout-hearted or
resolutely confident in view of one's conscious strength or capacity; the latter, to carry this feeling into action; to dare. The distinction is not easy to represent by single
English words. It might be approximately given by brave and bold, though, in common usage, this distinction practically disappears. QarjrJh~sai does not so much
emphasize fearlessness as the tore positive quality of cheerful confidence in the presence of difficulty and danger, the sense which appears in the earlier usage of brave
as gay (see the various uses in Shakespeare). Hence Rev. is on the right line in the use of courage, from cor heart, through the French coeur. Rev. renders, show
courage - be bold. In classical Greek, the kindred noun qa>rsov is sometimes, though not often, used in a bad sense, audacity, as in Homer, where Minerva is rebuking
Mars for exciting strife among the gods with stormy or furious courage (qa>rsov a]hton "Iliad," xxi., 395). So the reckless daring of Hector is described qa>rsov
mui>hv the effrontery of a fly ("Iliad," xvii., 570).

3. In the flesh. Being human, and subject to human conditions.

War (strateuo>meqa). Serve as soldiers: carry on our campaign. See on Luke 3:14; James 4:1.

After the flesh. Or according to (Rev.). Quite a different thing from being in the flesh.

4. Carnal. Rev., better, of the flesh, thus preserving the play on the words. The idea of weakness attaches to that of fleshliness. See on sa>rx flesh, sec. 4, Romans 7:5.

Through God (tw|~ Qew|~). Lit., mighty unto God, in God's sight. See on exceeding fair, Acts 7:20. Rev., before God.

Pulling down (kaqai>resin). Only in this epistle. Compare Luke 1:52. Also used of taking down pride, or refuting arguments.

Of strongholds (ojcurwma>twn). Only here in the New Testament. From e]cw to hold, so that holds is an accurate rendering. Compare keep, a dungeon. The word is
not common in classical Greek, but occurs frequently in the Apocrypha. In its use here there may lie a reminiscence of the rock-forts on the coast of Paul's native
Cilicia, which were pulled down by the Romans in their attacks on the Cilician pirates. Pompey inflicted a crushing defeat upon their navy off the rocky stronghold of
Coracesium on the confines of Cilicia and Pisidia.

5. Casting down (kaqairou~ntev). Not the weapons, but we: we war, casting down, etc.

High thing (u[ywma). Only here and Romans 8:39. Falling in with the metaphor of strongholds. High military works thrown up, or lofty natural fastnesses with their
battlements of rock. The word is also used in the Septuagint and Apocrypha of mental elevation, as Job 24:24 where the Septuagint reads "his haughtiness hath harmed
many."

Exalteth itself (ejpairo>menon). Rev., is exalted. Aeschylus uses a similar metaphor in Atossa's dream of the two women whom Xerxes yoked to his chariot: "And the
one towered (ejpourgou~to) loftily in these trappings" ("Persae," 190).

Bringing into captivity (aijcmalwti>zontev). Or leading away captive. The military metaphor is continued; the leading away of the captives after the storming of the
stronghold. See on captives, Luke 4:18. The campaign against the Cilician pirates resulted in the reduction of a hundred and twenty strongholds and the capture of
more than ten thousand prisoners.

Thought (no>hma). See on 2 Corinthians 3:14.

To the obedience of Christ. In pursuance of the metaphor. The obedience is the new stronghold into which the captives are led. This is indicated by the preposition eijv
into or unto.

6. To avenge all disobedience, etc. The military metaphor continued. After most have surrendered and thus fulfilled their obedience, some rebels may remain, and these
will be punished.

9. That I may not seem. The construction is abrupt. Probably something is to be supplied, as I say this in order that I may not seem, etc.

10. They say (fasi>n). The correct reading is fhsi> says he. The Revisers retain they say, but read fhsi> he says in their text. The reference is to some well-known
opponent. Compare one, any one in 2 Corinthians 10:7; 11:20. The only instance of the very words used by Paul's adversaries.

Weighty (barei~ai). In classical Greek, besides the physical sense of heavy, the word very generally implies something painful or oppressive. As applied to persons,
severe, stern. In later Greek it has sometimes the meaning of grave or dignified, and by the later Greek rhetoricians it was applied to oratory, in the sense of impressive,
as here.

Weak. "No one can even cursorily read St. Paul's epistles without observing that he was aware of something in his aspect or his personality which distressed him with
an agony of humiliation - something which seems to force him, against every natural instinct of his disposition, into language which sounds to himself like a boastfulness
which was abhorrent to him, but which he finds to be more necessary to himself than to other men. It is as though he felt that his appearance was against him.... His
language leaves on us the impression of one who was acutely sensitive, and whose sensitiveness of temperament has been aggravated by a meanness of presence which
is indeed forgotten by the friends who know him, but which raises in strangers a prejudice not always overcome" (Farrar).

Bodily presence. All the traditions as to Paul's personal appearance are late. A bronze medal discovered in the cemetery of St. Domitilla at Rome, and ascribed to the
first or second century, represents the apostle with a bald, round, well-developed head; rather long, curling beard; high forehead; prominent nose; and open, staring
eye. The intellectual character of the face is emphasized by the contrast with the portrait of Peter, which faces Paul's. Peter's forehead is flat, the head not so finely
developed, the face commonplace, the cheek bones high, the eye small, and the hair and beard short, thick, and curling. An ivory diptych of the fourth century,
reproduced in Mr. Lewin's "Life of Paul," contains two portraits. In the one he is sitting in an official chair, with uplifted hand and two fingers raised, apparently in the
act of ordination. The face is oval, the beard long and pointed, the moustache full, the forehead high, the head bald, and the eyes small and weak. The other portrait
represents him in the act of throwing off the viper. A forgery of the fourth century, under the name of Lucian, alludes to him as "the bald-headed, hooknosed Galilean."
In the "Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles" mention is made of one Dioscorus, the bald shipmaster, who followed Paul to Rome, and was mistaken for him and beheaded
in his stead. In the "Acts of Paul and Thekla," a third-century romance, he is described as "short, bald, bowlegged, with meeting eyebrows, hook-nosed, full of grace."
John of Antioch, in the sixth century, says that he was round-shouldered, with aquiline nose, greyish eyes, meeting eyebrows, and ample beard. 154

Contemptible (ejxouqenhme>nov). Lit., made nothing of. Rev., of no account.

12. Make ourselves of the number (ejgkri~nai eJautou>v). Rev., better, to number ourselves. Lit., to judge ourselves to be among: to place in the same category with.

13. Of things(c)without
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                                                 Corp.                                                                                                      phrase.114
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correctly, glory beyond our measure.

Rule (kano>nov). Used by Paul only. Originally, a straight rod or ruler. Hence a carpenter's rule. Metaphorically, that which measures or determines anything, in
Contemptible (ejxouqenhme>nov). Lit., made nothing of. Rev., of no account.

12. Make ourselves of the number (ejgkri~nai eJautou>v). Rev., better, to number ourselves. Lit., to judge ourselves to be among: to place in the same category with.

13. Of things without measure (eijv ta). Of things is wrong; the translators failing to see that the article forms, with the following word, an adverbial phrase. Rev.,
correctly, glory beyond our measure.

Rule (kano>nov). Used by Paul only. Originally, a straight rod or ruler. Hence a carpenter's rule. Metaphorically, that which measures or determines anything, in
morals, art, or language. The Alexandrian grammarians spoke of the classic Greek authors collectively as the canon or standard of the pure language. In later Greek it
was used to denote a fixed tax. In christian literature it came to signify the standard of faith or of christian teaching; the creed; the rule of Church discipline, and the
authorized collection of sacred writings. Hence canon of Scripture.

To understand this expression, it is to be remembered that Paul regarded his ministry as specially to the Gentiles, and that he habitually refused to establish himself
permanently where any former Christian teacher had preached. The Jewish teachers at Corinth had invaded his sphere as the apostle to the Gentiles, and had also
occupied the ground which he had won for himself by his successful labors among the Corinthians, as they did also at Antioch and in Galatia. He says here, therefore,
that his boasting of his apostolic labors is not without measure, like that of those Jewish teachers who establish themselves everywhere, but is confined to the sphere
appointed for him, of which Corinth, thus far, was the extreme limit. Hence the measure of the rule is the measure defined by the line which God has drawn. The image
is that of surveying a district, so as to assign to different persons their different parcels of ground. I see no good reason for Rev. province. The measure is given by
God's measuring-line: "Which God hath apportioned to us as a measure;" and his boasting extends only to this limit.

To reach even unto you. Corinth being thus far the extreme limit of the field measured out for him.

14. We stretch not ourselves beyond our measure (mhnomen eJautou>v). The verb only here in the New Testament. The A.V. is needlessly verbose. Rev., better,
stretch not ourselves overmuch.

As though we reached not unto you. Lit., as not reaching. Paul would say: It is not as if God had not appointed our apostolic labor to reach to you. If He had not thus
appointed, then our desire to labor among you would have been an overstretching of ourselves. Therefore, in boasting of our labor in Corinth, we do not boast beyond
our measure.

We are come (ejfqa>samen). Rev., we came. The verb originally means to come before, anticipate, as 1 Thessalonians 4:15 (A.V., prevent; Rev., precede); but it
gradually loses the idea of priority, and means simply come to, arrive at. So Matthew 12:28; Philippians 3:16. It may possibly be used here with a hint of the earlier
meaning, were the first to come. See Rev., margin.

15. Be enlarged by you - according to our rule abundantly (ejn uJmi~n megalunqh~nai - eijv perissei>an). Paul means that, as the faith of the Corinthians increases, he
hopes that his apostolic efficiency will increase, so that Corinth shall become the basis of larger efforts, extending into other regions. The verb megalu>nw also means to
praise or celebrate, as Luke 1:46; Acts 5:13; 10:46 and is so explained by some interpreters here. But this would be inconsistent with the figure, to which Paul adheres.
"He who can work far off is a man of great stature, who, without overstretching himself, reaches afar" (Meyer).

According to our rule. His wider labors will still be regulated by God's measuring-line.

16. In another man's line (ejn ajllotri>w| kano>ni). Line is the word previously rendered rule. He will not boast within the line drawn for another; in another's field of
activity. 155

CHAPTER 11

1. Folly. As my boasting may seem to you. Ironically spoken of that legitimate self-vindication demanded by the circumstances. Rev., foolishness.

Bear with me (ajne>cesqe). Some render as indicative: ye do bear with me.

2. I am jealous (zhlw~). The translation is correct. The word is appropriate to the image which follows, in which Paul represents himself as the marriage-friend who has
betrothed the bride to the bridegroom, and consequently shares the bridegroom's jealousy of his bride (see on John 3:29). Compare the Old-Testament passages in
which God is represented as the spouse of His people: Isaiah 54:5; 62:5; Jeremiah 3:1; Ezekiel 16:8; Hosea 2:18, 19. For the different senses of the word, see on
envying, James 3:14. 156 Theodoret's comment on the passage is: "I was your wooer for your husband, and the mediator of your marriage; through me you received
the bridegroom's gifts; wherefore I am now affected with jealousy."

I have espoused (hJrmosa>mhn). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., have fitted together. Used in the classics of carpenter's or joiner's work; of arranging music,
tuning instruments, and fitting clothes or armor. As here, of betrothing or taking to wife. The Septuagint usage is substantially the same.

Present. Compare Ephesians 5:27.

3. The serpent. Paul's only allusion to the story of the serpent in Eden.

Eve. In accordance with the representation of the Church as the bride.

Simplicity that is in Christ. Rev. adds, and the purity, following Westcott and Hort's text. Simplicity, single-hearted loyalty. In Christ; better, as Rev., towards (eijv).

4. Another Jesus another Spirit (a]llon - e[teron). Rev., another Jesus, a different Spirit. See on Matthew 6:24. Another denies the identity; a different denies the
similarity of nature. It is the difference of "individuality and kind" (Alford). See on Galatians 1:6, 7.

Ye might well bear (kalw~v hjnei>cesqe). Following the reading which makes the verb in the imperfect tense, putting the matter as a supposed case. The Rev. follows
the reading ajnece>sqe, present tense, and puts it as a fact: ye do well to bear. Lit., ye endure them finely. The expression is ironical. You gladly endure these false
teachers, why do you not endure me?

5. The very chiefest apostles (tw~n uJperli>an ajposto>lwn). Lit., those who are preeminently apostles. Not referring to the genuine apostles, but ironically to the false
teachers, the false apostles of ver. 13. Compare 2 Corinthians 12:11. Farrar renders the extra-super apostles.

6. Rude (ijdi>wthv). See on 1 Corinthians 14:16.
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Have been made manifest (fanerwqe>ntev). The correct reading is fanerw>santev, active voice, we have made it manifest.
teachers, the false apostles of ver. 13. Compare 2 Corinthians 12:11. Farrar renders the extra-super apostles.

6. Rude (ijdi>wthv). See on 1 Corinthians 14:16.

Have been made manifest (fanerwqe>ntev). The correct reading is fanerw>santev, active voice, we have made it manifest.

7. Abasing myself. By working at his trade.

Preached the Gospel freely (dwrea) gratuitously. Rev., for nought, is not an improvement, but is quite as ambiguous as freely. Without charge would be better. Paul's
very self-denial in this matter had been construed to his injury by his opponents, as indicating his want of confidence in the Corinthian Church, and his making gain for
himself under the guise of disinterestedness. It was also urged that a real apostle would not thus relinquish his right to claim subsistence from the Church. Hence his
question, Did I commit a sin, etc.?

8. I robbed (ejsu>lhsa). Only here in the New Testament, though it appears in the verb iJerosule>w to commit sacrilege, Romans 2:22 and in iJerosu>loi robbers of
churches, Acts 19:37. Originally to strip off, as arms from a slain foe, and thence, generally, to rob, plunder, with the accompanying notion of violence. Paul thus
strongly expresses the fact that he had accepted from other churches more than their share, that he might not draw on the Corinthians.

Wages (ojyw>nion). See on Romans 6:23.

9. I was chargeable (katena>rkhsa). Only in this epistle. From na>rkh numbnees, deadness; also a torpedo or gymnotus, which benumbs whatever touches it.
Compare Homer: "His hand grew stiff at the wrist" ("Iliad," viii., 328). Meno says to Socrates: "You seem to me both in your appearance and in your power over
others, to be very like the flat torpedo-fish (na>rkh|), who torpifies (narka~n poiei~) those who come near him with the touch, as you have now torpified (narka~n) me,
I think" (Plato, "Meno," 80). The compound verb used here occurs in Hippocrates in the sense of growing quite stiff. The simple verb occurs in the Sept., Genesis
32:25, 32 of Jacob's thigh, which was put out of joint and shrank. Compare Job 33:19. According to the etymology of the word, Paul would say that he did not
benumb the Corinthians by his demand for pecuniary aid. Rev., rather mildly, I was not a burden.

10. No man shall stop me of this boasting (hJ kau>chsiv au[th ouj fragh>setai eijv ejme). Lit., this boasting shall not be blocked up as regards me. The boasting is that
of preaching gratuitously. For the verb, compare Romans 3:19; Hebrews 11:33.

12. I will do. Will continue to do; refuse to receive pay.

Cut off (ejkko>yw). Lit., cut out. See on Luke 13:7 and compare Romans 11:24.

Occasion (th). The force of the article must be carefully noted; the particular occasion of fault-finding which concerned his pecuniary relations with the Corinthians. His
refusal to receive pay cut out from among other causes of complaint this one.

They may be found even as we. I can find no satisfactory explanation of this clause, and will not attempt to add to the hopeless muddle of the commentators. It is
evident that the false teachers had sought occasion for glorifying themselves in comparison with Paul; that they consequently caught eagerly at every pretext for
disparaging him; and that this disparagement was in some way connected with Paul's refusal to receive compensation from the Corinthians. Further, that Paul's way of
counteracting their attempts was by persisting in this refusal. The intimation in the last clause is apparently to the effect that by this course he will not only remove the
occasion for attack, but that the result will show both his opponents and himself in their true light. Compare find and be found, 2 Corinthians 12:20.

13. Transforming themselves (metaschmatizo>menoi). Rev., better, fashioning, thus preserving the distinctive force of sch~ma outward fashion, which forms part of the
compound verb. See on Matthew 17:2; 1 Corinthians 4:6.

14. Satan. See on Luke 10:18. The rabbinical writings represent the devil rather as the enemy of man than of God or of good. They use none of the New-Testament
names for the Evil One except Satan, and contain no mention of a kingdom of Satan. Edersheim says: "Instead of the personified principle of evil to which there is
response in us - we have only a clumsy and often a stupid hater." 157 It is also to be observed that in the Septuagint the usage is limited to the enemy of man, as is that
of dia>bolov devil by which Satan is translated. See 1 Chronicles 21:1; Esther 7:4; 8:1; Psalms 108 (109.) 5; Job 1:6; Zechariah 3:1, 2.

17. Confidence (uJposta>sei). See on 2 Corinthians 9:4.

20. Bringeth you into bondage (katadouloi~). Only here and Galatians 2:4 where it is used of the efforts of the Jewish party to bring the christian Church under the
ceremonial law. Compare Galatians 5:1.

Devour (katesqi>ei). Your property. Compare Matthew 23:14.

Take (lamba>nei). A.V. supplies of you, evidently with reference to property, which has already been touched upon in devour. The meaning is to take as a prey, as
Luke 5:5.

Exalteth himself (ejpai>retai). As 2 Corinthians 10:5. It is noticeable that these are the only two instances out of nineteen in the New Testament where the word is used
figuratively.

Smite you on the face. The climax of insult. Compare Matthew 5:39; Luke 22:64; Acts 23:2. Also the injunction to a bishop not to be a striker, 1 Timothy 3:3; Titus
1:7. Stanley notes the decree of the Council of Braga, A.D. 675, that no bishop, at his will and pleasure, shall strike his clergy.

21. As concerning reproach (kataan). Better, Rev., by way of disparagement. Intensely ironical. Yes, you have borne with these enslavers and devourers and smiters. I
could never ask you to extend such toleration to me. I speak as one without position or authority, having shown myself weak as you know.

I speak foolishly (ejn ajfrosu>nh|). Rev., in foolishness. My pretensions are equal to theirs, but, of course, it is folly to advance them, and they amount to nothing. Yet,
even speaking in this foolish way, I possess every qualification on which they plume themselves.

22. Hebrews. See on Acts 6:1.

Israelites. See on Acts 3:12 and compare Philippians 3:5 and the phrase Israel of God, Galatians 6:16 and an Israelite indeed, John 1:48.

Seed of Abraham. Compare Matthew 3:9; John 8:33; Romans 9:7; 11:1; Galatians 3:16; Hebrews 2:16. The three names are arranged climactically, Hebrews pointing
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to the nationality; Israelites to the special relation to God's covenant; seed of Abraham to the messianic privilege. Compare with the whole, Philippians 3:4,116
                                                                                                                                                               5. / 567

23. Ministers of Christ Referring to his opponents' claim to have a closer connection with Christ than he had. See the note on 1 Corinthians 1:12.
Israelites. See on Acts 3:12 and compare Philippians 3:5 and the phrase Israel of God, Galatians 6:16 and an Israelite indeed, John 1:48.

Seed of Abraham. Compare Matthew 3:9; John 8:33; Romans 9:7; 11:1; Galatians 3:16; Hebrews 2:16. The three names are arranged climactically, Hebrews pointing
to the nationality; Israelites to the special relation to God's covenant; seed of Abraham to the messianic privilege. Compare with the whole, Philippians 3:4, 5.

23. Ministers of Christ Referring to his opponents' claim to have a closer connection with Christ than he had. See the note on 1 Corinthians 1:12.

As a fool (parafronw~n). Only here in the New Testament. See the kindred parafroni>a madness, 2 Peter 2:16. Lit., being beside myself Rev., as one beside myself.
This expression is stronger than that in ver. 21, because the statement which it characterizes is stronger. Up to this point Paul has been asserting equality with the other
teachers. Now he asserts superiority "I more;" and ironically characterizes this statement from their stand-point as madness.

More abundant (perissote>rwv). Lit., more abundantly, as Rev.

Stripes above measure (uJperballo>ntwv). This peculiar form of suffering is emphasized by details. He specifies three Roman scourgings, and five at the hands of the
Jews. Of the former, only one is recorded, that at Philippi (Acts 16:22, 23. See on Acts 22:25), and none of the latter. The Jewish scourge consisted of two thongs
made of calf's or ass's skin, passing through a hole in a handle. Thirteen blows were inflicted on the breast, thirteen on the right, and thirteen on the left shoulder. The
law in Deuteronomy 25:3 permitted forty blows, but only thirty-nine were given, in order to avoid a possible miscount. During the punishment the chief judge read aloud
Deuteronomy 28:58, 59; Deuteronomy 29:9; Psalms 68:38, 39. The possibility of death under the infliction was contemplated in the provision which exonerated the
executioner unless he should exceed the legal number of blows. Paul escaped Roman scourging at Jerusalem on the ground of his Roman citizenship. It is not related
that he and Silas urged this privilege at Philippi until after the scourging. It is evident from the narrative that they were not allowed a formal hearing before the
magistrates; and, if they asserted their citizenship, it may have been that their voices were drowned by the mob. That this plea did not always avail appears from the
case cited by Cicero against Verres, that he scourged a Roman citizen in spite of his continued protest under the scourge, "I am a Roman citizen" (see on Acts 16:37),
and from well-known instances of the scourging of even senators under the Empire.

Prisons. At Philippi, and other places not recorded.

Deaths. Perils of death, as at Damascus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Thessalonica, Beroea.

25. Beaten with rods. Roman scourgings.

Stoned. At Lystra, Acts 14:19.

Thrice I suffered shipwreck. The shipwreck at Malta, being later, is, of course, not referred to; so that no one of these three is on record. 158

A night and a day (nucqh>meron). A compound term occurring only here in the New Testament, and rarely in later Greek.

Have I been in the deep (ejn tw|~ buqw|~ pepoi>hka). Lit., I have made (spent) a night and a day in the deep. For a similar use of poie>w to make, see Acts 15:33;
18:23; 20:3; James 4:13. buqo>v bottom or depth occurs only here. Of the event itself there is no record.

26. Perils of rivers. From the sudden swelling of mountain streams or flooding of dry water-courses. "The rivers of Asia Minor, like all the rivers in the Levant, are liable
to violent and sudden changes, and no district in Asia Minor is more singularly characterized by its water-floods than the mountainous tract of Pisidia, where rivers burst
out at the bases of huge cliffs, or dash down wildly through narrow ravines" (Conybeare and Howson, i., ch. 6.).

Robbers. The tribes inhabiting the mountains between the table-land of Asia Minor and the coast were notorious for robbery. Paul may have encountered such on his
journey to the Pisidian Antioch, Acts 13:14.

Mine own countrymen. Conspiracies of the Jews at Damascus, Lystra, Thessalonica, Beroea, etc.

The Gentiles. As at Philippi and Ephesus.

False brethren. Judaizing Christians, as Galatians 2:4.

27. Watchings. See on 2 Corinthians 6:5.

28. Those things that are without (tw~n parekto). Some explain, external calamities; others, the things which are left out in the enumeration, as Matthew 5:32; Acts
26:29. Better, the latter, so that the literal meaning is, apart from the things which are beside and outside my enumeration: or, as Alford, not to mention those which are
beside these. The word does not occur in classical Greek, and no instance of its usage in the former sense occurs in the New Testament or in the Septuagint. See Rev.,
margin.

That which cometh upon me (ejpisu>stasiv). Lit., a gathering together against. Both here and Acts 24:12 the best texts read ejpi>stasiv onset. Rev., that which presseth
upon me. "The crowd of cares."

Farrar remarks upon vers. 23-28, that it is "the most marvelous record ever written of any biography; a fragment beside which the most imperiled lives of the most
suffering saints shrink into insignificance, and which shows us how fractional at the best is our knowledge of the details of St. Paul's life." Eleven of the occurrences
mentioned here are not alluded to in Acts.

29. Burn. With sorrow over the stumbling or with indignation over the cause. This and 1 Corinthians 7:9 are the only instances in which the word is used figuratively.

30. The things which concern mine infirmities (taav mou~). He will be attested as a true apostle by the sufferings which show his weakness, which make him
contemptible in his adversaries' eyes, and not by the strength of which his opponents boast.

31. Blessed, etc. See on Romans 9:5 and compare Romans 1:25.

32. The governor (ejqna>rchv). Only here in the New Testament. A governor ruling in the name of a king: a prefect.

Aretas. Or Hareth, the father-in-law of Herod Antipas. Hs capital was the rock-city of Petra, the metropolis of Arabia Petraea. Herod's unfaithfulness to his daughter
brought  on a(c)quarrel,
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death of Tiberius, and it is supposed that Caligula assigned Damascus as a free gift to Aretas.

Kept with a garrison (ejfrou>rei). Imperfect tense, was maintaining a constant watch. Compare Acts 9:24: They watched the gates day and night.
32. The governor (ejqna>rchv). Only here in the New Testament. A governor ruling in the name of a king: a prefect.

Aretas. Or Hareth, the father-in-law of Herod Antipas. Hs capital was the rock-city of Petra, the metropolis of Arabia Petraea. Herod's unfaithfulness to his daughter
brought on a quarrel, in which Herod's army was defeated, to the great delight of the Jews. The further prosecution of the war by Roman troops was arrested by the
death of Tiberius, and it is supposed that Caligula assigned Damascus as a free gift to Aretas.

Kept with a garrison (ejfrou>rei). Imperfect tense, was maintaining a constant watch. Compare Acts 9:24: They watched the gates day and night.

To apprehend (pia>sai). See on Acts 3:7.

33. Through a window (diadov). Only here and Acts 20:9. Diminutive of qu>ra a door. The same expression is used in Sept., Joshua 2:15 of the escape of the spies
from Jericho, and 1 Samuel 19:12 of David's escape from Saul by the aid of Michal.

Basket (sarga>nh|). Lit., braided work; a rope-basket or hamper. Luke, in his narrative of the incident, uses spuri>v, for which see on Matthew 14:20.

CHAPTER 12

1. Revelations (ajpokalu>yeiv). See on Revelation 1:1.

2. l knew (oi+da). Rev., correctly, I know.

Above fourteen years ago (prorwn). Above, of A.V., is due to a misunderstanding of the Greek idiom. Lit., before fourteen years, that is, fourteen years ago, as Rev.

Caught up (aJrpage>nta). Compare Dante:

"Thou knowest, who didst lift me with thy light"

"Paradiso," i., 75.

The verb suits the swift, resistless, impetuous seizure of spiritual ecstasy. See on Matthew 11:12; and compare Acts 8:39; 1 Thessalonians 4:17; Revelation 12:5.

Third heaven. It is quite useless to attempt to explain this expression according to any scheme of celestial gradation. The conception of seven heavens was familiar to
the Jews; but according to some of the Rabbins there were two heavens - the visible clouds and the sky; in which case the third heaven would be the invisible region
beyond the sky. Some think that Paul describes two stages of his rapture; the first to the third heaven, from which he was borne, as if from a halting-point, up into
Paradise.

4. Paradise. See on Luke 23:43.

Unspeakable words (a]rjrJhta rJh>mata). An oxymoron, speaking which may not be spoken.

7. Abundance (uJperbolh|~). Rev., more correctly, the exceeding greatness.

Thorn (sko>loy). Only here in the New Testament. Frequent in classical Greek in the sense of a pale or stake. It occurs once in Euripides, meaning a stump
("Bacchae," 983). It is a stake for a palisade, or for impaling; a surgical instrument; the point of a fish-hook. In the Septuagint it occurs three times, translated thorn in
Hosea 2:6 where, however, it is distinguished from ajka>nqaiv thorns; brier in Ezekiel 28:24 and prick in Numbers 33:55. Nine different Hebrew words are rendered
by thorn, for which, in the great majority of cases, Septuagint gives a]kanqa. The rendering thorn for sko>loy has no support. The figure is that of the impaling stake.
Herodotus, alluding to this punishment, uses ajnaskolopi>zein (i., 128; 3, 132). In the ninth book of his history, Lampon says to Pausanias: "When Leonidas was slain
at Thermopylae, Xerxes and Mardonius beheaded and crucified (ajnestau>rwsan) him. Do thou the like by Mardonius.... for by crucifying (ajnaskolopi>sav) thou wilt
avenge Leonidas" (ix., 78). The verb seems, therefore, to have been used interchangeably with crucify; and clear instances of this occur in Philo and Lucian.

At least one text of the Septuagint gives ajnaskolopi>zw in Esther 7:10 of Haman's being hanged. 159 See further, on Galatians 2:20. The explanations of the peculiar
nature of this affliction are numerous. Opinions are divided, generally, between mental or spiritual and bodily trials. Under the former head are sensual desires, faint-
heartedness, doubts, temptations to despair, and blasphemous suggestions from the devil. Under the latter, persecution, mean personal appearance, headache,
epilepsy, earache, stone, ophthalmia. It was probably a bodily malady, in the flesh; but its nature must remain a matter of conjecture. Very plausible reasons are given in
favor of both epilepsy and ophthalmia. Bishop Lightfoot inclines to the former, and Archdeacon Farrar thinks that it was almost certainly the latter. 160

Messenger of Satan (a]ggelov Sata~n). The torment is thus personified. Messenger is the word commonly rendered angel in the New Testament, though sometimes
used of human messengers, as Luke 7:24, 27; 9:52; James 2:25; see also on the angels of the churches, Revelation 1:20. Messenger and Satan are not to be taken in
apposition a messenger who was Satan - because Satan is never called a]ggelov in the New Testament. Messenger is figurative, in the sense of agent. Satan is
conceived in the New Testament as the originator of bodily evil. Thus, in the gospel narrative, demoniac possession is often accompanied with some form of disease.
Compare Luke 13:16; Acts 10:38 and see on 1 Corinthians 5:5.

Buffet (kolafi>zh|). Connect with messenger, which better suits depart; not with thorn, which would be a confusion of metaphor, a stake buffeting. For the verb,
meaning to strike with the fist, see Matthew 26:67; Mark 14:65; 1 Peter 2:20. Compare Job 2:5, 7 where the Septuagint has a[yai touch, and e]paise smote.

8. For this thing (uJpetou). Rev., concerning this thing. But it is better to refer this to messenger: concerning this or whom. For, of A.V., is ambiguous.

9. He said (ei]rhken). Rev., correctly, He hath said. The force of the perfect tense is to be insisted on. It shows that the affliction was still clinging to Paul, and that there
was lying in his mind when he wrote, not only the memory of the incident, but the sense of the still abiding power and value of Christ's grace; so that because the Lord
hath said "my grace," etc., Paul can now say, under the continued affliction, wherefore I take pleasure, etc., for Christ's sake; for when I am weak, then am I strong. A
more beautiful use of the perfect it would be difficult to find in the New Testament.

My strength. The best texts omit my, thus turning the answer into a general proposition: strength is perfected in weakness; but besides the preeminent frigidity of
replying to a passionate appeal with an aphorism, the reference to the special power of Christ is clear from the words power of Christ, which almost immediately
follow. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:3, 4; 2 Corinthians 4:7; Hebrews 11:34. Rev., rightly, retains my italicized.

May rest upon (ejpiskhnw>sh|). Only here in the New Testament. The simple verb skhno>w to dwell in a tent is used by John, especially in Revelation. See on John
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follow. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:3, 4; 2 Corinthians 4:7; Hebrews 11:34. Rev., rightly, retains my italicized.

May rest upon (ejpiskhnw>sh|). Only here in the New Testament. The simple verb skhno>w to dwell in a tent is used by John, especially in Revelation. See on John
1:14. The compound verb here means to fix a tent or a habitation upon; and the figure is that of Christ abiding upon him as a tent spread over him, during his temporary
stay on earth.

For Christ's sake. This may be taken with all the preceding details, weaknesses, etc., endured for Christ's sake, or with I take pleasure, assigning the specific motive of
his rejoicing: I take pleasure for Christ's sake.

11. I am become a fool in glorying. Ironical. By the record I have presented I stand convicted of being foolish.

I ought to have been commended of you. You ought to have saved me the necessity of recounting my sufferings, and thus commending myself as not inferior to those
preeminent apostles (2 Corinthians 11:5).

12. Signs (shmei~a). See on Matthew 24:24. Stanley observes that the passage is remarkable as containing (what is rare in the history of miracles) a direct claim to
miraculous powers by the person to whom they were ascribed. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:4; Romans 15:19.

Were wrought (kateirga>sqh). The testimony was decisive. They were fully wrought out.

13. Except that I was not a burden. Alluding to the possible objection that his refusal to receive pay was a sign either of his want of power to exact it, or of his want of
affection for them (2 Corinthians 11:7).

Forgive, etc. Ironical.

15. Be spent (ejkdapanhqh>somai). Only here in the New Testament. To spend utterly. Later Greek writers use the simple verb dapana>w to expend, of the
consumption of life.

16. With guile. Alluding to a charge that he availed himself of the collection for the poor to secure money for himself. He uses his adversaries' words.

20. Strifes (ejriqei~ai). Rev., better, factions. See on James 3:14.

Wraths (qumoi>) For the plural, compare deaths, 2 Corinthians 11:33; drunkennesses, Galatians 5:21; bloods, John 1:13 (see note); the willings of the flesh, Ephesians
2:3; mercies, Philippians 2:1. Excitements or outbursts of wrath.

Whisperings (yiqurismoi>). Psithurismoi, the sound adapted to the sense. Only here in the New Testament. Secret slanders. In Sept., Ecclesiastes 10:11 it is used of the
murmuring of a snake-charmer. 161 Yiquristh>v whisperer, occurs Romans 1:29.

Swellings (fusiw>seiv). Only here in the New Testament. Conceited inflation. For the kindred verb fusia>w to puff up, see on 1 Corinthians 4:6.

Tumults (ajkatastasi>ai). See 2 Corinthians 2 Corinthians 6:5.

21. Among you (pro). Better, as Rev., before. In my relation to you.

Shall bewail (penqh>sw). Lament with a true pastor's sorrow over the sin.

Many (pollou). With special reference to the unchaste.

Sinned - already (prohmarthko>twn). Rev., heretofore. Only here and 2 Corinthians 13:2. The perfect tense denotes the continuance of the sin. Heretofore probably
refers to the time before his second visit.

Have not repented (mhntwn). The only occurrence of the verb in Paul's writings. Meta>noia repentance, occurs only three times: Romans 2:4; 2 Corinthians 7:9, 10.

Of the uncleanness (ejpia|). Connect with bewail, not with repent. There are no examples in the New Testament of the phrase metanoei~n ejpi> to repent over, though
such occur in the Septuagint.

Lasciviousness (ajselgei>a|). See on Mark 7:22.

CHAPTER 13

1. The third time. The great mass of modern expositors hold that Paul made three visits to Corinth, of the second of which there is no record. 162

I am coming. The third visit which I am about to pay. Alford observes that had not chronological theories intervened, no one would ever have thought of any other
rendering. Those who deny the second visit explain: this is the third time that I have been intending to come.

2. I told you before and foretell you (proei>rhka kaigw). Rev., I have said beforehand, and I do say beforehand. The renderings of the A.V. and Rev. should be
carefully compared. The difference turns mainly on the denial or assumption of the second visit; the A.V. representing the former, and the Rev. the latter. I have said
beforehand thus refers to the second visit; I do say beforehand, to his present condition of absence.

As if I were present, the second time (wJv parwteron). Rev., as when I was present the second time; thus making a distinct historical reference to the second visit.
Note the comma after present in A.V. According to this, the second time is connected with prole>gw, I say beforehand the second time. Another explanation,
however, on the assumption of only two visits is, as if I were present this next time.

And being absent now I write to them which heretofore, etc. (kaifw). I write must be omitted; now connected with being absent; and to them which connected with I
say beforehand. Render, so now being absent (I say beforehand) to them which, etc.

3. A proof of Christ speaking in me (dokimh). Lit., of the Christ that speaks in me. An experimental proof of what kind of a being the Christ who speaks in me is.
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In you (ejn uJmi~n). Better, among you. He is speaking, not of Christ as He dwells in them, but as He works with reference to them (eijv) and among their number,
inflicting punishment for their sin.
say beforehand. Render, so now being absent (I say beforehand) to them which, etc.

3. A proof of Christ speaking in me (dokimh). Lit., of the Christ that speaks in me. An experimental proof of what kind of a being the Christ who speaks in me is.

In you (ejn uJmi~n). Better, among you. He is speaking, not of Christ as He dwells in them, but as He works with reference to them (eijv) and among their number,
inflicting punishment for their sin.

Through (ejx). Lit., out of, marking the source of both death and life.

Are weak in Him. The parallel with ver. 3 must be carefully noted. Christ will prove Himself not weak, but mighty among you. He was crucified out of weakness, but
He is mighty out of the power of God. A similar weakness and power will appear in our case. We are weak in Him, in virtue of our fellowship with Him. Like Him we
endure the contradiction of sinners, and suffer from the violence of men: in fellowship with His risen life we shall be partakers of the power of God which raised Him
from the dead, and shall exhibit this life of power toward you in judging and punishing you.

Toward you. Construe with we shall live.

5. Examine yourselves (eJautouzete). Yourselves is emphatic. Instead of putting Christ to the test, test yourselves. Rev., try, is better than examine. Examination does
not necessarily imply a practical test. It may be merely from curiosity. Trial implies a definite intent to ascertain their spiritual condition.

The faith, See on Acts 6:7. In a believing attitude toward Christ.

Prove (dokima>zete). As the result of trying.

Or know ye not, etc. Assuming that you thus prove yourselves, does not this test show you that Christ is in you as the result of your faith in him?

Reprobates (ajdo>kimoi). An unfortunate translation. A retrobate is one abandoned to perdition. The word is kindred to the verb prove (dokima>zete), and means
disapproved on trial See on Romans 1:28.

7. Not that we should appear approved, etc. The sense of the verse is this: We pray God that you do no evil, not in order that your good conduct may attest the
excellence of our teaching and example, so that we shall be approved; but in order that you may do what is good, thus rendering it impossible for us to prove our
apostolic authority by administering discipline. In that case we shall be as men unapproved. Stanley remarks that, in the light of this verse, Paul might have added to 2
Corinthians 6:9as without proof and yet as aprroved.

8. For we can do nothing against the truth. Your well doing is what we truly aim at. For, if we had any other aim, with a view to approving ourselves, we should fail,
because we should be going in the face of the truth - the Gospel; and against that we are powerless. In that case we should be unapproved before God.

9. We are weak. Practically the same as unapproved. When your good conduct deprives us of the power of administering discipline, we are weak.

Perfection (kata>rtisin). Only here in the New Testament See on be perfect, ver. 11. Rev., perfecting.

10. Use sharpness (ajpoto>mwv crh>swmai). Rev., more literally and correctly, deal sharply, thus giving the force of the adverb. For sharply see on the kindred
ajpotomi>a severity, Romans 11:22.

11. Finally (loipo>n). Lit., as for the rest. Sometimes rendered now, as Matthew 26:45. "Sleep on now," for the time that remains. Besides, as 1 Corinthians 1:16. It
remaineth, 1 Corinthians 7:29. Henceforth, 2 Timothy 4:8; Hebrews 10:13. Often as here, finally. In every case the idea of something left over is at the bottom of the
translation.

Farewell (cai>rete). In the classics used both at meeting and at parting. Lit., hail! See on James 1:1. Rev., in margin, has rejoice. It is somewhat doubtful whether it ever
has the meaning farewell in the New Testament. 163 Edersheim says that, on Sabbaths, when the outgoing course of priests left the temple, they parted from each other
with a farewell, reminding us of this to the Corinthians: "He that has caused His name to dwell in this house cause love, brotherhood, peace, and friendship to dwell
among you" ("The Temple," p. 117).

Be perfect (katarti>zesqe). Rev., be perfected. See on Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10. Paul speaks both of individual perfection and of the perfection of the Church through
the right adjustment of all its members in Christ. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:10. The verb is kindred with perfecting, ver. 9.

12. Kiss. In 1 Peter 1:14 called the kiss of charity. The practice was maintained chiefly at the celebration of the Eucharist. In the "Apostolic Constitutions" 164 it is
enjoined that, before the communion, the clergy kiss the bishop, the laymen amongst each other, and so the women. This latter injunction grew out of the reproach of
looseness of manners circulated by the heathen against the Christians. On Good Friday it was omitted in commemoration of Judas' kiss. In the West the practice
survives among the Glassites or Sandemanians. In the Latin Church, after the end of the thirteenth century, there was substituted for it a piece of the altar furniture called
a Pax (peace), which was given to the deacon with the words Peace to thee and to the Church. In the East it is continued in the Coptic and Russian Churches.

14. The grace, etc. The most complete benediction of the Pauline epistles. In most of the epistles the introductory benedictions are confined to grace and peace. In the
pastoral epistles mercy is added. In the closing benedictions uniformly grace.

THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS
CHAPTER 1

"The first chapter has, so to speak, a liturgical, psalmodic character, being, as it were, a glowing song in praise of the transcendent riches of the grace of God in Christ,
and the glory of the Christian calling" (Schaff).

1. By the will of God. As frequently in the introductions of the epistles, to emphasize his divine appointment. In Romans 1:1; 1 Corinthians 1:1called is added.

To the saints. See on Romans 1:7; Colossians 1:2; Philippians 1:1.

At Ephesus. There is much discussion as to the genuineness of these words. They are bracketed by both Westcott and Hort, and Tischendorf. 165 On their omission
or retention (c)
 Copyright    turns the question
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                               Infobase   the epistle
                                                Corp.was addressed to the church at Ephesus, or was a circular epistle, addressed to Ephesus along with several other
churches. For Ephesus, see on Revelation 2:1.
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The faithful. Not faithful in the sense of fidelity and perseverance, but believing, as John 20:27; Acts 10:45. It is to be included with the saints under the one article.
To the saints. See on Romans 1:7; Colossians 1:2; Philippians 1:1.

At Ephesus. There is much discussion as to the genuineness of these words. They are bracketed by both Westcott and Hort, and Tischendorf. 165 On their omission
or retention turns the question whether the epistle was addressed to the church at Ephesus, or was a circular epistle, addressed to Ephesus along with several other
churches. For Ephesus, see on Revelation 2:1.

The faithful. Not faithful in the sense of fidelity and perseverance, but believing, as John 20:27; Acts 10:45. It is to be included with the saints under the one article.

2 Grace. One of the leading words of the epistle. 166 It is used thirteen times.

3. Blessed (eujloghto). Placed first in the clause for emphasis, as always in the corresponding Hebrew in the Old Testament. The verb is commonly omitted - blessed
the God. In the New Testament used of God only. The perfect participle of the verb, eujloghme>nov blessed, is used of men. See on 1 Peter 1:3. The word differs
from that used in the Beatitudes, maka>riov. which denotes character, while this word denotes repute. Lit., well-spoken of.

God and Father of our Lord, etc. Some object to this rendering on the ground that the phrase God of Christ is unusual, occurring nowhere in Paul, except ver. 17 of
this chapter. Such render, God who is also the Father, etc. But Christ of God is found Matthew 27:46; and my God, John 20:17; Revelation 3:12. Compare, also, 1
Corinthians 3:23; and the phrase is undoubted in ver. 17.

Hath blessed (eujlogh>sav). Kindred with eujloghto blessed.

Spiritual (pneumatikh|~). Another leading word. Spirit and spiritual occur thirteen times. Paul emphasizes in this epistle the work of the divine Spirit upon the human
spirit. Not spiritual as distinguished from bodily, but proceeding from the Holy Spirit. Note the collocation of the words, blessed, blessed, blessing.

In the heavenly places (ejn toi~v ejpourani>oiv). Another keyword; one of the dominant thoughts of the epistle being the work of the ascended Christ. Places is
supplied, the Greek meaning in the heavenlies. Some prefer to supply things, as more definitely characterizing spiritual blessing. But in the four other passages where the
phrase occurs, 1:20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:12, the sense is local, and ejpoura>niov heavenly, is local throughout Paul's epistles. The meaning is that the spiritual blessings of God
are found in heaven and are brought thence to us. Compare Philippians 3:20.

4. Even as (kaqw). Explaining blessed us, in ver. 3. His blessing is in conformity with the fact that He chose.

Chose (ejxele>xato). Middle voice, for himself.

In Him. As the head and representative of our spiritual humanity. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:22. Divine election is in Christ the Redeemer. The crown of divine
sovereignty is redemption. God rules the world to save it.

Holy and without blame (aJgi>ouv kaimouv). The positive and negative aspects of christian life. See on Colossians 1:22. Rev., without blemish. The reference is to
moral rather than to forensic righteousness. Compare 1 Thessalonians 4:7.

In love. Join with foreordained, ver. 5. Having in love foreordained.

5. Having predestinated (proori>sav). Rev. foreordained. From pro> before, oJri>zw to define, the latter word being from o[pov a boundary. Hence to define or
determine beforehand.

Adoption (uiJoqesi>an). See on Romans 8:15. Never used of Christ.

Good pleasure (eujdoki>an). Not strictly in the sense of kindly or friendly feeling, as Luke 2:14; Philippians 1:15 but because it pleased Him, see Luke 10:21; Matthew
11:26. The other sense, however, is included and implied, and is expressed by in love.

6. To the praise of the glory of His grace. The ultimate aim of foreordained. Glory is an attribute of grace: that in which grace grandly and resplendently displays itself.
Praise is called forth from the children of God by this divine glory which thus appears in grace. The grace is not merely favor, gift, but it reveals also the divine
character. In praising God for what He does, we learn to praise Him for what He is. Glory is another of the ruling words of the epistle, falling into the same category
with riches and fullness. The apostle is thrilled with a sense of the plenitude and splendor of the mystery of redemption.

Wherein He hath made us accepted (ejn h|= ejcari>twsen hJma~v). The correct reading is h=v which, referring to grace. The meaning is not endued us with grace, nor
made us worthy of love, but, as Rev., grace - which he freely bestowed. Grace is an act of God, not a state into which He brings us.

The beloved. Christ. Beloved par excellence. Compare the Son of His love, Colossians 1:13; also Matthew 3:17; 17:5.

7. We have. Or are having. The freely bestowed (ver. 6) is thus illustrated by experience. The divine purpose is being accomplished in the lives of believers.

Redemption (thtrwsin). See on Romans 3:24. Note the article: our redemption.

Through His blood. Further defining and explaining in whom.

Forgiveness (a]fesin). See on Luke 3:3; James 5:15; Romans 3:25. Forgiveness specifies the peculiar quality of redemption.

Sins (paraptwma>twn). Rev., better, trespasses. See on Matthew 6:14.

Riches. See on glory, ver. 6, and Romans 2:4.

8. Wherein He hath abounded (h=v ejperi>sseusen). Rev., correctly, which He made to abound. The verb is used both transitively and intransitively in the New
Testament. The transitive use belongs mainly to later Greek. Compare, for the transitive sense, Matthew 13:12; 2 Corinthians 4:15.

In all wisdom and prudence (ejn pa>sh| sofi>a| kaisei). For wisdom, see on Romans 11:33. For prudence, on Luke 1:17. The latter is an attribute or result of wisdom,
concerned with its practical applications. Both words refer here to men, not to God: the wisdom and prudence with which He abundantly endows His followers.
Compare Colossians 1:9. All wisdom is, properly, every kind of wisdom.

9.Copyright
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The mystery of His will. For mystery, see on Romans 11:25; Colossians 1:26. Another key-word of this epistle. God's grace as manifested in redemption is a mystery
in virtue of its riches and depth - as the expression of God's very nature. The mystery of the redemption in Christ, belonging to the eternal plan of God, could be known
In all wisdom and prudence (ejn pa>sh| sofi>a| kaisei). For wisdom, see on Romans 11:33. For prudence, on Luke 1:17. The latter is an attribute or result of wisdom,
concerned with its practical applications. Both words refer here to men, not to God: the wisdom and prudence with which He abundantly endows His followers.
Compare Colossians 1:9. All wisdom is, properly, every kind of wisdom.

9. Having made known. The participle is explanatory of which He made to abound, etc.: in that He made known.

The mystery of His will. For mystery, see on Romans 11:25; Colossians 1:26. Another key-word of this epistle. God's grace as manifested in redemption is a mystery
in virtue of its riches and depth - as the expression of God's very nature. The mystery of the redemption in Christ, belonging to the eternal plan of God, could be known
to men only through revelation - making known. Of his will; pertaining to his will. Compare Ephesians 3:9.

Purposed (proe>qeto). Only here, Romans 1:13; 3:25 (note).

In Himself (ejn auJtw|~). The best texts read aujtw|~ in Him; but the reference is clearly to God, not to Christ, who is expressly mentioned in the next verse.

10. That in the dispensation, etc. (eijv oijkonomi>an). The A.V. is faulty and clumsy. EiJv does not mean in, but unto, with a view to. Dispensation has no article. The
clause is directly connected with the preceding: the mystery which He purposed in Himself unto a dispensation. For oijkonomi>a dispensation see on Colossians 1:25.
Here and Ephesians 3:2, of the divine regulation, disposition, economy of things.

Of the fullness of times (tou~ plhrw>matov tw~n kairw~n). For fullness, see on Romans 11:12; John 1:16; Colossians 1:19. For times, compare Galatians 4:4"fullness
of the time (tou~ cro>nou), where the time before Christ is conceived as a unit. Here the conception is of a series of epochs. The fullness of the times is the moment
when the successive ages of the gospel dispensation are completed. The meaning of the whole phrase, then, is: a dispensation characterized: by the fullness of the times:
set forth when the times are full.

To sum up all things in Christ (ajnakefalaiw>sasqai). Explanatory of the preceding phrase; showing in what the dispensation consists. For the word, see on Romans
13:9. It means to bring back to and gather round the main point (kefalai>on), not the head (kefalh>); so that, in itself, it does not indicate Christ (the Read) as the
central point of regathering, though He is so in fact. That is expressed by the following in Christ. The compounded preposition ajna> signifies again, pointing back to a
previous condition where no separation existed. All things. All created beings and things; not limited to intelligent beings. Compare Romans 8:21; 1 Corinthians 15:28.

The connection of the whole is as follows: God made known the mystery of His will, the plan of redemption, according to His own good pleasure, in order to bring to
pass an economy peculiar to that point of time when the ages of the christian dispensation should be fulfilled - an economy which should be characterized by the
regathering of all things round one point, Christ.

God contemplates a regathering, a restoration to that former condition when all things were in perfect unity, and normally combined to serve God's ends. This unity was
broken by the introduction of sin. Man's fall involved the unintelligent creation (Romans 8:20). The mystery of God's will includes the restoration of this unity in and
through Christ; one kingdom on earth and in heaven - a new heaven and a new earth in which shall dwell righteousness, and "the creation shall be delivered from the
bondage of corruption into the liberty of the glory of the children of God."

11. In Him. Resuming emphatically: in Christ.

We have obtained an inheritance (ejklhrw>qhmen). Only here in the New Testament. From klh~rov a lot. Hence the verb means literally to determine, choose, or
assign by lot. From the custom of assigning portions of land by lot, klh~rov acquires the meaning of that which is thus assigned; the possession or portion of land. So
often in the Old Testament. See Sept., Numbers 34:14; Deuteronomy 3:18; 15:4 etc. An heir (klhrono>mov) is originally one who obtains by lot. The A.V. here makes
the verb active where it should be passive. The literal sense is we were designated as a heritage. So Rev., correctly, were made a heritage. Compare Deuteronomy
4:20, a people of inheritance (lao). Also Deuteronomy 32:8, 9.

12. That we should be. Connect with we were made a heritage.

Who first trusted (toutav). In apposition with we (should be). So Rev., we who had, etc., trusted, more properly hoped; and first trusted is ambiguous. We refers to
Jewish Christians, and the verb describes their messianic hope before (pro>) the advent of Christ. Hence Rev., correctly, we who had (have) before hoped. In Christ
should be "in the Christ," as the subject of messianic expectation and not as Jesus, for whom Christ had passed into a proper name. It is equivalent to in the Messiah.
See on Matthew 1:1.

13. Ye also trusted. Gentile Christians. Trusted, which is not in the Greek, is unnecessary. The pronoun ye is nominative to were sealed.

In whom. Resuming the in whom at the beginning of the verse, and repeated on account of the length of the clause.

Ye were sealed (ejsfragi>sqhte). See on John 3:33; Revelation 22:10. Sealed with the assurance of the Holy Spirit. Romans 8:16; 2 Corinthians 1:22; 2 Timothy 2:19.

Spirit of promise. Strictly, the promise. Denoting the promise as characteristic of the Holy Spirit: the Spirit which was announced by promise. See Acts 2:16 sqq.; Joel
2:28; Zechariah 12:10; Isaiah 32:15; 44:3; John 7:39; Acts 1:4-8; Galatians 3:14.

14. Earnest. See on 2 Corinthians 1:22.

Unto the redemption, etc. Construe with ye were sealed.

Of the purchased possession (th~v peripoih>sewv). See on peculiar, 1 Peter 2:9. The word originally means a making to remain over and above; hence preservation;
preservation for one's self; acquisition; the thing acquired, or a possession. Used here collectively for the people possessed, as the circumcision for those circumcised,
Philippians 3:3; the election for those chosen, Romans 11:7. Rev., God's own possession, God's own being inserted for the sake of clearness. Compare Isaiah 43:21;
Acts 20:28; Titus 2:14.

Unto the praise of His glory. Construe with ye were sealed: Ye were sealed unto the redemption, etc.; setting forth God's purpose as it contemplates man. Ye were
sealed unto the praise of His glory; God's purpose as it respects Himself

15. Your faith (th' uJma~v pi>stin). The Greek phrase is nowhere else used by Paul. Lit., as Rev., the faith which is among you. Expositors endeavor to make a
distinction between this and Paul's common phrase hJ pi>stiv uJmw~n your faith, but they differ widely, and the distinction is at best doubtful.

Love. Omit.
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Unto all the saints (thntav tououv). Lit., that which is toward all, etc. Love being omitted, this refers to faith: faith which displays its work and fruits toward fellow
Christians. See on Philemon 1:5, 6. Compare work of faith, 1 Thessalonians 1:3. Though love is not mentioned, yet faith works by love. Galatians 5:6.
distinction between this and Paul's common phrase hJ pi>stiv uJmw~n your faith, but they differ widely, and the distinction is at best doubtful.

Love. Omit.

Unto all the saints (thntav tououv). Lit., that which is toward all, etc. Love being omitted, this refers to faith: faith which displays its work and fruits toward fellow
Christians. See on Philemon 1:5, 6. Compare work of faith, 1 Thessalonians 1:3. Though love is not mentioned, yet faith works by love. Galatians 5:6.

16. Making mention, etc. As I make mention. The same expression occurs Romans 1:9; Philippians 1:4; Philemon 1:4.

17. God of our Lord Jesus Christ. Compare John 20:17; Matthew 27:46 and see on ver. 3.

Father of glory (oJ pathxhv). The Father to whom the glory belongs. Note the article, the glory, preeminently. Compare Acts 7:2; 1 Corinthians 2:8. See Psalms
18:3"who is worthy to be praised;" where the Hebrew is is praised. The exact phrase has no parallel in Scripture.

The Spirit of wisdom and revelation. Spirit has not the article, but the reference is to the Holy Spirit. Compare Matthew 12:28; Luke 1:15, 35, 41; Romans 1:4; 1 Peter
1:2. Wisdom and revelation are special forms of the Spirit's operation. He imparts general illumination (wisdom) and special revelations of divine mysteries. The
combination of two words with an advance in thought from the general to the special is characteristic of Paul. Compare grace and apostleship, Romans 1:5; gifts and
calling, Romans 11:29; wisdom and prudence, Ephesians 1:8wisdom and knowledge, Colossians 2:3.

In the knowledge of Him (ejn ejpignw>sei aujtou~) The sphere in which they will receive God's gift of wisdom and revelation. To know God is to be wise. The
condition is not merely acknowledgment, but knowledge. >gnwsiv knowledge is never ascribed to God in the New Testament. Of Him refers to God.

18. The eyes of your understanding being enlightened (pefwtisme>nouv touav uJmw~n). Rev., eyes of your heart. Lit., being enlightened as to the eyes of your heart;
enlightened being joined with you (ver. 17) by a somewhat irregular construction: may give unto you being enlightened. For a similar construction see Acts 15:22. The
phrase eyes of the heart occurs nowhere else in the New Testament. Plato has eye of the soul (yuch~v, "Sophist," 254). Ovid, speaking of Pythagoras, says: "With his
mind he approached the gods, though far removed in heaven, and what nature denied to human sight, he drew forth with the eyes of his heart" ("Metamorphoses," xv.,
62-64). Heart is not merely the seat of emotion, as in popular usage, but of thought and will. See on Romans 1:21. The particular aspect in which its activity is viewed,
perception or cognition, is determined by what follows, "that ye may know," etc.

Hope of His calling. Hope, not, as sometimes, the thing hoped for, but the sentiment or principle of hope which God's calling inspires.

The riches of the glory of His inheritance. Ellicott remarks that this is a noble accumulation of genitives, "setting forth the inheritance on the side of its glory, and the glory
on the side of its riches." Glory is the essential characteristic of salvation, and this glory is richly abounding. His inheritance: which is His, and His gift.

19. Exceeding (uJperba>llon). Compounds with uJpe>r over, beyond, are characteristic of Paul's intensity of style, and mark the struggle of language with the
immensity of the divine mysteries, and the opulence of the divine grace. See ver. Ephesians 1:21; 3:20; 2 Corinthians 4:17 etc.

According to the working of His mighty power (katargeian tou~ kra>touv th~v ijscu>ov aujtou~). The A.V. frequently impairs the force of a passage by combining into
a single conception two words which represent distinct ideas; translating two nouns by an adjective and a noun. Thus Philippians 3:21vile body, glorious body, for body
of humiliation, body of glory: Romans 8:21glorious liberty, for liberty of the glory: 2 Corinthians 4:4 glorious gospel, for gospel of the glory: Colossians 1:11glorious
power, for power of the glory: 1 Peter 1:14, obedient children, for children of obedience: 2 Peter 2:14 cursed children, for children of cursing. So here, mighty power,
for strength of might. The idea is thus diluted, and the peculiar force and distinction of the separate words is measurably lost. Rev., correctly, working of the strength of
His might. For working, see on Colossians 1:29. For strength and might, see on 2 Peter 2:11; John 1:12. Strength (kra>touv) is used only of God, and denotes relative
and manifested power. Might (ijscu>ov). is indwelling strength. Working (ejne>rgeian) is the active, efficient manifestation of these. Hence we have here God's
indwelling power, which inheres in the divine nature (strength); the relative quality or measure of this power (might); and the efficient exertion of the divine quality
(working). The phrase, according to the working of the strength, etc., is to be connected with the exceeding greatness of His power. The magnitude of God's power
toward believers is known in the operation of the strength of His might.

20. Which (h{n). Refer to working (ver. 19).

He wrought (ejnh>rghsen). The best texts read ejnh>rghken, perfect tense, He hath wrought. The verb is kindred with working (ver. 19).

In Christ. In the case of Christ. Christ's dead body was the point on which this working of divine power was exhibited. See Romans 8:11; 2 Corinthians 4:14.

When He raised (ejgei>rav). Or, in that He raised.

And set (kaiqisen). Rev., made Him to sit. The best texts read kaqi>sav having seated, or in that He caused him to sit.

Right hand. See Acts 7:56.

In the heavenly places. See on ver. 2. Local. Not merely of a spiritual state, which does not suit the local expressions made to sit and right hand.

21. Far above (uJpera>nw). Lit., over above. See on ver. 19. Connect with made Him to sit.

Principality, power, etc. These words usually refer to angelic powers; either good, as Ephesians 3:10; Colossians 1:16; 2:10; or bad, as Ephesians 6:12; 1 Corinthians
15:24; Colossians 2:15; or both, as Romans 8:38. See on Colossians 1:16; 2:15. Here probably good, since the passage relates to Christ's exaltation to glory rather
than to His victory over evil powers.

And every name that is named. And has a collective and summary force - and in a word. Every name, etc. Whatever a name can be given to. "Let any name be uttered,
whatever it is, Christ is above it; is more exalted than that which the name so uttered affirms" (Meyer). Compare Philippians 2:9. "We know that the emperor precedes
all, though we cannot enumerate all the ministers of his court: so we know that Christ is placed above all, although we cannot name all" (Bengel).

Not only in this world, etc. Connect with which is named. For world (aijw~ni), see on John 1:9.

22. Put all things in subjection. Compare Colossians 1:15-18; Psalms 8:5-8.

Gave Him. Him is emphatic: and Him He gave. Not merely set Him over the Church, but gave Him as a gift. See 2 Corinthians 9:15.
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The Church (th|~ ejkklhsi>a|). See on Matthew 16:18.
22. Put all things in subjection. Compare Colossians 1:15-18; Psalms 8:5-8.

Gave Him. Him is emphatic: and Him He gave. Not merely set Him over the Church, but gave Him as a gift. See 2 Corinthians 9:15.

The Church (th|~ ejkklhsi>a|). See on Matthew 16:18.

23. Which is His body (h[tiv). The double relative is explanatory, seeing it is: by which I mean. Body, a living organism of which He is the head. See on Colossians
1:18.

The fullness. See on John 1:16; Romans 11:12; Colossians 1:19. That which is filled. The Church, viewed as a receptacle. Compare Ephesians 3:10.

That filleth all in all (tanta ejn pa~sin plhroume>nou). Better, that filleth all things with all things. The expression is somewhat obscure. All things are composed of
elements. Whatever things exist, God from His fullness fills with all those elements which belong to their being or welfare. The whole universe is thus filled by Him.

CHAPTER 2

1. And you. Taking up the closing thought of the preceding chapter, the magnitude of God's power toward believers as exhibited in Christ's resurrection. He now
shows that the same power is applied to his readers. Hence the connection is: "When He raised Him from the dead, etc., and you did He quicken, even as He
quickened Christ." The structure of the passage is broken. Paul having prominently in mind the thought God quickened you as He did Christ, begins with you also. Then
the connection is interrupted by vers. 2, 3, which describe their previous condition. Then ver. 1 is taken up in ver. 4, by but God, God introducing a new sentence.

Who were dead (o]ntav nekrou). Better, Rev., when ye were dead, thus giving the sense of the continued state in the past expressed by the participle being.

Trespasses - sins (paraptw>masin - aJmarti>aiv). See on Matthew 1:21; 6:14. Trespasses, special acts. Sins, all forms and phases of sin: more general.

2. Course (aijw~na). Lit., age. See on John 1:9.

Power (ejxousi>av). Collective, the whole empire of evil spirits.

The air. According to Paul's usage, in the simple physical sense. See Acts 22:23; 1 Corinthians 9:26; 1 Thessalonians 4:17; Revelation 16:17. The air is regarded as the
region of the demons' might.

The spirit. See on 1 Corinthians 2:12. The term designates the power over which Satan rules, on the side of its operation in men's hearts.

Now. With an implied reference to its former working in his readers. Compare once, ver. 3

Children of disobedience (uiJoi~v th~v ajpeiqei>av). Compare Ephesians 5:6. A Hebraistic expression. Compare son of perdition, John 17:12; children of obedience,
1 Peter 1:14; children of cursing, 2 Peter 2:14. Rev., correctly, sons of disobedience: belonging to disobedience as sons to a parent.

3. Had our conversation (ajnestra>fhmen). See on the kindred noun conversation, 1 Peter 1:15. Rev., more simply, lived.

Fulfilling (poiou~ntev). Rev., doing. The verb implies carrying out or accomplishing, so that the A.V. is more nearly correct. See on Romans 7:15; John 3:21.

Desires (qelh>mata). Lit., willings. See on Colossians 3:12.

Mind (dianoiw~n). More strictly, thoughts. See on Mark 12:30; Luke 1:51.

By nature children of wrath. See on ver. 2. Children (te>kna) emphasizes the connection by birth; see on John 1:12. Wrath (ojrgh~v) is God's holy hatred of sin; His
essential, necessary antagonism to everything evil, Romans 1:18. By nature (fu>sei) accords with children, implying what; is innate. That man is born with a sinful nature,
and that God and sin are essentially antagonistic, are conceded on all hands: but that unconscious human beings come into the world under the blaze of God's
indignation, hardly consists with Christ's assertion that to little children belongs the kingdom of heaven. It is true that there is a birth-principle of evil, which, if suffered to
develop, will bring upon itself the wrath of God. Whether Paul means more than this I do not know. 167

Others (oiJ loipoi>). Rev., correctly, the rest.

4. But God. Resuming ver. 1.

For His great love (dia>). For the sake of, in order to satisfy His love.

Quickened us together. Spiritually. Compare Colossians 2:13; Romans 6:11-14; 8:10, 11 "What God wrought in Christ He wrought, ipso facto, in all who are united
with Him" (Ellicott).

6. Raised us up. Compare Romans 6:5.

Made us sit together (suneka>qisen). Compare set Him, Ephesians 1:20. Together is ambiguous. Render with Him, as Rev. "Even now we sit there in Him, and shall sit
with Him in the end" (Andrews, cited by Ellicott). Compare Romans 8:30; Revelation 3:21. Meyer renders hath given us joint seat.

In Christ Jesus. Connect with raised up, made us sit, and in heavenly places. Resurrection, enthronement, heaven, all are in Christ.

7. The ages to come (toi~v aijw~sin toi~v ejpercome>noiv). Lit., the ages, those which are coming on. Which are successively arriving until Christ's second coming.

He might show (ejndei>xhtai). The middle voice denotes for His own glory. See on Colossians 1:6.

In kindness (ejn crhsto>thti). See on easy, Matthew 11:30. The grace of God is to be displayed in His actual benefits.

8. For by grace, etc. This may truly be called exceeding riches of grace, for ye are saved by grace. Grace has the article, the grace of God, in vers. 5, 7.
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And that. Not faith, but the salvation.

Of God. Emphatic. Of God is it the gift.
In kindness (ejn crhsto>thti). See on easy, Matthew 11:30. The grace of God is to be displayed in His actual benefits.

8. For by grace, etc. This may truly be called exceeding riches of grace, for ye are saved by grace. Grace has the article, the grace of God, in vers. 5, 7.

And that. Not faith, but the salvation.

Of God. Emphatic. Of God is it the gift.

10. For we are His workmanship. A reason why no man should glory. If we are God's workmanship, our salvation cannot be of ourselves. His is emphatic. His
workmanship are we.

Created (ktisqe>ntev). See on John 1:3. The verb originally means to make habitable, to people. Hence to found. God is called kti>sthv creator, 1 Peter 4:19 and oJ
kti>sav he that created, Romans 1:25. Compare Revelation 4:11. Kti>siv is used of the whole sum of created things, Mark 10:6; Romans 8:22.

Afore prepared (prohtoi>masen). Rev, more correctly, prepared. Made ready beforehand. God prearranged a sphere of moral action for us to walk in. Not only are
works the necessary outcome of faith, but the character and direction of the works are made ready by God.

That we should walk. In order that; to the end that.

11. Uncircumcision - circumcision. Abstract for concrete terms, the uncircumcised and circumcised.

Which is called. Notice the irony, giving back the called of the circumcised.

12. Being aliens (ajphllotriwme>noi). Rev., better, giving the force of the verb, alienated. As they had once been otherwise. Paul speaks ideally of a spiritual
commonwealth in which Jew and Gentile were together at peace with God, and of which the commonwealth of Israel is a type.

Israel. Selecting the most honorable title to describe the Jew. See on Acts 3:12. The reference is to the spiritual rather than to the national distinction. In being separated
from Christ, they were separated from that commonwealth in which, according to the promise, Christ would have been to them, as to the faithful Israelites, the object of
their faith and the ground of their salvation.

Covenants. The several renewals of God's covenant with the patriarchs.

Of promise (th~v ejpaggeli>av). Better, the promise. The messianic promise, which was the basis of all the covenants.

Without God (a]qeoi). God-forsaken. It might also mean godless or impious. The gentile gods were no gods.

13. Now in Christ Jesus. Now, in contrast with at that time. In Christ Jesus, in contrast with alienated from, etc. Jesus is added because the Christ who was the subject
of promise, the Messiah, has come into the world under that personal name. The phrase includes the promised Messiah and the actual Savior.

14. Our peace (hJ eijrh>nh hJmw~n). Christ is similarly described in abstract terms in 1 Corinthians 1:30; wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, redemption. So
Colossians 1:27 hope of glory. Christ is thus not merely our peace-maker, but our very peace itself.

Both (tatera). Lit., the both. The neuter gender shows that Jews and Gentiles are conceived by the writer merely as two facts. The masculine is used in vers. 15, 16.

Hath broken down (lu>sav). Lit, loosened or dissolved. Rev., giving the force of the aorist tense, brake down. The participle has an explanatory force, in that He brake
down.

The middle-wall of partition (totoicon tou~ fragmou~). Lit., the middle wall of the fence or hedge. The wall which pertained to the fence; the fact of separation being
emphasized in wall, and the instrument of separation in fence. The hedge was the whole Mosaic economy which separated Jew from Gentile. Some suppose a
reference to the stone screen which bounded the court of the Gentiles in the temple.

15. Having abolished in His flesh the enmity (thsav). The enmity immediately follows the middle wall of partition, and should be rendered in apposition with and as
defining it, and as dependent on brake down, not on abolished: the middle wall which was the enmity. It is used abstractly, as peace in ver. 14. The enmity was the
result and working of the law regarded as a separative system; as it separated Jew from Gentile, and both from God. See Romans 3:20; 4:15; 5:20; 7:7-11. For
abolished, see on cumbereth, Luke 13:7 and make without effect, Romans 3:3.

The law of commandments contained in ordinances (tomon tw~n ejntolw~n ejn do>gmasin). The law, etc., depends in construction on having abolished, and is not in
apposition with the enmity, as A.V. The middle wall of partition, the enmity, was dissolved by the abolition of the law of commandments. Construe in His flesh with
having abolished. Law is general, and its contents are defined by commandments, special injunctions, which injunctions in turn were formulated in definite decrees.
Render the entire passage: brake down the middle-wall of partition, even the enmity, by abolishing in His flesh the law of commandments contained in ordinances.

For to make (i[na kti>sh|). Rev., that He might create. See on created, ver. 10. The work was to be a new creation on a new foundation.

In Himself. As the medium of reconciliation.

Of the twain one new man (touo eijv e[na kaino). The Greek is livelier: make the two into one new man. Kaino new, emphasizes the new quality; not newness in point
of time. See on Matthew 26:29.

16. Might reconcile (ajpokatalla>xh|). Only here and Colossians 1:20, 21. See on Colossians 1:20. The new man precedes the reconciling in Paul's statement, though,
as a fact, the order is the reverse. The verb contains a hint of restoration to a primal unity. See on ver. 12.

Thereby (ejn aujtw|~). Or upon it - the cross.

17. You which were afar off. Gentiles.

Them that were nigh. Jews. See on Romans 3:30. As children of the messianic covenant. See on ver. 12. Compare Isaiah 57:9 where the Septuagint reads, peace upon
peace to those who are far and to those who are near.
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18. Access (prosagwgh). See on Romans 5:2. Notice the three persons of the Godhead: through Him (Christ); one Spirit, the Father.
17. You which were afar off. Gentiles.

Them that were nigh. Jews. See on Romans 3:30. As children of the messianic covenant. See on ver. 12. Compare Isaiah 57:9 where the Septuagint reads, peace upon
peace to those who are far and to those who are near.

18. Access (prosagwgh). See on Romans 5:2. Notice the three persons of the Godhead: through Him (Christ); one Spirit, the Father.

19. Foreigners (pa>roikoi). See on Luke 24:18. Rev., better, sojourners. Without rights of citizenship.

20. Of the apostles and prophets. The foundation laid by them. Prophets are New-Testament prophets. See Ephesians 3:5; 4:11. See on 1 Corinthians 12:10.

Chief corner-stone (ajkrogwni>aou). Only here and 1 Peter 2:6.

21. All the building (pa~sa oikodomh). Lit., every building. Rev., each several building. But the reference is evidently to one building, and the rendering of A.V. should
be retained though the article is wanting.

Fitly framed together (sunarmologoume>nh). The present participle indicates the framing as in progress.

Temple (nao). Sanctuary. See on Matthew 4:5. The more sacred portion of the structure is chosen for the figure.

22. Are builded together (sunoikodomei~sqe). As component parts of the one building. The reference is to individual Christians, not to communities.

Habitation (katoikhth>rion). Answering to temple. Only here and Revelation 18:2. Indicating a permanent dwelling. See on dwell, Luke 11:26; Acts 2:5; Mark 5:3. In
marked contrast with sojourners, ver. 19.

Through the Spirit (ejn). Better, as Rev., in. In the fellowship of the indwelling Spirit.

CHAPTER 3

1. For this cause. Seeing ye are so builded together.

Of Christ Jesus (tou~ Cristou~ x~). Notice the article, the Christ, and see on Ephesians 2:13.

Gentiles. To whom Paul was expressly sent, and in preaching to whom he had fallen into the hands of the civil law.

2. If ye have heard (ei]ge hjkou>sate). Here begins a long digression extending to ver. 14. If, Rev., if so be, means upon the supposition that; not implying the certainty
of the assumption, though this shade of meaning is given by the context. The words are a reminder of his preaching among them.

Dispensation (oijkonomi>an). See on Ephesians 1:10; Colossians 1:25. The divine arrangement or disposition.

4. Whereby (pro). Lit., agreeably to which, namely, what he had written.

Mystery of Christ. The mystery which is Christ. See on Colossians 1:26; Romans 11:25.

5. Other generations (eJte>raiv). Other and different. See on Matthew 6:24.

6. Fellow--heirs - of the same body - partakers (sugklhro>noma su>sswma summe>toca). The second of these words occurs only here; the third only here and
Ephesians 5:7. They are strange to classical Greek.

7. Gift of the grace. The gift in which the grace of God consisted, the apostleship to the Gentiles.

By the effectual working of His power (katargeian th~v duna>mewv aujtou~). Rev., better, according to the working, etc. The gift was bestowed in accordance with
that efficiency which could transform Saul the persecutor into Paul the apostle to the Gentiles.

8. Less than the least (tw|~ ejlacistote>rw|). Only here in the New Testament, and very characteristic. A comparative is formed upon a superlative: more least than all
the saints. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:8. 168

Unsearchable (ajnexicni>aston). Only here and Romans 11:33 (note). Which cannot be tracked out.

9. To make all men see (fwti>sai pa>ntav). Lit., to enlighten.

The mystery. The admission of the Gentiles into covenant privileges.

From the beginning of the world (ajponwn). Lit., from the ages. Rev., from all ages. See on Colossians 1:26.

All things (tanta). Collectively.

10. To the intent that. Connect with the matter of the two preceding verses. Grace was given me to preach Christ and to enlighten men as to the long-hidden mystery of
the admission of the Gentiles, in order that now, etc.

Now. In contrast with all ages.

Principalities and powers. Good angels. See on Ephesians 1:21.

By the Church (dia>). Better, through, as Rev. By means of the Church. This agrees with what was said of the Church as the fullness of God, Ephesians 1:23.

Manifold wisdom (polupoi>kilov sofi>a). A very striking phrase. The adjective occurs only here, and means variegated. It is applied to pictures, flowers, garments.
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Poi>kilon       2005-2009,
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of God - in different modes of power, different characters, methods of training, providences, forms of organization, etc.
By the Church (dia>). Better, through, as Rev. By means of the Church. This agrees with what was said of the Church as the fullness of God, Ephesians 1:23.

Manifold wisdom (polupoi>kilov sofi>a). A very striking phrase. The adjective occurs only here, and means variegated. It is applied to pictures, flowers, garments.
Poi>kilon is used in the Septuagint of Joseph's coat, Genesis 37:3. Through the Church God's wisdom in its infinite variety is to be displayed - the many-tinted wisdom
of God - in different modes of power, different characters, methods of training, providences, forms of organization, etc.

11. Eternal purpose (pro>qesin tw~n aijw>nwn). Lit., the purpose of the ages.

He wrought (ejpoi>hsen). Carried into effect. See on fulfilling, Ephesians 2:3.

12. Faith of Him (th~v pi>stewv aujtou~). As often, for faith in Him.

13. Faint (ejgkakei~n). Lit., lose heart. Kako>v in classical Greek, but not in the New Testament, sometimes means cowardly.

14. For this cause. Resuming the interrupted clause in ver. 1, and having still in mind the closing thought of Ephesians 2. Seeing ye are so built together in Christ, for this
cause, etc.

Father. Omit of our Lord Jesus Christ.

15. Of whom (ejx ou=). After whom.

The whole family (pa~sa patria) Rev., more correctly, every family. Patria> is, more properly, a group of families - all who claim a common path>r. father. Family,
according to our usage of the term, would be oi+kov house. The Israelites were divided into tribes (fulai>), and then into patpiai>, each deriving its descent from one of
Jacob's grandsons; and these again into oi+koi houses. So Joseph was both of the house (oi]kou) and family (patria~v) of David. We find the phrase oi+koi patriw~n
houses of the families, Exodus 12:3; Numbers 1:2. The word occurs only three times in the New Testament: here, Luke 2:4; Acts 3:25. In the last-named passage it is
used in a wide, general sense, of nations. Family is perhaps the best translation, if taken in its wider meaning of a body belonging to a common stock - a clan.
Fatherhood (Rev., in margin), following the Vulgate paternitas, means rather the fact and quality of paternity. Observe the play of the words, which can scarcely be
reproduced in English, pater, patria.

In heaven and earth. To the angelic hosts and the tribes of men alike, God is Father. There may be a suggestion of the different ranks or grades of angels, as
principalities, thrones, powers, etc. See ver. 10. "Wherever in heaven or in earth beings are grouped from their relation to a father, the name they bear in each case is
derived from the Father" (Riddle).

16. Might (duna>mei). Rev., power. Appropriate to the succeeding phrase the inner man, since it signifies faculty or virtue not necessarily manifest.

In the inward man (eijv to). The force of the preposition is into: might entering into the inmost personality. Inward man: compare outward man, 2 Corinthians 4:16. It is
the rational and moral I; the essence of the man which is conscious of itself as a moral personality. In the unregenerate it is liable to fall under the power of sin (Romans
7:23); and in the regenerate it needs constant renewing and strengthening by the Spirit of God, as here. Compare the hidden man of the heart, 1 Peter 3:4.

17. May dwell (katoikh~sai). Settle down and abide. Take up His permanent abode, so that ye may be a habitation (katoikhth>rion) of God. See on Ephesians 2:22.
The connection is with the preceding clause: "to be strengthened, etc., so that Christ may dwell, the latter words having at once a climactic and an explanatory force,
and adding the idea of permanency to that of strengthening.

By faith (diastewv). Through your (the article) faith, as the medium of appropriating Christ. Faith opens the door and receives Him who knocks. Revelation 3:20.

18. Rooted and grounded (ejrjrJizwme>noi kainoi). Compare Colossians 2:7 and see note. Grounded or founded, from qeme>lion foundation. The dwelling in ver. 17
would naturally suggest the foundation. Rooting and grounding are consequences of the strengthening of the Spirit and of Christ's indwelling.

In love. Standing first in the sentence and emphatic, as the fundamental principle of christian life and knowledge.

May be able (ejxiscu>shte). Rev., may be strong. This compound verb occurs only here. The preposition ejx has the force of fully or eminently. s>v is strength
embodied; inhering in organized power. Hence it is an advance on duna>mei might in ver. 16 (see note). Paul prays that the inward might or virtue may issue in ability to
grasp. Compare Luke 14:30; 16:3; Acts 27:16; James 5:16 and see notes. 169

Comprehend (katalabe>sqai). To English readers this conveys the meaning understand. Rev., better, apprehend: grasp. See on John 1:5 and compare Philippians 3:12,
13.

Breadth, etc. No special interpretations are to be given to these words. The general idea of vastness is expressed in these ordinary terms for dimension. Notice that the
article is attached only to the first, breadth, all the rest being included under the one article; the intention being to exhibit the love of Christ in its entire dimension, and not
to fix the mind on its constituent parts.

19. To know (gnw~nai). Practically, through experience; while apprehend marks the knowledge as conception.

Love of Christ. Christ's love to us. Human love to Christ could not be described in these terms.

Which passeth knowledge (thllousan th~v gnw>sewv). Which surpasses mere knowledge without the experience of love. Note the play on the words know and
knowledge.

That ye might be filled with all the fullness of God (i[na plhrwqh~te eijv pa~n torwma tou~ qeou~). Note the recurrence of that; that He would grant you; that ye may
be strong; that ye may be filled. With is better rendered unto, to the measure or standard of. Fullness of God is the fullness which God imparts through the dwelling of
Christ in the heart; Christ, in whom the Father was pleased that all the fullness should dwell (Colossians 1:19), and in whom dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead
(Colossians 2:9).

20. Exceeding abundantly (uJperekperissou~). Only here, 1 Thessalonians 3:10; 5:13. Superabundantly. One of the numerous compounds of uJpe>r beyond, over and
above, of which Paul is fond. Of twenty-eight words compounded with this preposition in the New Testament, Paul alone uses twenty. For the order and construction,
see next note.
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Above all (uJpenta). These words should not be connected with that, as A.V. and Rev.: "above all that we ask," etc. They form with do an independent
next clause begins with exceedingly above, and is construed with w=n that which we ask, etc. Read the whole, "Unto Him who is able to do beyond all, exceedingly
above that which," etc.
20. Exceeding abundantly (uJperekperissou~). Only here, 1 Thessalonians 3:10; 5:13. Superabundantly. One of the numerous compounds of uJpe>r beyond, over and
above, of which Paul is fond. Of twenty-eight words compounded with this preposition in the New Testament, Paul alone uses twenty. For the order and construction,
see next note.

Above all (uJpenta). These words should not be connected with that, as A.V. and Rev.: "above all that we ask," etc. They form with do an independent clause. The
next clause begins with exceedingly above, and is construed with w=n that which we ask, etc. Read the whole, "Unto Him who is able to do beyond all, exceedingly
above that which," etc.

21. Glory. Properly, the glory, which is His due.

In the Church. Through which His many-tinted wisdom is to be displayed, and which is His fullness. The variety of the divine wisdom is again hinted at in all that we ask
or think.

By Christ Jesus (ejn). Rev., better, in. As the Church is the outward domain in which God is to be praised, so Christ is the spiritual sphere of this praise.

Throughout all ages, world without end (eijv pa>sav tanwn). Lit., unto all the generations of the age of the ages. Eternity is made up of ages, and ages of generations.

CHAPTER 4

1. In the Lord. See on Philippians 1:14.

2. Lowiness - meekness. See on Matthew 11:29; 5:5.

Long-suffering. See on James 5:7.

Forbearing (ajneco>menoi). See on Luke 9:41.

3. Endeavoring (spouda>zontev). Not strong enough. Originally the verb means to make haste. So the kindred noun spoudh> haste, Mark 6:25; Luke 1:39. Hence
diligence. Rev., here, giving diligence.

To keep (threi~n). See on reserved, 1 Peter 1:4.

Unity of the Spirit. Wrought by the Holy Spirit.

Bond of peace. The bond which is peace. Compare Ephesians 2:14, our peace - made both one. Christ, our peace, is thus a bond of peace. Others, however, treat in
the bond as parallel with in love of ver. 2, and cite Colossians 3:14"love the bond of perfectness."

4. The connection with the preceding verses is as follows: I exhort you to unity, for you stand related to the Church, which is one body in Christ; to the one Spirit who
informs it; to the one hope which your calling inspires; to the one Lord, Christ, in whom you believe with one common faith, and receive one common sign of that faith,
baptism. Above all, to the one God and Father.

Body - Spirit. The body is the invisible Church, the mystical body of Christ: the Spirit, the Holy Spirit. Pneu~ma spirit, is never used in the New Testament of temper or
disposition.

Even as. To the facts of one body and one Spirit corresponds the fact of their calling in one hope. Compare Colossians 3:15.

In one hope of your calling (ejn mia~| ejlpi>di th~v klh>sewv uJmw~n). In, not by. Their calling took place in the one hope as its moral element or sphere, since they
were called to fellowship with Christ who is the one object and the one inspirer of hope. Compare called in peace, 1 Corinthians 7:15; in sanctification, 1 Thessalonians
4:7 (Rev.). Hope here is not the object but the principle of hope. The phrase hope of your calling signifies hope which is characteristic of God's call to salvation, and is
engendered by it. See on Ephesians 1:18.

5. Faith. The principle of faith; not that which is believed - the body of Christian doctrine, which does not promote unity. See on Acts 6:7.

Baptism. The external sign of faith, but of no significance without the Lord and the faith. Baptism is emphasized instead of the Eucharist, because the latter assumes and
recognizes unity as an established fact; while faith and baptism precede that fact, and are essential to it. Baptism, moreover, is not administered to the Church as a
body, but to individuals, and therefore emphasizes the exhortation to each member to be in vital union with the whole body.

6. One God and Father. The fundamental ground of unity. Note the climax: One Church, one Christ, one God.

Above all (ejpintwn). Rev, over: as ruler.

Through - in (dia - ejn). Through, pervading: in, indwelling. Compare Ephesians 2:22; 3:17.

7. Every one (eJnistw|). Rev., each. From the Church as a whole, he passes to its individual members. In the general unity the individual is not overlooked, and unity is
consistent with variety of gifts and offices.

Grace (hJ ca>riv). The article, omitted by A.V., is important: the one grace of God, manifesting itself in the different gifts.

8. Wherefore. Confirming by Scripture what has just been said.

When He ascended, etc. Quoted from Psalms 68:19 (Sept. 67:18). The Hebrew reads: "Ascending to the height thou didst lead captive captivity, and received gifts in
man." So Sept. Paul changes thou didst lead, didst receive, into he lead and he gave. The Psalm is Messianic, a hymn of victory in which God is praised for victory and
deliverance. It is freely adapted by Paul, who regards its substance rather than its letter, and uses it as an expression of the divine triumph as fulfilled in Christ's victory
over death and sin.

Ascended. The ascent of Jehovah is realized in Christ's ascent into heaven.

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over death and sin.

Ascended. The ascent of Jehovah is realized in Christ's ascent into heaven.

Captivity. Abstract for the body of captives. See on Luke 4:18. The captives are not the redeemed, but the enemies of Christ's kingdom, Satan, Sin, and Death.
Compare on Colossians 2:15 and 2 Corinthians 2:14.

Gave. In the Hebrew and Septuagint, received or took; but with the sense received in order to distribute among men. Compare Genesis 15:9take for me: Genesis 18:5,
I will fetch for you: Exodus 27:20bring thee, i.e., take and present to thee: Acts 2:33"Having received of the Father, etc., He hath shed forth." Thus Paul interprets the
received of the Old Testament. His point is the distribution of grace by Christ in varied measure to individuals. He confirms this by Scripture, seeing in the Jehovah of
this Old-Testament passage the Christ of the New Testament - one Redeemer under both covenants - and applying the Psalmist's address to Christ who distributes the
results of His victory among His loyal subjects. These results are enumerated in ver. 11 sqq.

9. Now that He ascended. vers. 9 and 10 are parenthetical, showing what the ascension of Christ presupposes. By descending into the depths and ascending above all,
He entered upon His function of filling the whole universe, in virtue of which function He distributes gifts to men. See Ephesians 1:23. Rev., properly, inserts this, thus
giving the force of the article which calls attention to the fact of ascension alluded to in the quotation. "Now the or this 'He ascended."'

What is it but. What does it imply?

Descended first (kaibh). His ascent implies a previous descent. A.V. reads first, following the Tex. Rec. prw~ton. Rev., correctly, He also descended. Compare John
3:13.

The lower parts of the earth (tatera me>rh th~v gh~v). The under world. The reference is to Christ's descent into Hades. Some give the words a comparative force,
deeper than the earth.

10. Fill all things. Compare Ephesians 1:23.

11. The gifts specified.

He gave. He is emphatic. It is He that gave. Compare given in ver. 7.

Apostles. Properly, as apostles, or to be apostles. Christ's ministers are gifts to His people. Compare 1 Corinthians 3:5"ministers as the Lord gave;" also 1 Corinthians
3:21, 22. The distinguishing features of an apostle were, a commission directly from Christ: being a witness of the resurrection: special inspiration: supreme authority:
accrediting by miracles: unlimited commission to preach and to found churches.

Prophets. Preachers and expounders under the immediate influence of the Spirit, and thus distinguished from teachers. 1 Corinthians 12:10.

Evangelists. Traveling missionaries.

Pastors and teachers. Pastors or shepherds. The verb poimai>nw to tend as a shepherd, is often used in this sense. See on 1 Peter 5:2; Matthew 2:6. The omission of
the article from teachers seems to indicate that pastors and teachers are included under one class. The two belong together. No man is fit to be a pastor who cannot
also teach, and the teacher needs the knowledge which pastoral experience gives.

12. For the perfecting (pro). Only here in the New Testament. In classical Greek of refitting a ship or setting a bone. The preposition for denotes the ultimate purpose.
Ministering and building are means to this end. Hence its emphatic position in the sentence. For perfecting, see on mending, Matthew 4:21; perfected, Matthew 21:16;
Luke 6:40; 1 Peter 5:10. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:10; Hebrews 13:21. The radical idea of adjustment is brought out in ver. 13.

For the work of the ministry (eijv e]rgon diakoni>av). Rev., much better, unto the work of ministering. Eijv unto, marks the immediate purpose of the gift. He gave
apostles, etc., unto the work of ministering and building, for the perfecting, etc. The prevailing sense of diakoni>a ministry, in the New Testament, is spiritual service of
an official character. See Acts 1:25; 6:4; 20:24; Romans 11:13; 1 Timothy 1:12; 2 Timothy 4:5.

Edifying (oijkodomh). Rev., building up. See on Acts 20:32. Notice the combination of perfecting and building. Building defines the nature of the work of ministry, and
perfecting comes through a process.

13. Till (me>cri). Specifying the time up to which this ministry and impartation of gifts are to last.

Come (katanth>swmen). Arrive at, as a goal. See Acts 16:1; 18:19; 25:13. Rev., attain.

In the unity (eijv). Rev., correctly, unto. Compare one faith, ver. 5.

Knowledge (th~v ejpignw>sewv). The full knowledge. Not identical with faith, since the article puts it as a distinct conception; but related to faith. Compare Philippians
3:9, 10; 1 John 4:16. "Christians are not to be informed merely on different sections of truth and erring through defective information on other points, but they are to be
characterized by the completeness and harmony of their ideas of the power, work, history, and glory of the Son of God" (Eadie).

Of the Son of God. Belongs to both faith and knowledge. Faith in Him, knowledge of Him.

Perfect (te>leion). Rev., full grown. See on 1 Corinthians 2:6.

Measure of the stature (me>tron hJliki>av). Defining perfect man. For stature, see on Luke 12:25. The word is rendered age, John 9:21, 23; Hebrews 11:11. So here,
by some, the age when the fullness of Christ is received. But fullness and grow up (ver. 15) suggest rather the idea of magnitude.

Fullness of Christ. Which belongs to Christ and is imparted by Him. See John 1:16 and compare Ephesians 3:19.

14. Children (nh>pioi). See on 1 Corinthians 2:6; 3:1. As to the connection, ver. 13 states the ultimate goal of christian training; ver. 14 that which is pursued with a
view to the attainment of that goal. Ver. 14 is subordinate to ver. 13, as is shown by the retention of the same figure, and is remotely dependent on vers 11, 12. The
remote end, ver. 13, is placed before the more immediate one, as in ver. 12. See note.

Tossed   to and
 Copyright   (c)fro (kludwnizo>menoi).
                 2005-2009,              Only here
                             Infobase Media          in the New Testament. See on wave, James 1:6. For Paul's use of nautical metaphors, see on Philippians
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Compare Plato: "Socrates. In a ship, if a man having the power to do what he likes, has no intelligence or skill in navigation, do you see what will happen to him and to
his fellow-sailors? Alcibiades. Yes, I see that they will all perish" ("Alcibiades," i., 135).
14. Children (nh>pioi). See on 1 Corinthians 2:6; 3:1. As to the connection, ver. 13 states the ultimate goal of christian training; ver. 14 that which is pursued with a
view to the attainment of that goal. Ver. 14 is subordinate to ver. 13, as is shown by the retention of the same figure, and is remotely dependent on vers 11, 12. The
remote end, ver. 13, is placed before the more immediate one, as in ver. 12. See note.

Tossed to and fro (kludwnizo>menoi). Only here in the New Testament. See on wave, James 1:6. For Paul's use of nautical metaphors, see on Philippians 1:23.
Compare Plato: "Socrates. In a ship, if a man having the power to do what he likes, has no intelligence or skill in navigation, do you see what will happen to him and to
his fellow-sailors? Alcibiades. Yes, I see that they will all perish" ("Alcibiades," i., 135).

Wind of doctrine. Or of the teaching. The different teachings of philosophers or of religious quacks are represented as winds, blowing the unstable soul in every
direction.

Sleight (kubei>a|). Only here in the New Testament. From ku>bov a cube or die. Lit., dice-playing.

Cunning craftiness (panourgi>a|). See on Luke 20:23. The craft which gamblers use.

Whereby they lie in wait to deceive (proan th~v pla>nhv). Lit., tending to the system of error. Rev., after the wiles of error. Meqodei>a means a deliberate planning or
system. Of error includes the idea of deceit or delusion. See Matthew 27:64; Romans 1:27; 2 Pet 2:18; 3:17; James 5:20. Error organizes. It has its systems and its
logic. Ellicott remarks that here it is almost personified.

15. Speaking the truth (ajlhqeu>ontev). Only here and Galatians 4:16. In classical Greek it means to be true, to arrive at truth, and to speak truth. Here the idea is
rather that of being or walking in truth. Rev., in margin, dealing truly.

In love. Some connect with grow up. The parallel construction, tossed and carried about in the sleight, in craftiness, speaking truth in love, favors the A.V. and Rev., as
does the awkwardness of speaking truth standing alone. Moreover, Paul's habit is to subjoin, and not to prefix, his qualifying clauses.

16. Fitly joined - compacted (sunarmologou>menon - sumbibazo>menon). The present participles denote present, continuous progress. The two participles represent
respectively the ideas of harmony or adaptation and compactness or solidity. See on Acts 9:22 and Colossians 2:2.

By that which every joint supplieth (diashv aJfh~v th~v ejpicorhgi>av). Lit., through every joint of the supply. For joint, see on Colossians 2:19; for supply, see on 2
Peter 1:5. The supply specifies it as peculiarly Christ's. The phrase joint of the supply signifies joint whose office or purpose it is to supply. Construe with the two
participles, as Colossians 2:19.

According to the working. Construe with maketh increase.

In the measure of every part. According as each part works in its own proper measure.

Maketh. Notice the peculiar phrase; the whole body maketh increase of the body. It is a living organism, and its growth is produced by vital power within itself.

In love. As the element in which the upbuilding takes place. Compare Ephesians 3:17-19.

17. This - therefore. Referring to what follows. Therefore, resuming the exhortation of vers. 1-3.

Testify. Solemnly declare. Compare Acts 20:26; Galatians 5:3.

Other Gentiles. Omit other.

Vanity of their mind (mataio>thti tou~ noo). For vanity see on Romans 1:21; 8:20. For mind, on Romans 7:23.

18. Understanding (dianoi>a|). See on Luke 1:51. The moral understanding.

Life of God (zwh~v). See on John 1:4. The life which God bestows; life in Christ. See 1 John 5:11.

Through the ignorance. The cause of the alienation. Not to be construed with darkened, since ignorance is the effect, and not the cause, of the darkness of the
understanding

Which is in them (th). The participle of the substantive verb expresses the deep-seated, indwelling character of the ignorance.

Hardening (pw>rwsin). See on Mark 3:5. Dependent, like ignorance, on allienated. Arrange the whole clause thus:

The Gentiles walk in the vanity of their mind,

being darkened in their understanding,

being alienated from the life of God,

because of the ignorance that is in them,

because of the hardening of their heart.

19. Who (oi[tinev). Explanatory and classifying: men of the class which.

Being past feeling (ajphlghkotev). Only here in the New Testament. Lit, the verb means to cease from feeling pain. Hence to be apathetic.

Have given themselves over (pare>dwkan). See on Matthew 4:12; 11:27; 26:2; Mark 4:29; Luke 1:2; 1 Peter 2:23. The verb is frequently used of Christ giving
Himself for the world. Romans 4:25; Galatians 2:20; Ephesians 5:5, 25. It indicates a complete surrender. Meyer says, "with frightful emphasis." Where men
persistently give themselves up to evil, God gives them up to its power. See Romans 1:24.

Lasciviousness (ajselgei>a|~).
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To work (eijv ejrgasi>an). Lit., to a working. In Acts 19:25 used of a trade. Not precisely in this sense here, yet with a shade of it. They gave themselves up as to the
prosecution of a business. The eijv unto is very forcible.
Have given themselves over (pare>dwkan). See on Matthew 4:12; 11:27; 26:2; Mark 4:29; Luke 1:2; 1 Peter 2:23. The verb is frequently used of Christ giving
Himself for the world. Romans 4:25; Galatians 2:20; Ephesians 5:5, 25. It indicates a complete surrender. Meyer says, "with frightful emphasis." Where men
persistently give themselves up to evil, God gives them up to its power. See Romans 1:24.

Lasciviousness (ajselgei>a|~). See on Mark 7:22.

To work (eijv ejrgasi>an). Lit., to a working. In Acts 19:25 used of a trade. Not precisely in this sense here, yet with a shade of it. They gave themselves up as to the
prosecution of a business. The eijv unto is very forcible.

With greediness (ejn pleonexi>a|). The noun commonly rendered covetousness: in an eager grasping after more and more uncleanness. Not with, but in, as the state of
mind in which they wrought evil.

20. Have not learned (oujc ejma>qete). Rev., giving the force of the aorist tense, did not learn; at the time of your conversion, when you were instructed in Christ's
precepts. The phrase learn Christ occurs nowhere else. Christ does not stand for the doctrine of Christ; but Christ is the subject of His own message. See ver. 21.

21. If so be that ye heard Him (ei] ge aujtosate). The indicative mood implies the truth of the supposition: if ye heard as ye did. Him is emphatic. If it was Him that ye
heard. Compare John 10:27.

By Him (ejn aujtw|~). Rev., correctly, in Him. In fellowship with.

As the truth is in Jesus (kaqw>v ejstin ajlh>qeia ejn tw|~ x~). As corresponds with not so. Ye did not in such a manner learn Christ if ye were taught in such a manner
as is truth, etc. Render, as Rev., as truth is in Jesus. Schaff paraphrases: "If you were taught so that what you received is true as embodied in the personal Savior."
"Taught in the lines of eternal fact and spiritual reality which meet in him" (Moule). Jesus is used rather than Christ: the historical rather than the official name. The life of
Christianity consists in believing fellowship with the historic Jesus, who is the Christ of prophecy.

22. That ye put away. Dependent upon ye were taught, and specifying the purport of the teaching.

The old man. See on Romans 6:6. Compare Colossians 3:9.

Which is corrupt (tomenon). The A.V. misses the force of the participle. The verb is passive, which is being corrupted, 170 and marks the progressive condition of
corruption which characterizes "the old man." Rev., correctly, waxeth corrupt.

According to the deceitful lusts (kataav th~v ajpa>thv). Rev., correctly, lusts of deceit. On the vicious rendering of similar phrases in A.V., see on Ephesians 1:19.
Deceit is personified.

23. In the spirit of your mind (tw|~ pneu>mati tou~ noo). The spirit is the human spirit, having its seat in and directing the mind. In the New Testament the Holy Spirit is
never designated so as that man appears as the subject of the Spirit. We have Spirit of adoption, of holiness, of God, but never Holy Spirit of man. Furthermore, the
apostle's object is to set forth the moral self-activity of the christian life. Hence pneu~ma spirit, is here the higher life-principle in man by which the human reason,
viewed on its moral side - the organ of moral thinking and knowing is informed. The renewal takes place, not in the mind, but in the spirit of it. "The change is not in
mind psychologically, either in its essence or in its operation; and neither is it in the mind as if it were a superficial change of opinion either on points of doctrine or
practice: but it is in the spirit of the mind; in that which gives mind both its bent and its materials of thought. It is not simply in the spirit as if it lay there in dim and mystic
quietude; but it is in the spirit of the mind; in the power which, when changed itself, radically alters the entire sphere and business of the inner mechanism" (Eadie).

24. New man (kaino). See on Matthew 26:29.

Created (ktisqe>nta). See on Ephesians 2:10.

In righteousness and true holiness (ejn dikiaiosu>nh kaithti th~v ajlhqei>av). Rev., correctly, in righteousness and holiness of truth. See on Luke 1:75. Truth. Opposed
to deceit, ver. 22, and likewise personified. Righteousness and holiness are attributes of truth.

25. Falsehood (to). Lit., the lie; used abstractly. See on John 8:44.

Members one of another. Compare Romans 12:5; 1 Corinthians 12:12-27. Chrysostom says: "Let not the eye lie to the foot, nor the foot to the eye. If there be a deep
pit, and its mouth covered with reeds shall present to the eye the appearance of solid ground, will not the eye use the foot to ascertain whether it is hollow underneath,
or whether it is firm and resists? Will the foot tell a lie, and not the truth as it is? And what, again, if the eye were to spy a serpent or a wild beast, will it lie to the foot?"

26. Be ye angry and sin not (ojrgi>zesqe kainete). Cited from Psalms 4:5 after the Septuagint. Hebrew, stand in awe and sin not. Righteous anger is commanded, not
merely permitted.

Wrath (parorgismw|~) Irritation, exasperation; something not so enduring as ojrgh> anger, which denotes a deep-seated sentiment. See on John 3:36.

27. Place. Room.

29. Corrupt (sapro). See on Luke 6:43 and Colossians 4:6.

That which is good (ei] tiv ajgaqo). Lit., if any is good. Discourse that is good, whatever it be.

To the use of edifying (proav). Lit., for the building up of the need. Rev., edifying as the need may be. Compare 1 Thessalonians 5:11, 14.

31. Bitterness (pikri>a) Bitter frame of mind

Wrath. What is commanded in ver. 26 is here forbidden, because viewed simply on the side of human passion.

Anger (qumo) Violent outbreak. See on John 3:36; James 5:7.

Clamor (kraugh) Outward manifestation of anger in vociferation or brawling.

Evil-speaking
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Malice (kaki>a|). The root of all the rest. See on James 1:21.
Anger (qumo) Violent outbreak. See on John 3:36; James 5:7.

Clamor (kraugh) Outward manifestation of anger in vociferation or brawling.

Evil-speaking (blasfhmi>a). See on Mark 7:22.

Malice (kaki>a|). The root of all the rest. See on James 1:21.

32. Be ye (gi>nesqe). Lit., become, as following the putting away of anger, etc.

Kind (crhstoi>). See on easy, Matthew 11:30; gracious, 1 Peter 2:3.

Each other (eJautoi~v) Lit., yourselves. See on Colossians 3:13. "Doing as a body for yourselves that which God did once for you all" (Alford).

CHAPTER 5

1. Be ye (gi>nesqe). Become, as Ephesians 4:32.

Followers (mimhtai). Rev, correctly, imitators.

Dear (ajgaphta>) Rev., beloved. As those to whom Christ has shown love

2. Walk in love. As imitators of God who is love.

Loved us (hJma~v) The correct reading is uJma~v you.

Gave (pare>dwken). To death Compare Romans 4:25 where the same verb was delivered is followed by was raised. See also Romans 8:32; Galatians 2:20.

Offering - sacrifice (prosfora - qusi>an). Offering, general, including the life as well as the death of Christ: sacrifice, special: on the cross. Properly, a slain offering.

A sweet smelling savor (ojsmhav). Rev., correctly, odor of a sweet smell. See on 2 Corinthians 2:14, 15, 16. The Septuagint, in Leviticus 1:9 uses this phrase to render
the Hebrew, a savor of quietness. For (eijv) expresses design, that it might become, or result: so that it became.

3. Or covetousness. Or sets this sin emphatically by itself.

Let it. It refers to each of the sins.

4. Filthiness (aijscro>thv). Obscenity.

Foolish talking (mwrologi>a). Only here in the New Testament. Talk which is both foolish and sinful. Compare corrupt communication, Ephesians 4:29. It is more than
random or idle talk. "Words obtain a new earnestness when assumed into the ethical terminology of Christ's school. Nor, in seeking to enter fully into the meaning of
this one, ought we to leave out of sight the greater emphasis which the words fool, foolish, folly obtain in Scripture than elsewhere they have or can have" (Trench).

Jesting (eujtrapeli>a). Only here in the New Testament. From euj well or easily, pre>pw to turn. That which easily turns and adapts itself to the moods and conditions
of those with whom it may be dealing at the moment. From this original sense of versatility it came to be applied to morals, as timeserving, and to speech with the
accompanying notion of dissimulation. Aristotle calls it chastened insolence. The sense of the word here is polished and witty speech as the instrument of sin; refinement
and versatility without the flavor of Christian grace. "Sometimes it is lodged in a sly question, in a smart answer, in a quirkish reason, in shrewd intimation, in cunningly
diverting or cleverly retorting an objection: sometimes it is couched in a bold scheme of speech, in a tart irony, in a lusty hyperbole, in a startling metaphor, in a plausible
reconciling of contradictions, or in acute nonsense.... Sometimes an affected simplicity, sometimes a presumptuous bluntness giveth it being.... Its ways are
unaccountable and inexplicable, being answerable to the numberless rovings of fancy and windings of language" (Barrow, Sermon xiv., "Against Foolish Talking and
Jesting." The whole passage is well worth reading).

5. Ye know (i]ste ginw>skontev). The A.V. fails to give the whole force of the expression, which is, ye know recognizing. Rev., ye know of a surety.

Idolater. Compare Colossians 3:5 and see on 1 Corinthians 5:10.

6. Vain. Plausible, but devoid of truth, and employed to palliate heathen vices.

7. Be not (gi>nesqe). Lit., become not. It is a warning against lapsing into old vices.

8. Ye were. Emphatic, and according with become of ver. 7. Ye were darkness, but now are ye light. Do not become darkness again.

Darkness (sko>tov). See on John 1:5.

Light (fw~v) Light itself; not a lamp.

Children of light. See Matthew 5:16.

9. Is in. Consists in. The verse is parenthetical.

10. Proving. Connect with walk. Walk, proving by your walk. Proving, see on 1 Peter 1:7.

Acceptable (euja>reston). Rev., better and more literally, well-pleasing. The one point of all moral investigation is, does it please God?

11. Have - fellowship (sugkoinwnei~te). See on Revelation 18:4; 1:9.

Unfruitful works (e]rgoiv toi~v ajka>rpoiv). Compare fruit, ver. 9, and Galatians 5:19, 22works of the flesh, fruit of the Spirit. Works which bring no blessing with
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Reprove (ele>gcete). See on John 3:20.
11. Have - fellowship (sugkoinwnei~te). See on Revelation 18:4; 1:9.

Unfruitful works (e]rgoiv toi~v ajka>rpoiv). Compare fruit, ver. 9, and Galatians 5:19, 22works of the flesh, fruit of the Spirit. Works which bring no blessing with
them. Compare Romans 6:21; 8:13; Galatians 5:21; 6:8.

Reprove (ele>gcete). See on John 3:20.

13. All things (tanta). More literally, they all, or all of them; the secret sins just mentioned.

That are reproved (ejlegco>mena). Lit., being reproved. Rev., when they are reproved. Reproved is to be taken in the same literal sense as in ver. 11, and not
metaphorically in the sense of being demonstrated by light, or brought to light, which is almost synonymous with are made manifest.

By the light. Connect with are made manifest, not with are reproved.

Whatsoever doth make manifest is light (pa~n tomenon fw~v ejsti>n). Wrong. The A.V. renders doth make manifest, as in the middle voice, but the verb is in the
passive voice. It occurs nearly fifty times in the New Testament, and never as middle. Hence Rev., correctly, everything that is made manifest.

Is light. A general proposition, going to show that manifestation can come only through light. Whatever is revealed in its true essence by light is of the nature of light. It
no longer belongs to the category of darkness. Manifestation is a law of good and evil alike. That which is of the truth seeks the light and cometh to the light. That which
is evil avoids the light, and loves darkness better than light, but none the less is brought to the light and appears in its own light. See John 3:20, 21. This truth is
embodied in another form in the parable of the Tares. Growth is manifestation. By suffering the tares to grow, their difference from the wheat, which at first is not
apparent, is fully revealed.

14. He saith. God. This use of the personal pronoun is frequent in Paul's writings. See Galatians 3:16; Ephesians 4:8; 1 Corinthians 6:16.

Awake. etc. The quotation is probably a combination and free rendering of Isaiah 60:1; 26:19. For similar combinations see on Romans 3:10; 9:33. By some the words
are regarded as the fragment of a hymn.

Shall give thee light. Rev., correctly, shall shine upon thee.

15. See that ye walk circumspectly (ble>pete pw~v ajkribw~v peripatei~te). Lit., look how exactly ye walk. The best texts place tw~v how after ajkribw~v exactly.
So Rev., look carefully how ye walk. Circumspectly is better rendered carefully. It means exactly, accurately, from a]krov the farthest point. See on inquired diligently,
Matthew 2:6; and compare Luke 1:3; Acts 18:25 notes.

Not as unwise, but as wise. Explanatory of carefully.

16. Redeeming the time (ejxagorazo>menoi ton). See on Colossians 4:5.

17. Understanding (sunie>ntev). See on prudent, Matthew 11:25; foolish, Romans 3:21.

18. Be not drunk (mhskesqe). See on John 2:10.

Wherein. In drunkenness, not in wine.

Excess (ajswti>a). Rev., riot. Lit., unsavingness. See on riotous living, Luke 15:13.

19. Speaking to yourselves (lalou~ntev eJautoi~v). Rev., one to another. The A.V. is literally correct, but is open to the misinterpretation each one communing with
himself. The meaning is as in Colossians 3:13 and Rev. is better.

Psalms. See on 1 Corinthians 14:15

Hymns - spiritual songs. See on Colossians 3:16.

22. Your own (ijdi>oiv). The peculiar personal relationship is emphasized as the ground of the duty.

23. He is the savior of the body. In this particular the comparison between the husband as the head of the wife, and Christ as the head of the Church, does not hold.
Hence Rev., properly, renders for and He is, being Himself; Himself separating the clause from what was previously said. The comparison lies in the fact of headship
alone. The husband's love and protection cannot be called salvation, in which respect Christ's headship is peculiar to Himself.

24. Therefore (ajlla). Rev, correctly, but. Offsetting the relation of savior. The comparison does not hold in respect of salvation, but it does hold in respect of
subjection.

26 Sanctify and cleanse (aJgia>sh| kaqari>sav). Rev., might sanctify, having cleansed. The Rev. brings out the proper succession of sanctification as a consequence of
cleansing: might sanctify after having cleansed.

With the washing of water (tw|~ loutrw|~ tou~ u[datov). Loutro>n washing is properly laver. Note the article, the laver, as something well known. There is no
satisfactory evidence for the meaning washing. The allusion is to baptism. Some find a reference to the bride's bath before marriage.

By the word (ejn rJh>mati). Rev., correctly, with the word. To be connected with having cleansed it by the laver of water: not with might sanctify, nor with the laver of
water alone, as a descriptive epithet. With the word describes that which accompanies the rite and which is the peculiar element of baptismal purification. Compare
John 15:3. Augustine says: "Take away the word, and what is the water but water?"

27. He might present it to Himself (parasth>sh| aujto). As a bride. Compare 2 Corinthians 11:2. Notice the two pronouns in conjunction, He, to Himself. Christ Himself
presents the bride.

Spot (spi>lon). Only here and 2 Peter 2:13; The kindred verb spilo>w to defile, occurs James 3:6; Jude 1:23.
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Wrinkle (rJuti>da). Only here in the New Testament.

28. So. As Christ loved the Church.
presents the bride.

Spot (spi>lon). Only here and 2 Peter 2:13; The kindred verb spilo>w to defile, occurs James 3:6; Jude 1:23.

Wrinkle (rJuti>da). Only here in the New Testament.

28. So. As Christ loved the Church.

As their own bodies (wJv). As being: since they are.

29. Flesh. Instead of body, with reference to Genesis 2:23.

Cherisheth (qa>lpei). Only here and 1 Thessalonians 2:7. Originally, to warm.

30. Omit of His flesh and of His bones.

31. Shall be joined (proskollhqh>setai). Only here; and Mark 10:7. See on Luke 15:15. The compound verb denotes most intimate union.

Shall be one flesh (e]sontai eijv sa>rka mi>an). The A.V. overlooks the force of eijv unto. Lit., shall be unto one flesh. Rev., shall become.

32. A great mystery. Great is predicative, not attributive. Rev., correctly, this mystery is great. The reference in this mystery is to the preceding statement of the
conjugal relation of the Church with Christ, typified by the human marriage relation.

Concerning Christ and the Church. Rev., in regard of (eijv) Not calling your attention to the mere human relationship, but to the mysterious relation between Christ and
His Church, of which that is a mere semblance.

33. Nevertheless. Not to dwell longer on the mystical aspect of the subject.

Even as himself. Not as much as he loves himself, but as being his very self.

CHAPTER 6

1. In the Lord. The children being with their parents in the Lord, are to be influenced by religious duty as well as by natural affection.

Right (di>kaion). Belonging essentially to the very nature of the relation.

2. Honor thy father, etc. To what is essentially right the divine ordinance is added. Compare Aeschylus: "For the reverence of parents, this is written third in the laws of
much-venerated justice" ("Suppliants," 687-689). So Euripides: "There are three virtues which thou shouldst cultivate, my child, to honor the gods, and thy parents who
gave thee being and the common laws of Hellas" (Fragment). Honor expresses the frame of mind from which obedience proceeds.

First - with promise (prw>th en ejpaggeli>a|). First in point of promise, as it also is in order the first with promise.

3. Thou mayest live long (e]sh| makrocro>niov). Lit., mayest be long-lived. The adjective occurs only here.

4. Nurture and admonition (paidei>a| kaia|). Pav dei>a| from pai>v a child. In classical usage, that which is applied to train and educate a Child. So Plato: "Education
(paidei>a) is the constraining and directing of youth toward that right reason which the law affirms, and which the experience of the best of our elders has agreed to be
truly right" ("Laws," 659). In scriptural usage another meaning has come into it and its kindred verb paideu>ein, which recognizes the necessity of correction or
chastisement to thorough discipline. So Leviticus 26:18; Psalms 6:1; Isaiah 53:5; Hebrews 12:5-8. In Acts 7:22 paideu>w occurs in the original classical sense: "Moses
was instructed (ejpaideu>qh) in all the wisdom," etc. The term here covers all the agencies which contribute to moral and spiritual training. Discipline is better than Rev.,
chastening. Nouqesi>a admonition occurs only here, 1 Corinthians 10:11 and Titus 3:10. The kindred verb nouqete>w to warn or admonish, is found only in Paul's
letters, with the single exception of Acts 20:31 (see note). Its distinctive feature is training by word of mouth, as is shown by its classical usage in connection with words
meaning to exhort or teach. Xenophon uses the phrase nouqetikoigoi admonitory words. Yet it may include monition by deed. Thus Plato, speaking of public instruction
in music, says that the spectators were kept quiet by the admonition of the wand (rJa>bdou nouqe>thsiv, "Laws," 700). He also uses the phrase plhgai~v nouqetei~n to
admonish with blows. It includes rebuke, but not necessarily. Trench happily illustrates the etymological sense (nou~v the mind, ti>qhmi to put): "Whatever is needed to
cause the monition to be laid to heart." Admonition is a mode of discipline, so that the two words nurture and admonition stand related as general and special.

Of the Lord. Such discipline as is prescribed by the Lord and is administered in His name.

5. Servants (dou~loi). Bond-servants or slaves. In this appeal Paul was addressing a numerous class. In many of the cities of Asia Minor slaves outnumbered freemen.

Masters (kuri>oiv). See on Colossians 3:22.

According to the flesh. Regarded in their merely human relation.

With fear. See on Philippians 2:12.

Singleness. See on simplicity, Romans 12:8.

Unto Christ. "Common and secular inducements can have but small influence on the mind of a slave."

6. Eye service - men-pleasers. See on Colossians 3:22.

7. With good-will. Bengel quotes Xenophon: "The slave that is a steward must have good-will if he is to on thy place adequately." Compare Colossians 3:23.

8. Shall he receive (komi>setai). See on 1 Peter 1:8; compare Colossians 3:25.

9. Forbearing (ajnie>ntev). See on the kindred noun a]nesiv, A.V., liberty, Acts 24:23.
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Threatening (thn). Note the article, the threatening customary from the master to the slave.
8. Shall he receive (komi>setai). See on 1 Peter 1:8; compare Colossians 3:25.

9. Forbearing (ajnie>ntev). See on the kindred noun a]nesiv, A.V., liberty, Acts 24:23.

Threatening (thn). Note the article, the threatening customary from the master to the slave.

Knowing. since ye know.

Your master also (uJmw~n aujtw~n oJ kurio>v). The correct reading is kaiv both their master and yours. So Rev.

Respect of persons. See on James 2:1; Colossians 3:25.

10. Finally (ton). See on 2 Corinthians 13:11. Omit my brethren.

Be strong (ejndunamouou~sqe). Lit., be strengthened. Compare Romans 4:20 and Philippians 4:13.

Power of His might. See on Ephesians 1:19.

11. Whole armor (panopli>an). Panoply is a transcript of the Greek word. Only here, ver. 13, and Luke 11:22 see note. In classical Greek of the full armor of a heavy-
armed soldier. The student may compare the description of the forging of Aeneas' armor by Vulcan (Virgil, "Aeneid," viii., 415-459), and of the armor itself as
displayed to Aeneas by Venus ("Aeneid," viii., 616-730). Also of the armor of Achilles (Homer, "Iliad," xviii., 468-617).

Wiles (meqodei>av). See on Ephesians 4:14. The armor is a defense against strategy as well as assault.

The devil (tou~ diabo>lou). See on Matthew 4:1; John 6:70. In Job and Zechariah used as the equivalent of Satan (hater or accuser, see on Luke 10:18), of a single
person, the enemy of mankind. In the other Old-Testament passages in which it occurs, it is used to translate either Satan or its equivalent in meaning, tsar (adversary,
distresser), but without the same reference to that single person. See Sept., 1 Chronicles 21:1; Esther 7:4; 8:1; Psalms 108:6; Numbers 22:32. The Septuagint usage
implies enmity in general, without accusation either true or false. In the New Testament invariably as a proper name, except in the Pastoral Epistles, where it has its
ordinary meaning slanderous. See 1 Timothy 3:11; 2 Timothy 3:3; Titus 2:3. As a proper name it is used in the Septuagint sense as the equivalent of Satan, and meaning
enemy.

12. We wrestle (e]stin hJmi~n hJ pa>lh). Rev., more literally and correctly, our wrestling is. Pa>lh wrestling, only here.

Flesh and blood. The Greek reverses the order.

Principalities and powers. See on Colossians 1:16.

Rulers of the darkness of this world (kosmokra>torav tou~ sko>touv tou>tou). Rev., more correctly, world-rulers of this darkness. World-Rulers only here. Compare
John 14:30; 16:11; 1 John 5:19; 2 Corinthians 4:4.

Spiritual wickedness (taav) Lit., the spiritual things of wickedness. Rev., spiritual hosts of wickedness. The phrase is collective, of the evil powers viewed as a body.
Wickedness is active evil, mischief. Hence Satan is called oJ ponhro>v the wicked one. See on Luke 3:19; 7:21; 1 John 2:13.

In high places (ejn toi~v ejpourani>oiv). Rev., more literally, in the heavenly places. Used in the general sense of the sky or air. See on Ephesians 2:2.

13. Wherefore. Because the fight is with such powers.

Take unto you (ajnala>bete). Lit., take up, as one takes up armor to put it on. So Rev.

The whole armor. An interesting parallel passage, evidently founded upon this, occurs in Ignatius' Epistle to Polycarp, 6. "Please the captain under whom ye serve, from
whom also ye shall receive your wages. Let no one of you be found a deserter. Let your baptism abide as your shield; your faith as your helmets; your love as your
spear; your patience as your whole armor. Let your good works be your savings (tasita deposita), 171 that you may receive what is justly to your credit." Gibbon
relates how the relaxation of discipline and the disuse of exercise rendered the soldiers less willing and less able to support the fatigues of the service. They complained
of the weight of their armor, and successively obtained permission to lay aside their cuirasses and helmets (ch. 27.).

Withstand. With has the sense of against, as appears in the older English withsay, to contradict; Anglo-Saxon, widstandan, to resist. Compare German, wider and
Widerstand, resistance.

Having done all. Everything which the crisis demands.

14. Having your loins girt about (perizwsa>menoi th). The verb is middle, not passive. Rev., correctly, having girded. Compare Isaiah 11:5. The principal terms in this
description of the christian armor are taken from the Septuagint of Isaiah.

Truth (ajlhqei>a|). The state of the heart answering to God's truth; inward, practical acknowledgment of the truth as it is in Him: the agreement of our convictions with
God's revelation.

The loins encircled by the girdle form the central point of the physical system. Hence, in Scripture, the loins are described as the seat of power. "To smite through the
loins" is to strike a fatal blow. "To lay affliction upon the loins" is to afflict heavily. Here was the point of junction for the main pieces of the body-armor, so that the
girdle formed the common bond of the whole. Truth gives unity to the different virtues, and determinateness and consistency to character. All the virtues are exercised
within the sphere of truth.

Breastplate of righteousness (qw>raka th~v dikaiosu>nhv). Compare Isaiah 59:17. Righteousness is used here in the sense of moral rectitude. In 1 Thessalonians 5:8
the breastplate is described as of faith and love. Homer speaks of light-armed warriors armed with linen corsets; and these were worn to much later times by Asiatic
soldiers, and were occasionally adopted by the Romans. Thus Suetonius says of Galba, that on the day on which he was slain by Otho's soldiers, he put on a linen
corset, though aware that it would avail little against the enemy's daggers ("Galba," 19.). Horn was used for this purpose by some of the barbarous nations. It was cut
into small pieces, which were fastened like scales upon linen shirts. Later, the corset of metal scales fastened upon leather or linen, or of flexible bands of steel folding
over each other, was introduced. They appear on Roman monuments of the times of the emperors. The Roman spearmen wore cuirasses of chain-mail. Virgil mentions
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those in which the linked rings were of gold ("Aeneid," iii., 467). The stiff cuirass called sta>diov standing upright, because, when placed upon its lower          it stood
erect, consisted of two parts: the breastplate, made of hard leather, bronze, or iron, and a corresponding plate covering the back. They were connected by leathern
straps or metal bands passing over the shoulders and fastened in front, and by hinges on the right side.
soldiers, and were occasionally adopted by the Romans. Thus Suetonius says of Galba, that on the day on which he was slain by Otho's soldiers, he put on a linen
corset, though aware that it would avail little against the enemy's daggers ("Galba," 19.). Horn was used for this purpose by some of the barbarous nations. It was cut
into small pieces, which were fastened like scales upon linen shirts. Later, the corset of metal scales fastened upon leather or linen, or of flexible bands of steel folding
over each other, was introduced. They appear on Roman monuments of the times of the emperors. The Roman spearmen wore cuirasses of chain-mail. Virgil mentions
those in which the linked rings were of gold ("Aeneid," iii., 467). The stiff cuirass called sta>diov standing upright, because, when placed upon its lower edge it stood
erect, consisted of two parts: the breastplate, made of hard leather, bronze, or iron, and a corresponding plate covering the back. They were connected by leathern
straps or metal bands passing over the shoulders and fastened in front, and by hinges on the right side.

The breastplate covers the vital parts, as the heart,

15. Preparation (eJtoimasi>a|). Only here in the New Testament. The Roman soldier substituted for the greaves of the Greek (metal plates covering the lower part of
the leg) the caligae or sandals, bound by thongs over the instep and round the ankle, and having the soles thickly studded with nails. They were not worn by the
superior officers, so that the common soldiers were distinguished as caligati. *q>a means readiness; but in Hellenistic Greek it was sometimes used in the sense of
establishment or firm foundation, which would suit this passage: firm-footing. Compare Isaiah 52:7.

16. Above all (ejpi). Ambiguous. It may mean over all, or in addition to all. The latter is correct. Rev., withal.

The shield of faith (tostewv). Qureo>n shield, is from qu>ra door, because shaped like a door. Homer uses the word for that which is placed in front of the doorway.
Thus of the stone placed by Polyphemus in front of his cave ("Odyssey," ix., 240). The shield here described is that of the heavy infantry; a large, oblong shield, four by
two and a half feet, and sometimes curved on the inner side. Sculptured representations may be seen on Trajan's column. Compare "Compass him as with a shield,"
Psalms 5:12. It was made of wood or of wicker-work, and held on the left arm by means of a handle. Xenophon describes troops, supposed to be Egyptians, with
wooden shields reaching to their feet ("Anabasis," i., 8, 9). Saving faith is meant.

Fiery darts (talh tana). Lit., the darts, those which have been set on fire. Herodotas says that the Persians attacked the citadel of Athens "with arrows whereto pieces of
lighted tow were attached, which they shot at the barricade" (viii., 52). Thucydides: "the Plataeans constructed a wooden frame, which they set up on the top of their
own wall opposite the mound.... They also hung curtains of skills and hides in front: these were designed to protect the woodwork and the workers, and shield them
against blazing arrows" (2:75). Livy tells of a huge dart used at the siege of Saguntum, which was impelled by twisted ropes. "There was used by the Saguntines a
missile weapon called falarica, with the shaft of fir, and round in other parts, except toward the point, whence the iron projected. This part, which was square, they
bound around with tow and besmeared with pitch. It had an iron head three feet in length, so that it could pierce through the body with the armor. But what caused the
greatest fear was that this weapon, even though it stuck in the shield and did not penetrate into the body, when it was discharged with the middle part on fire, and bore
along a much greater flame produced by the mere motion, obliged the armor to be thrown down, and exposed the soldier to succeeding blows" (21:8). Again, of the
siege of Ambracia by the Romans: "Some advanced with burning torches, others carrying tow and pitch and fire-darts, their entire line being illuminated by the
blaze" (38:6). Compare Psalms 7:13 where the correct rendering is, "His arrows He maketh fiery arrows." Temptation is thus represented as impelled from a distance.
Satan attacks by indirection - through good things from which no evil is suspected. There is a hint of its propagating power: one sin draws another in its track: the flame
of the fire-tipped dart spreads. Temptation acts on susceptible material. Self-confidence is combustible. Faith, in doing away with dependence on self, takes away fuel
for the dart. It creates sensitiveness to holy influences by which the power of temptation is neutralized. It enlists the direct aid of God. See 1 Corinthians 10:13; Luke
22:32; James 1:2; 1 Peter 4:12; 2 Peter 2:9.

17. Take the helmet of salvation (than tou~ swthri>ou de>xasqe). Compare Isaiah 59:17; 1 Thessalonians 5:8. Take is a different word from that used in vers. 13, 16.
It is receive as from God. The meaning is the helmet which is salvation. The protection for the head. The helmet was originally of skin, strengthened with bronze or other
metal, and surmounted with a figure adorned with a horsehair crest. It was furnished with a visor to protect the face.

Sword of the Spirit (ma>cairan tou~ pneu>matov). See on Revelation 6:4. The word of God serves both for attack and to parry the thrusts of the enemy. Thus Christ
used it in His temptation. It is the sword of the Spirit, because the Spirit of God gives it and inspires it. The Spirit's aid is needed for its interpretation. Compare John
14:10; Hebrews 4:12 in which latter passage the image is sacrificial.

Word of God (rJh~ma qeou~). See on Luke 1:37. See Luke 3:2; 4:4; Romans 10:17; Hebrews 6:5; 11:3.

18. Always (ejn panti). Incorrect. It means on every occasion. Rev., at all seasons. Compare Luke 21:36.

With all prayer and supplication (diashv proseuch~v kaisewv). Prayer is general, supplication special. Dia> with is literally through; that is, through the medium of. All,
lit., every. Prayer is of various kinds, formal, silent, vocal, secret, public, petitionary, ejaculatory - shot upward like a dart (jaculum) on a sudden emergency. Compare
Psalms 5:1, 2.

Watching thereunto (eijv aujto). Compare Colossians 4:2. For watching, see on Mark 13:33, 35. Thereunto, unto prayer, for occasions of prayer, and to maintain the
spirit of prayer. One must watch before prayer, in prayer, after prayer.

Perseverance (proskarterh>sei). Only here. The kindred verb proskartere>w to continue, occurs often. See on Acts 1:14.

19. Boldly. Connect with to make known, as Rev.; not with open my mouth, as A.V.

Mystery. See on Romans 11:25; Colossians 1:26.

20. I am an ambassador in bonds (presbeu>w ejn aJlu>sei). The verb to be an ambassador occurs only here and 2 Corinthians 5:20. See on Philemon 1:9. In bonds,
lit., in a chain: the particular word for the coupling-chain by which he was bound to the hand of his guard.

21. That ye also may know, etc. Compare Cicero to Atticus: "Send us some letter-carrier, that both you may know how it goes with us, and that we may know how
you fare and what you are going to do" (5:18).

Tychicus. See on Colossians 4:7.

A beloved brother. Rev., correctly, the beloved brother. Tychicus is referred to as well known.

24. In sincerity (ejn ajfqarsi>a|). Rev., correctly, in incorruptness: who love Christ with an imperishable and incorruptible love.

THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS
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CHAPTER        1

1. Paul. The official designation is omitted, as in 1 and 2 Thessalonians and Philemon. It is not easy to explain the use or omission of the title apostle in all cases. Here,
24. In sincerity (ejn ajfqarsi>a|). Rev., correctly, in incorruptness: who love Christ with an imperishable and incorruptible love.

THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS
CHAPTER 1

1. Paul. The official designation is omitted, as in 1 and 2 Thessalonians and Philemon. It is not easy to explain the use or omission of the title apostle in all cases. Here,
and in Philemon and 1 Thessalonians, its omission may be accounted for by the general, unofficial, personal, affectionate character of the letter. In 2 Corinthians and
Galatians the reason for its use is apparent from the fact that Paul's official authority had been assailed. But it is also omitted in 2 Thessalonians, which has an
admonitory and rebuking character. Its use in the epistles to Timothy and Titus, private letters, is explained by the fact that Paul is addressing them not only as friends,
but as pastors. In Romans, while there is no evidence of any challenge of his apostolic claims, there is an authoritative exposition of Christian doctrine which appears to
warrant the title.

Timothy. Associated with Paul as in the introductions to 2 Corinthians and the two Thessalonian epistles. Timothy assisted Paul in founding the Philippian church Acts
16:1, 13; 17:14. Two visits of Timothy to Philippi are recorded, Acts 19:22; 20:3, 4. He is evidently preparing for a third visit, see Philippians 2:19. His only part in this
letter is his name in the salutation, and in Philippians 2:19.

To all the saints (pa~sin toi~v ajgi>oiv). In Paul's personal addresses in this epistle the word all occurs nine times. It is sufficiently accounted for by the expansiveness of
grateful christian feeling which marks the entire letter, and it is doubtful whether it has any definite or conscious connection with the social rivalries hinted at in the epistle,
and which call forth exhortations to unity, as if Paul were disclaiming all partisan feeling by the use of the term. For saints, see on Colossians 1:2; Romans 1:7. The word
is transferred from the Old Testament. The Israelites were called a[gioi holy, separated and consecrated, Exodus 19:6; Deuteronomy 7:6; 14:2, 21; Daniel 7:18, 22
etc. The christian Church has inherited the title and the privileges of the Jewish nation. Hence it is e]qnov a[gion a holy nation, 1 Peter 2:9. The term implies, but does
not assert, actual, personal sanctity. It is a social, not a personal epithet. See on Acts 26:10.

Philippi. In Macedonia. Travellers by sea landed at Neapolis, and then travelled ten miles to Philippi along the Via Egnatia, which traversed Macedonia from east to
west. The site was originally occupied by a town called Datus or Datum, and was known as Krenides from its numerous springs. It was called Philippi in honor of Philip
of Macedon, who enlarged and fortified it. Its situation was important, commanding the great high road between Europe and Asia. This fact led to its fortification by
Philip, and made it, later, the scene of the decisive battle which resulted in the defeat of Brutus and Cassius. Its soil was productive and rich in mineral treasures, which
had yielded a large revenue, but which, in Paul's time, had apparently become exhausted.

Augustus planted at Philippi a colonia. See on Acts 16:12. 172 A variety of national types assembled there - Greek, Roman, and Asiatic - representing different phases
of philosophy, religion, and superstition. It was therefore an appropriate starting-point for the Gospel in Europe, a field in which it could demonstrate its power to deal
with all differences of nation, faith, sex, and social standing. 173

Bishops (ejpisko>poiv). Lit., overseers. See on visitation, 1 Peter 2:12. The word was originally a secular title, designating commissioners appointed to regulate a
newly-acquired territory or a colony. It was also applied to magistrates who regulated the sale of provisions under the Romans. In the Septuagint it signifies inspectors,
superintendents, taskmasters, see 2 Kings 11:19; 2 Chronicles 34:12, 17; or captains, presidents, Nehemiah 11:9, 14, 22. In the apostolic writings it is synonymous
with presbyter or elder; and no official distinction of the episcopate as a distinct order of the ministry is recognized. Rev. has overseers in margin.

Deacons (diako>noiv). The word means servant, and is a general term covering both slaves and hired servants. It is thus distinct from dou~lov bond-servant. It
represents a servant, not in his relation, but in his activity. In the epistles it is often used specifically for a minister of the Gospel, 1 Corinthians 3:5; 2 Corinthians 3:6;
Ephesians 3:7. Here it refers to a distinct class of officers in the apostolic church. The origin of this office is recorded Acts 6:1-6. It grew out of a complaint of the
Hellenistic or Graeco-Jewish members of the Church, that their widows were neglected in the daily distribution of food and alms. The Palestinian Jews prided
themselves on their pure nationality and looked upon the Greek Jews as their inferiors. Seven men were chosen to superintend this matter, and generally to care for the
bodily wants of the poor. Their function was described by the phrase to serve tables, Acts 6:2 and their appointment left the apostles free to devote themselves to
prayer and the ministry of the word. The men selected for the office are supposed to have been Hellenists, from the fact that all their names are Greek, and one is
especially described as a proselyte, Acts 6:5; but this cannot be positively asserted, since it was not uncommon for Jews to assume Greek names. See on Romans
16:5. The work of the deacons was, primarily, the relief of the sick and poor; but spiritual ministrations naturally developed in connection with their office. The latter are
referred to by the term helps, 1 Corinthians 12:28. Stephen and Philip especially appear in this capacity, Acts 8:5-40; 6:8-11. Such may also be the meaning of
ministering, Romans 12:7. Hence men of faith, piety, and sound judgment were recommended for the office by the apostles, Acts 6:3; 1 Timothy 3:8-13. Women were
also chosen as deaconesses, and Phoebe, the bearer of the epistle to the Romans, is commonly supposed to have been one of these. See on Romans 16:1.

Ignatius says of deacons: "They are not ministers of food and drink, but servants (ujphre>tai, see on Matthew 5:25) of the Church of God" ("Epistle to Tralles," 2.).
"Let all pay respect to the deacons as to Jesus Christ" ("Tralles," 3.). "Respect the deacons as the voice of God enjoins you" ("Epistle to Smyrna," 8.). In "The Teaching
of the Twelve Apostles" the local churches or individual congregations are ruled by bishops and deacons. "Elect therefore for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy
of the Lord; men meek and not lovers of money, and truthful and approved; for they too minister to you the ministry of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise
them not, for they are those that are the honored among you with the prophets and teachers" (15:1, 2). Deaconesses are not mentioned.

2. Grace - peace. The combination of the Greek and Oriental salutations spiritualized: grace expressing God's love to man, and peace the condition resulting therefrom.

3. Every remembrance (pa>sh| th|~ mnei>a|) Better, as Rev, all my remembrance.

Prayer (deh>sei). Rev., better, supplication. See on Luke 5:33.

For you all. Connect with every prayer of mine.

Request (thhsin). Rev., better, my supplication. The article refers to every supplication.

With joy. Joy is the keynote of this epistle. Bengel says: "The sum of the epistle is, 'I rejoice, rejoice ye."' See vers. Philippians 1:18, 25; Philippians 2:2, 17, 18, 28, 29;
3:l; 4:1, 4, 10.

5. For your fellowship (ejpia| uJmw~n). Connect with I thank God. For fellowship, see on 1 John 1:3. The word sometimes has the meaning of almsgiving,
contributions, as Romans 15:26; Hebrews 13:16. Though here it is used in the larger sense of sympathetic cooperation, yet it is no doubt colored by the other idea, in
view of the Philippians' pecuniary contributions to Paul. See Philippians 4:10, 15, 16.

In the Gospel (eijv tolion). Lit., unto the Gospel: Rev., in furtherance of.

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Hath begun - will perform (ejnarxa>menov - ejpitele>sei). The two words occur together, 2 Corinthians 8:6; Galatians 3:3. Both were used of religious ceremonials. So
view of the Philippians' pecuniary contributions to Paul. See Philippians 4:10, 15, 16.

In the Gospel (eijv tolion). Lit., unto the Gospel: Rev., in furtherance of.

6. Being confident (pepoiqw). With a slightly causative force: since I am confident.

Hath begun - will perform (ejnarxa>menov - ejpitele>sei). The two words occur together, 2 Corinthians 8:6; Galatians 3:3. Both were used of religious ceremonials. So
Euripides: "But come! Bring up the sacrificial meal-basket" (ejxa>rcou kana~); that is, begin the offering by taking the barley-meal from the basket ("Iphigenia in Aulis,"
435). Some find the sacrificial metaphor here, and compare Philippians 2:17, see note. Perform, better as Rev., perfect. Perform, in its older and literal sense of
carrying through (per) or consummating would express the idea; but popular usage has identified it with do.

7. Even as (kaqw>v). The reason for being confident (ver. 6).

Defense (ajpologi>a). See on 1 Peter 3:15.

Confirmation (bebaiw>sei). Only here and Hebrews 6:16. The kindred verb bebaio>w to confirm, occurs frequently, as Romans 15:8; 1 Corinthians 1:8 etc.

Partakers of my grace (sugkoinwnou>v mou~ th~v ca>ritov). Better, as Rev., partakers with me of grace. Lit., the grace, either the divine endowment which enabled
them both to suffer bonds, and to defend and establish the Gospel, or the loving favor of God, which confers suffering and activity alike as a boon. The two may be
combined. Compare ver. 29.

8. In the bowels of Jesus Christ (ejn spla>gcnoiv Cristou~ Ihsou~). Rev., better, in the tender mercies. Describing his longing, not as his individual emotion, but as
Christ's longing, as if the very heart of Christ dwelt in him. "In Paul not Paul lives, but Jesus Christ" (Bengel) With tender mercies compare reins, Revelation 2:23 note.

9. Judgment (aijsqh>sei). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., better, discernment: sensitive moral perception. Used of the senses, as Xenophon: "perception of
things sweet or pungent" ("Memorabilia," i., 4, 5). Of hearing: "It is possible to go so far away as not to afford a hearing" ("Anabasis," iv., 6, 13). The senses are called
aijsqh>seiv. See Plato, "Theaetetus," 156. Plato uses it of visions of the gods ("Phaedo," 111). Compare aijsqhth>ria senses, Hebrews 5:14. Discernment selects,
classifies, and applies what is furnished by knowledge.

10. Approve (dokima>zein). Sanction on test. See on 1 Peter 1:7.

Things which are excellent (taronta). Unnecessary difficulty has been made in the explanation of this phrase. Love displays itself in knowledge and discernment. In
proportion as it abounds it sharpens the moral perceptions for the discernment of what is best. The passage is on the line of 1 Corinthians 12:31"Covet earnestly the
best gifts," and the "more excellent way" to attain these gifts is love (Phillippians 13.). See on Romans 2:18 where the same phrase occurs, but with a different meaning.
Some explain things which are morally different.

Sincere (eiJlikrinei~v). See on pure, 2 Peter 3:1.

Without offense (ajpro>skopoi). See on Acts 24:16. It may be explained, not stumbling, or not causing others to stumble, as 1 Corinthians 10:32. Both senses may be
included. If either is to be preferred it is the former, since the whole passage contemplates their inward state rather than their relations to men.

Till the day, etc. (eijv). Rev., unto. Better, against; with a view to.

11. Fruit of righteousness (karponhv). The phrase occurs James 3:18. Compare Proverbs 11:30.

Glory and praise of God. For glory of God, see on Romans 3:23. That God's glory may be both manifested and recognized. Compare Ephesians 1:6.

12. Rather (ma~llon). For the furtherance of the Gospel rather than, as might have been expected, for its hindrance.

Furtherance (prokoph). Only here, ver. 25, and 1 Timothy 4:15. The metaphor is uncertain, but is supposed to be that of pioneers cutting (ko>ptw) a way before
(pro>) an army, and so furthering its march. The opposite is expressed by ejgko>ptw to cut into; hence to throw obstacles in the way, hinder. Galatians 5:7. See on 1
Peter 3:7.

13. My bonds in Christ are manifest (touv mou fanerousqai). Bonds and Christ, in the Greek, are too far apart to be construed together. Better, as Rev., my bonds
became manifest in Christ. His imprisonment became known as connected with Christ. It was understood to be for Christ's sake. His bonds were not hidden as though
he were an ordinary prisoner. His very captivity proclaimed Christ.

In all the palace (ejn o[lw| tw|~ praitwri>w|). Rev., throughout the whole praetorian guard. So Lightfoot, Dwight, Farrar. This appears to be the correct rendering. The
other explanations are, the imperial residence on the Palatine, so A.V.; the praetorian barracks attached to the palace, so Eadie, Ellicott, Lumby, and Alford; the
praetortan camp on the east of the city, so Meyer. 174

The first explanation leaves the place of Paul's confinement uncertain. It may have been in the camp of the Praetorians, which was large enough to contain within its
precincts lodgings for prisoners under military custody, so that Paul could dwell "in his own hired house," Acts 28:30. This would be difficult to explain on the
assumption that Paul was confined in the barracks or within the palace precincts.

The Praetorians, forming the imperial guard, were picked men, ten thousand in number, and all of Italian birth. The body was instituted by Augustus and was called by
him praetoriae cohortes, praetorian cohorts, in imitation of the select troop which attended the person of the praetor or Roman general. Augustus originally stationed
only three thousand of them, three cohorts, at Rome, and dispersed the remainder in the adjacent Italian towns. Under Tiberius they were all assembled at Rome in a
fortified camp. They were distinguished by double pay and special privileges. Their term of service was originally twelve years, afterward increased to sixteen. On
completing his term, each soldier received a little over eight hundred dollars. They all seem to have had the same rank as centurions in the regular legions. They became
the most powerful body in the state; the emperors were obliged to court their favor, and each emperor on his accession was expected to bestow on them a liberal
donative. After the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193) they put up the empire at public sale, and knocked it down to Didius Julianus. They were disbanded the same year on
the accession of Severus, and were banished; but were restored by that emperor on a new plan, and increased to four times their original number. They were finally
suppressed by Constantine.

The apostle was under the charge of these troops, the soldiers relieving each other in mounting guard over the prisoner, who was attached to his guard's hand by a
chain. In the allusion to his bonds, Ephesians 6:20 he uses the specific word for the coupling-chain. His contact with the different members of the corps in succession,
explains the(c)
 Copyright   statement   that his
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                               Infobase     become
                                         Media     manifest throughout the praetorian guard.
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In all other places (toi~v loipoi~v pa~sin). Rev., correctly, to all the rest; that is, to all others besides the Praetorians.
suppressed by Constantine.

The apostle was under the charge of these troops, the soldiers relieving each other in mounting guard over the prisoner, who was attached to his guard's hand by a
chain. In the allusion to his bonds, Ephesians 6:20 he uses the specific word for the coupling-chain. His contact with the different members of the corps in succession,
explains the statement that his bonds had become manifest throughout the praetorian guard.

In all other places (toi~v loipoi~v pa~sin). Rev., correctly, to all the rest; that is, to all others besides the Praetorians.

14. Many (touonav). Rev., correctly, the most. Lit., the more. Implying that there were a few who held back.

Brethren in the Lord. In the Lord should be rather connected with being confident. The expression brethren in the Lord does not occur in the New Testament; while to
have confidence in one in the Lord is found Galatians 5:10; 2 Thessalonians 3:4; compare Philippians 2:24. In the Lord is thus emphatic. It may be correlative with in
Christ, ver. 13; but this is not certain. 175 In the Lord trusting my bonds, signifies that the bonds awaken confidence as being the practical testimony to the power of
the Gospel for which Paul is imprisoned, and therefore an encouragement to their faith.

Are much more bold (perissote>rwv tolma~n). Rev., more abundantly bold, thus holding more closely to the literal meaning of the adverb. For are bold, see on 2
Corinthians 10:2. The boldness required to profess Christ within the precincts of the palace is illustrated by the graffito or wall-scribble discovered in 1857 among the
ruins on the Palatine. It is a caricature of Christ on the cross, with an ass's head, while on the left appears a christian youth in an attitude of adoration. Underneath are
scrawled the words Alexamenos worships God. 176

To speak (lalei~n). The verb denotes the fact rather than the substance of speaking. See on Matthew 28:18. They have broken silence.

15. Even of envy. Strange as it may seem that envy should be associated with the preaching of Christ. They are jealous of Paul's influence.

Strife (e]rin). Factious partisanship.

Good will. Toward Paul.

16. The one preach Christ of contention. The order of vers. 16, 17, is reversed in the best texts. Of contentions (ejx ejriqei>av). See on strife, James 3:14. Rev.,
better, faction. Compare Chaucer:

"For mine entente is not but for to winne

And nothing for correction of sinne"

"Pardouere's Tale," 12337-8.

Sincerely (aJgnw~v). Purely, with unmixed motives. The adjective aJgno>v means pure, in the sense of chaste, free from admixture of evil, and is once applied to God,
1 John 3:3. See on Acts 26:10 foot-note. Not sincerely is explained by in pretense, ver. 18.

To add affliction (qli~yin ejpife>rein). Lit., to bring affliction to bear. But the correct reading is ejgei>rein to raise up, as Rev.: to waken or stir up affliction. The phrase
is striking in the light of the original meaning of qli>yiv, namely, pressure. They would make his bonds press more heavily and gall him. See on Matthew 13:21.

17. I am set (kei~mai). Or appointed. See on Luke 2:34. Compare 1 Thessalonians 3:3. Some, instead of rendering the one (or some) preach Christ of contention -
but the other of love, join oiJ me some, oiJ de others, in each instance with the succeeding word, making one phrase, thus: "they who are of love do so knowing that I
am set, etc.: they who are of faction proclaim Christ not sincerely, etc. The phrase those who are of faction occurs Romans 2:8; and a similar phrase, him who is of
faith, Romans 3:26. There seems no sufficient reason for altering A.V. and Rev.

18. What then? Such being the case, how does it affect me?

Notwithstanding (plh). Read plh except that. Rev., only that. What is my feeling in view of these things? Only that I rejoice that Christ is preached.

In pretense. With a spirit of envy and faction, possibly with a counterfeited zeal for truth.

19. This. This preaching of Christ in every way.

Shall turn (ajpobh>setai). Lit., come off, eventuate.

Salvation. Not his deliverance from captivity, but it will prove salutary to him in a spiritual sense and to the saving work of the Gospel. Salvation simply is used, without
any more precise definition; and the broader sense, as related to his ministry, seems to be indicated by the words Christ shall be magnified, in ver. 20.

Supply (ejpicorhgi>av). See on add, 2 Peter 1:5. Compare Galatians 3:5. The word implies bountiful supply.

Of the Spirit of Jesus Christ. Either the supply furnished by the Spirit, or the supply which is the Spirit. It is better to take it as including both. The exact phrase, Spirit of
Jesus Christ, is found only here. Spirit of Christ occurs Romans 8:9; 1 Peter 1:11. The Holy Spirit is meant; called the Spirit of Jesus Christ, because through the Spirit
Christ communicates Himself to His people. "The Spirit is the living principle and the organ of the proper presence of Christ and of His life in them" (Meyer).

20. Earnest expectation (ajpokaradoki>an). Only here and Romans 8:19 on which see note.

Shall be ashamed (aijscunqh>somai). Rev., better, giving the force of the passive, shall be put to shame.

Boldness. See on Philemon 1:8.

Shall be magnified in my body. Through my bodily sufferings Christ shall appear more glorious, and that even if I die.

21. To me. Emphatic. Whatever life may be to others, to me, etc

To live is Christ
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Gain. As consummating the union with Christ. Compare Colossians 3:4; 2 Corinthians 5:1-8.
Shall be magnified in my body. Through my bodily sufferings Christ shall appear more glorious, and that even if I die.

21. To me. Emphatic. Whatever life may be to others, to me, etc

To live is Christ (to). Lit, the living is Christ. Compare Galatians 2:20. He has no thought of life apart from Christ.

Gain. As consummating the union with Christ. Compare Colossians 3:4; 2 Corinthians 5:1-8.

"Declare unto him if the light wherewith

Blossoms your substance shall remain with you

Eternally the same that it is now,

And if it do remain, say in what manner,

After ye are again made visible,

It can be that it injure not your sight.

As by a greater gladness urged and drawn

They who are dancing in a ring sometimes

Uplift their voices and their motions quicken;

So, at that orison devout and prompt,

The holy circles a new joy displayed

In their revolving and their wondrous song.

Who so lamenteth him that here we die

That we may live above, has never there

Seen the refreshment of the eternal rain."

DANTE, "Paradiso," 14, 13-27.

22. If I live (eij to). Rev., better, if to live: the living, as ver. 21.

This is the fruit of my labor. According to the A.V. these words form the offset of the conditional clause, and conclude the sentence: if I live - this is the fruit. It is better
to make the two clauses parallel, thus: if living after the flesh, (if) this is fruit of labor. The conditional suspended clause will then be closed by what I shall choose I do
not declare. Fruit of labor, advantage accruing from apostolic work. Compare Romans 1:13.

Yet what I shall choose I wot not (kai aiJrh>somai ouj gnwri>zw). Kairendered yet has the force of then. If living in the flesh be, etc., then what I shall choose, etc.
Wot is obsolete for know. In classical Greek gnwri>zw means: 1, to make known point out; 2, to become acquainted with or discover; 3, to have acquaintance with.
In the Septuagint the predominant meaning seems to be to make known. See Proverbs 22:19; Ezekiel 44:23; Daniel 2:6, 10; 5:7. The sense here is to declare or make
known, as everywhere in the New Testament. Compare Luke 2:15; John 17:26; Acts 2:28; Colossians 4:7; 2 Peter 1:16 etc. If I am assured that my continuing to live
is most fruitful for the Church, then I say nothing as to my personal preference. I do not declare my choice. It is not for me to express a choice.

23. I am in a strait betwixt two (sune>comai ejk tw~n du>o). See on 2 Corinthians 5:14. The picture is that of a man pressed on both sides. Lit. I am held together, so
that I cannot incline either way. Betwixt two, lit., from the two. The pressure comes from both sides. Note the article, the two, the two considerations just mentioned,
departing or abiding in the flesh.

Having a desire. Lit., the desire: my desire, as expressed in ver. 21, for death with its gain.

To depart (ajnalu~sai). The verb means originally to unloose, undo again. So of Penelope's web: "During the night she undid it" (Homer, "Odyssey," ii., 105). Of loosing
a ship from her moorings: of breaking up a camp. So 2 Macc. ix. 1. Antiochus, having entered Persepolis, and having attempted to rob the temple and to hold the city,
was put to flight by the inhabitants, and broke up (ajnalelukw) and came away with dishonor. We have the same figure in popular usage of one who changes his
residence: "He broke up at Chicago and removed to New York." Paul's metaphor here is the military one, to break camp. Compare 2 Corinthians 5:1 where the
metaphor is the striking of a tent. Some prefer the nautical image, casting off from shore; but Paul's circumstances naturally suggested military figures; and, what is
somewhat strange in the case of one so familiar with the sea, nautical metaphors are rare in his writings. There is one at 1 Timothy 1:19 of those "who concerning the
faith have made shipwreck;" at Ephesians 4:14"tossed as by waves, and borne about by every wind." Kubernh>seiv governments, 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see note), is
from kuberna>w to steer.

To be with Christ. Compare 2 Corinthians 5:6, 8; Acts 7:59; 1 Thessalonians 4:14, 17.

Which is far better (pollw|~ ma~llon krei~sson). Lit., much more better. For similar cumulative expressions, see on 2 Corinthians 4:17. The best texts insert ga for. So
Rev., for it is very far better.

24. To abide in the flesh (ejpime>nein ejn th|~ sarki). See on Colossians 1:23. To abide by the flesh. Compare Romans 6:1; 11:22, 23.

25. Furtherance. See on ver. 12.

Of faith. Rev., in the faith. To be connected with both furtherance and joy. For promoting your faith and your joy in believing. For joy of faith, compare Romans 15:13.
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26. Rejoicing (kau>chma). The matter of rejoicing, wrought through your faith.

In Christ Jesus for me (ejn Cristw|~ x~ ejn ejmoi). Construe in Christ Jesus with may abound, not with rejoicing. Christ is conceived as the element in which the matter
25. Furtherance. See on ver. 12.

Of faith. Rev., in the faith. To be connected with both furtherance and joy. For promoting your faith and your joy in believing. For joy of faith, compare Romans 15:13.

26. Rejoicing (kau>chma). The matter of rejoicing, wrought through your faith.

In Christ Jesus for me (ejn Cristw|~ x~ ejn ejmoi). Construe in Christ Jesus with may abound, not with rejoicing. Christ is conceived as the element in which the matter
of rejoicing grows and abounds. For me, better, as Rev, in me. The conjunction of the two phrases in Christ, in me, is somewhat confusing Paul's presence is the
immediate cause of their christian joy; hence in me; but their rejoicing in Paul is in Christ - a joy evolved within the sphere of life in Christ, and peculiar to those only to
whom to live is Christ.

Coming (parousi>av). Rev., better, presence.

27. Only. This one thing I urge as the only thing needful

Let your conversation be (politeu>esqe). Only here in Paul's writings, and elsewhere only Acts 23:1. The verb means to be a citizen. Lit., Be citizens worthily of the
Gospel. Rev., Let your manner of life be. Margin, Behave as citizens. Compare Ephesians 3:19 and see on Ephesians 3:20. The exhortation contemplates the
Philippians as members of the christian commonwealth. The figure would be naturally suggested to Paul by his residence in Rome, and would appeal to the Philippians
as a Roman colony, which was a reproduction of the parent commonwealth on a smaller scale.

Ye stand fast (sth>kete). Compare Ephesians 6:13; 2 Thessalonians 2:15. For the verb, see on John 1:26; 8:44.

Spirit - mind (pneu>mati - yuch|~). See on Romans 8:4; 11:3.

Striving together for the faith (sunaqlou~ntev th~| pi>stei). The verb occurs only here and Philippians 4:3. The figure is that of an athletic contest, and is in keeping with
standfast. Not to be rendered striving in concert with the faith, thus personifying faith, and making the faith signify the gospel teaching. 177 For the faith as christian
doctrine, see on Acts 6:7. Faith is to be taken in its usual subjective sense of trust in Christ or in the Gospel. Together refers to the mutual striving of the Philippians; not
to their striving in concert with Paul.

28. Terrified (pturo>menoi). Only here in the New Testament. Properly of the terror of a startled horse. Thus Diodorus Siculus, speaking of the chariot-horses of
Darius at the battle of Issus: "Frightened (pturo>menoi) by reason of the multitude of the dead heaped round them, they shook off their reins" (17:34). Plutarch says:
"The multitude is not easy to handle so that it is safe for any one to take the reins; but it should be held sufficient, if, not being scared by sight or sound, like a shy and
fickle animal, it accept mastery."

Which is (h[tiv ejsti). Seeing that it is.

An evident token (e]ndeixiv). Only here, Romans 3:25, 26; 2 Corinthians 8:24. Lit., a pointing out. Used in Attic law of a writ of indictment. A demonstration or proof.

To you of salvation (uJmi~n). Read uJmw~n of you. Rev., of your salvation.

And that of God. Rev., from God (ajpo>). Lightfoot finds here an allusion, in accord with striving together, to the sign of life or death given by the populace in the
amphitheater when a gladiator was vanquished, by turning the thumbs up or down. "The christian gladiator does not anxiously await the signal of life or death from the
fickle crowd. The great Director of the contest Himself has given him a sure token of deliverance."

29. It is given - to suffer for His sake (ejcari>sqh to aujotu~ pa>scein). Every word here is significant. Suffering is a gift of grace. "It is given" should be "it was given,"
referring to the gift bestowed when they became Christians. Suffering was the marriage-gift when they were espoused to Christ: the bounty when they enlisted in His
service. Becoming one with Him they entered into the fellowship of His suffering (Philippians 3:10). The gift was not suffering as such. Its meaning and value lay in its
being for His sake. The Macedonian churches, and the Philippian church especially, were preeminently suffering churches. See 2 Corinthians 8:2.

30. Conflict (ajgw~na). An athletic contest. See on striving, Colossians 1:29 and compare striving together, ver. 27.

Ye saw. In his sufferings at Philippi, Acts 16, see 1 Thessalonians 2:2.

Hear. Concerning my imprisonment.

CHAPTER 2

1. Therefore. Paul has spoken, in Philippians 1:26 of the Philippians' joy in his presence. Their joy is to find expression in duty - in the fulfillment of their obligations as
members of the christian commonwealth, by fighting the good fight of faith and cheerfully appropriating the gift of suffering (Philippians 1:27-29). Ver. 30, alluding to his
own conflicts, marks the transition from the thought of their joy to that of his joy. Therefore, since such is your duty and privilege, fulfill my joy, and show yourselves to
be true citizens of God's kingdom by your humility and unity of spirit.

Consolation (para>klhsiv). Rev., comfort. Better, exhortation. See on Luke 6:24. If Christ, by His example, sufferings, and conflicts, exhorts you.

Comfort of love (paramu>qion). Rev., consolation. Only here in the New Testament. From para> beside, and mu~qov speech or word. Para has the same force as in
para>klhsiv exhortation (see on Luke 6:24); a word which comes to the side of one to stimulate or comfort him; hence an exhortation, an encouragement. So Plato:
"Let this, then, be our exhortation concerning marriage" ("Laws," 773). A motive of persuasion or dissuasion. Plato, speaking of the fear of disgrace, or of ill-repute,
says. "The obedient nature will readily yield to such incentives" ("Laws," 880). Also an assuagement or abatement. So Sophocles: "Offspring of the noble, ye are come
as the assuagement of my woes" ("Electra," 130). Plato: "They say that to the rich are many consolations" ("Republic," 329). Plato also calls certain fruits stimulants
(paramuqi>a) of a sated appetite ("Critias," 115). Here in the sense of incentive. As related to exhortation, exhortation uses incentive as a ground of appeal. Christ
exhorts, appealing to love. Compare Philippians 1:9 sqq. See Romans 5:8; 1 Corinthians 13:4; 2 Corinthians 5:14; Galatians 5:13; Ephesians 5:2; 1 John 4:16 etc. The
two verbs kindred to exhortation and incentive occur together at 1 Thessalonians 2:11. See on 1 Corinthians 14:3. Render here, if any incentive of love.

Fellowship of the Spirit. Communion with the Holy Spirit, whose first fruit is love. Galatians 5:22. Participation in His gifts and influences. Compare 2 Peter 1:4 and 2
Corinthians 13:13.

Bowels and mercies (spla>gcna kai). For mercies, see on 2 Corinthians 1:3 and compare Colossians 3:12.
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2. Fulfill (plhrw>sate). Or complete. Compare John 3:29.
Fellowship of the Spirit. Communion with the Holy Spirit, whose first fruit is love. Galatians 5:22. Participation in His gifts and influences. Compare 2 Peter 1:4 and 2
Corinthians 13:13.

Bowels and mercies (spla>gcna kai). For mercies, see on 2 Corinthians 1:3 and compare Colossians 3:12.

2. Fulfill (plhrw>sate). Or complete. Compare John 3:29.

Be like-minded (to). Lit., think the same thing. The expression is a general one for concord, and is defined in the two following clauses: unity of affection, the same love;
unity of sentiment, of one accord. The general expression is then repeated in a stronger form, thinking the one thing. A.V. and Rev., of one mind.

3. Let nothing be done (mhde). Rev., doing nothing. The Greek is simply nothing, depending either, as A.V. and Rev., on the verb to do understood, or on thinking
(fronountev) of the preceding verse: thinking nothing. The latter is preferable, since the previous and the following exhortations relate to thinking or feeling rather than to
doing.

Through strife (kataan). Rev., correctly, faction. Lit., according to faction. See on James 3:14; and Phillippians 1:16. According to indicates faction as the regulative
state of mind.

Vain glory (kenodoxi>an). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred adjective keno>doxoi desirous of vain glory, occurs only at Galatians 5:26. In the Septuagint
the word is used to describe the worship of idols as folly (see Wisdom 14:14), and in 4 Macc. v. 9, the verb kenodoxe>w is used of following vain conceits about the
truth. The word is compounded of keno>v empty, vain, and, do>xa opinion (but not in the New Testament), which, through the intermediate sense of good or
favorable opinion, runs into the meaning of glory. See on Revelation 1:6.

Lowliness of mind (tapeinofrosu>nh|). See on Matthew 11:29.

4. Look (skopou~ntev). Attentively: fixing the attention upon, with desire for or interest in. So Romans 16:17; Philippians 3:17; 2 Corinthians 4:18. Hence often to aim
at; compare skopo>v the mark, Philippians 3:14. The participles esteeming and looking are used with the force of imperatives. See on Colossians 3:16.

5. Let this mind be in you (tou~to fronei>sqw ejn uJmin). Lit., let this be thought in you. The correct reading, however, is fronei~te, lit., "think this in yourselves." Rev.,
have this mind in you.

6. Being in the form of God (ejn morfh|~ Qeou~ uJpa>rcwn). Being. Not the simple ei>nai to be, but stronger, denoting being which is from the beginning. See on
James 2:15. It has a backward look into an antecedent condition, which has been protracted into the present. Here appropriate to the preincarnate being of Christ, to
which the sentence refers. In itself it does not imply eternal, but only prior existence. Form (morfh>). We must here dismiss from our minds the idea of shape. The word
is used in its philosophic sense, to denote that expression of being which carries in itself the distinctive nature and character of the being to whom it pertains, and is thus
permanently identified with that nature and character. Thus it is distinguished from sch~ma fashion, comprising that which appeals to the senses and which is
changeable. Morfh> form 178 is identified with the essence of a person or thing: sch~ma fashion is an accident which may change without affecting the form. For the
manner in which this difference is developed in the kindred verbs, see on Matthew 17:2.

As applied here to God, the word is intended to describe that mode in which the essential being of God expresses itself. We have no word which can convey this
meaning, nor is it possible for us to formulate the reality. Form inevitably carries with it to us the idea of shape. It is conceivable that the essential personality of God
may express itself in a mode apprehensible by the perception of pure spiritual intelligences; but the mode itself is neither apprehensible nor conceivable by human minds.

This mode of expression, this setting of the divine essence, is not identical with the essence itself, but is identified with it, as its natural and appropriate expression,
answering to it in every particular. It is the perfect expression of a perfect essence. It is not something imposed from without, but something which proceeds from the
very depth of the perfect being, and into which that being perfectly unfolds, as light from fire.

To say, then, that Christ was in the form of God, is to say that He existed as essentially one with God. The expression of deity through human nature (ver. 7) thus has its
background in the expression of deity as deity in the eternal ages of God's being. Whatever the mode of this expression, it marked the being of Christ in the eternity
before creation. As the form of God was identified with the being of God, so Christ, being in the form of God, was identified with the being, nature, and personality of
God.

This form, not being identical with the divine essence, but dependent upon it, and necessarily implying it, can be parted with or laid aside. Since Christ is one with God,
and therefore pure being, absolute existence, He can exist without the form. This form of God Christ laid aside in His incarnation.

Thought it not robbery to be equal with God (oujc aJrpagmosato to). Robbery is explained in three ways. 1. A robbing, the act. 2. The thing robbed, a piece of
plunder. 3. A prize, a thing to be grasped. Here in the last sense.

Paul does not then say, as A.V., that Christ did not think it robbery to be equal with God: for, 1, that fact goes without. saying in the previous expression, being in the
form of God. 2. On this explanation the statement is very awkward. Christ, being in the form of God, did not think it robbery to be equal with God; but, after which we
should naturally expect, on the other hand, claimed and asserted equality: whereas the statement is: Christ was in the form of God and did not think it robbery to be
equal with God, but (instead) emptied Himself. Christ held fast His assertion of divine dignity, but relinquished it. The antithesis is thus entirely destroyed.

Taking the word aJrpagmo (A.V., robbery) to mean a highly prized possession, we understand Paul to say that Christ, being, before His incarnation, in the form of
God, did not regard His divine equality as a prize which was to be grasped at and retained at all hazards, but, on the contrary, laid aside the form of God, and took
upon Himself the nature of man. The emphasis in the passage is upon Christ's humiliation. The fact of His equality with God is stated as a background, in order to throw
the circumstances of His incarnation into stronger relief. Hence the peculiar form of Paul's statement Christ's great object was to identify Himself with humanity; not to
appear to men as divine but as human. Had He come into the world emphasizing His equality with God, the world would have been amazed, but not saved He did not
grasp at this. The rather He counted humanity His prize, and so laid aside the conditions of His preexistent state, and became man.

7. Made Himself of no reputation (eJautonwsen).179 Lit., emptied Himself. The general sense is that He divested Himself of that peculiar mode of existence which was
proper and peculiar to Him as one with God. He laid aside the form of God. In so doing, He did not divest Himself of His divine nature. The change was a change of
state: the form of a servant for the form of God. His personality continued the same. His self-emptying was not self-extinction, nor was the divine Being changed into a
mere man. In His humanity He retained the consciousness of deity, and in His incarnate state carried out the mind which animated Him before His incarnation. He was
not unable to assert equality with God. He was able not to assert it.

Form of a servant (morfhlou). The same word for form as in the phrase form of God, and with the same sense. The mode of expression of a slave's being is indeed
apprehensible, and is associated with human shape, but it is not this side of the fact which Paul is developing. It is that Christ assumed that mode of being which
answered
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the contrast with counted not equality with God, etc. What Christ grasped at in His incarnation was not divine sovereignty, but service.

Was made in the likeness of men (ejn oJmoiw>mati ajnqrw>pwn geno>menov). Lit., becoming in, etc. Notice the choice of the verb, not was, but became: entered
not unable to assert equality with God. He was able not to assert it.

Form of a servant (morfhlou). The same word for form as in the phrase form of God, and with the same sense. The mode of expression of a slave's being is indeed
apprehensible, and is associated with human shape, but it is not this side of the fact which Paul is developing. It is that Christ assumed that mode of being which
answered to, and was the complete and characteristic expression of, the slave's being. The mode itself is not defined. This is appropriately inserted here as bringing out
the contrast with counted not equality with God, etc. What Christ grasped at in His incarnation was not divine sovereignty, but service.

Was made in the likeness of men (ejn oJmoiw>mati ajnqrw>pwn geno>menov). Lit., becoming in, etc. Notice the choice of the verb, not was, but became: entered
into a new state. Likeness. The word does not imply the reality of our Lord's humanity, morfh> form implied the reality of His deity. That fact is stated in the form of a
servant. Neither is eijkw>n image employed, which, for our purposes, implies substantially the same as morfh>. See on Colossians 1:15. As form of a servant exhibits
the inmost reality of Christ's condition as a servant - that He became really and essentially the servant of men (Luke 22:27) - so likeness of men expresses the fact that
His mode of manifestation resembled what men are. This leaves room for the assumption of another side of His nature - the divine - in the likeness of which He did not
appear. As He appealed to men, He was like themselves, with a real likeness; but this likeness to men did not express His whole self. The totality of His being could not
appear to men, for that involved the form of God. Hence the apostle views Him solely as He could appear to men. All that was possible was a real and complete
likeness to humanity. What He was essentially and eternally could not enter into His human mode of existence. Humanly He was like men, but regarded with reference
to His whole self, He was not identical with man, because there was an element of His personality which did not dwell in them - equality with God. Hence the statement
of His human manifestation is necessarily limited by this fact, and is confined to likeness and does not extend to identity. "To affirm likeness is at once to assert similarity
and to deny sameness" (Dickson). See on Romans 8:3.

8. Being found in fashion as a man (sch>mati euJreqei). Some expositors connect these words with the preceding clause, thus: being made in the likeness of men and
being found in fashion as a man; a new sentence beginning with He humbled Himself. The general sense is not altered by this change, and there is great force in Meyer's
remark that the preceding thought, in the likeness of men, is thus "emphatically exhausted." On the other hand, it breaks the connection with the following sentence,
which thus enters very abruptly. Notice being found. After He had assumed the conditions of humanity, and men's attention was drawn to Him, they found Him like a
man. Compare Isaiah 53:2. "If we looked at Him, there was no sightliness that we should delight in Him."

Fashion (sch>mati). That which is purely outward and appeals to the senses. The form of a servant is concerned with the fact that the manifestation as a servant
corresponded with the real fact that Christ came as the servant of mankind. In the phrase in the likeness of men the thought is still linked with that of His essential nature
which rendered possible a likeness to men, but not an absolute identity with men. In being found in fashion as a man the thought is confined to the outward guise as it
appealed to the sense of mankind. Likeness states the fact of real resemblance to men in mode of existence: fashion defines the outward mode and form. As a man.
Not being found a man not what He was recognized to be, but as a man, keeping up the idea of semblance expressed in likeness.

He humbled Himself (ejtapei>nwsen eJauto>n). Not the same as emptied Himself, ver. 7. It defines that word, showing how the self-emptying manifests itself.

Became obedient unto death (geno>menov - me>cri). Became, compare Revelation 1:18. Unto. The Rev. very judiciously inserts even; for the A.V. is open to the
interpretation that Christ rendered obedience to death. Unto is up to the point of. Christ's obedience to God was rendered to the extent of laying down His life.

Of the cross. Forming a climax of humiliation. He submitted not only to death, but to the death of a malefactor. The Mosaic law had uttered a curse against it,
Deuteronomy 21:23 and the Gentiles reserved it for malefactors and slaves. Hence the shame associated with the cross, Hebrews 12:2. This was the offense or
stumbling-block of the cross, which was so often urged by the Jews against the Christians. See on Galatians 3:13. To a Greek, accustomed to clothe his divinities with
every outward attribute of grace and beauty, the summons to worship a crucified malefactor appealed as foolishness, 1 Corinthians 1:23.

9. Wherefore (dio>). In consequence of this humiliation.

Hath highly exalted (uJperu>ywsen). Lit., exalted above. Compare Matthew 23:12.

Hath given (ejcari>sato). Freely bestowed, even as Jesus freely offered Himself to humiliation:

A name. Rev., correctly, the name. This expression is differently explained: either the particular name given to Christ, as Jesus or Lord; or name is taken in the sense of
dignity or glory, which is a common Old-Testament usage, and occurs in Ephesians 1:21; Hebrews 1:4. Under the former explanation a variety of names are proposed,
as Son of God, Lord, God, Christ Jesus. The sense of the personal name Jesus seems to meet all the conditions, and the personal sense is the simpler, since Jesus
occurs immediately after with the word name, and again Jesus Christ in ver. 11. The name Jesus was bestowed on Christ at the beginning of His humiliation, but
prophetically as the One who should save His people from their sins, Matthew 1:21. It was the personal name of others besides; but if that is an objection here, it is
equally an objection in ver. 10. The dignity is expressed by above every name. He bears the name in His glory. See Acts 9:5. See on Matthew 1:21.

10. At the name of Jesus (ejn tw|~ ojno>mati). Rev., better, in the name. The name means here the personal name; but as including all that is involved in the name. See
on Matthew 28:19. Hence the salutation is not at the name of Jesus, as by bowing when the name is uttered, but, as Ellicott rightly says: "the spiritual sphere, the holy
element as it were, in which every prayer is to be offered and every knee to bow." Compare Ephesians 5:20.

Things in heaven, etc. Compare Revelation 5:13; Ephesians 1:20, 22. The words may apply either to all intelligent beings or to all things. The latter is in accord with
Paul's treatment of the creation collectively in Romans 8:19-22 and with the Old-Testament passages, in which all nature is represented as praising God, as Psalms
148; 65:13.

11. Confess (ejxomologh>setai). See on Matthew 3:6; thank, Matthew 11:25; Romans 14:11. The verb may also be rendered thank, as Matthew 11:25; Luke 10:21
that meaning growing out of the sense of open, joyful acknowledgment. The sense here is that of frank, open confession. 180

To the glory, etc. Connect with confess.

12. Not as in my presence only. Connect with work out, not with obeyed. Do not work out your salvation as though impelled to action by my presence merely.

Much more. Than if I were present; for in my absence even greater zeal and care are necessary.

Work out your own salvation (than katerga>zasqe). Carry out "to the goal" (Bengel). Complete. See on Romans 7:8. Your own salvation. There is a saving work
which God only can do for you; but there is also a work which you must do for yourselves. The work of your salvation is not completed in God's work in you. God's
work must be carried out by yourselves. "Whatever rest is provided by Christianity for the children of God, it is certainly never contemplated that it should supersede
personal effort. And any rest which ministers to indifference is immoral and unreal - it makes parasites and not men. Just because God worketh in him, as the evidence
and triumph of it, the true child of God works out his own salvation - works it out having really received it - not as a light thing, a superfluous labor, but with fear and
trembling as a reasonable and indispensable service" (Drummond, "Natural Law in the Spiritual World," p. 335). Human agency is included in God's completed work.
In the saving(c)work
 Copyright           of grace Infobase
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                                        Media     moral power to work. Compare Romans 6:8-13; 2 Corinthians 6:1. Believe as if you had no power.
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had no God.

Fear and trembling. Compare 2 Corinthians 7:15; Ephesians 6:5. Not slavish terror, but wholesome, serious caution. "This fear is self-distrust; it is tenderness of
work must be carried out by yourselves. "Whatever rest is provided by Christianity for the children of God, it is certainly never contemplated that it should supersede
personal effort. And any rest which ministers to indifference is immoral and unreal - it makes parasites and not men. Just because God worketh in him, as the evidence
and triumph of it, the true child of God works out his own salvation - works it out having really received it - not as a light thing, a superfluous labor, but with fear and
trembling as a reasonable and indispensable service" (Drummond, "Natural Law in the Spiritual World," p. 335). Human agency is included in God's completed work.
In the saving work of grace God imparts a new moral power to work. Compare Romans 6:8-13; 2 Corinthians 6:1. Believe as if you had no power. Work as if you
had no God.

Fear and trembling. Compare 2 Corinthians 7:15; Ephesians 6:5. Not slavish terror, but wholesome, serious caution. "This fear is self-distrust; it is tenderness of
conscience; it is vigilance against temptation; it is the fear which inspiration opposes to high-mindedness in the admonition 'be not highminded but fear.' It is taking heed
lest we fall; it is a constant apprehension of the deceitfulness of the heart, and of the insidiousness and power of inward corruption. It is the caution and circumspection
which timidly shrinks from whatever would offend and dishonor God and the Savior. And these the child of God will feel and exercise the more he rises above the
enfeebling, disheartening, distressing influence of the fear which hath torment. Well might Solomon say of such fear, 'happy is the man that feareth alway'" (Wardlaw
"On Proverbs," 28:14). Compare 1 Peter 1:17.

13. For it is God which worketh in you. Completing and guarding the previous statement. In you, not among you. Worketh (ejnergw~n). See on Mark 6:14; James
5:16. The verb means effectual working. In the active voice, to be at work. In the middle voice, as here (used only by James and Paul, and only of things), to display
one's activity; show one's self-operative. Compare Ephesians 3:20.

To will and to do (tolein kai). Lit., the willing and the doing. Both are from God, and are of one piece, so that he who wills inevitably does. The willing which is wrought
by God, by its own nature and pressure, works out into action. "We will, but God works the will in us. We work, therefore, but God works the working in
us" (Augustine). For to do, Rev. substitutes to work, thus preserving the harmony in the Greek between "God which worketh" and "to work."

Of His good pleasure (uJpeav). Rev., better, for His, etc. Lit., for the sake of; in order to subserve. See 1 Timothy 2:4.

14. Murmurings (goggusmw~n). See on Jude 1:16; John 6:41. Compare 1 Corinthians 10:10.

Disputings (dialogismw~n). See on Mark 7:21. It is doubtful whether disputings is a legitimate meaning. The kindred verb dialogi>zomai is invariably used in the sense
of to reason or discuss, either with another or in one's own mind, Matthew 16:7; 21:25; Mark 2:6; Luke 12:17. The noun is sometimes rendered thoughts, as Matthew
15:19; Mark 7:21; but with the same idea underlying it, of a suspicion or doubt, causing inward discussion. See 1 Timothy 2:8. Better here questionings or doubtings.
See on Romans 14:1. The murmuring is the moral, the doubting the intellectual rebellion against God.

15. May be - harmless (ge>nhsqe - ajke>raioi). May be is rather may prove or show yourselves to be. Harmless, lit., unmixed. See on Matthew 10:16. Better,
guileless. Blameless in the sight of others, guileless in your own hearts.

Sons of God (te>kna). Rev., better, children. See on John 1:12. Compare Deuteronomy 32:5.

Without rebuke (a]mwma). Rev., correctly, without blemish. See on Colossians 1:22. The word is epexegetical of the two preceding epithets, unblemished in reputation
and in reality.

Crooked and perverse (skoli>av - diestramme>nhv). Crooked, see on untoward, Acts 2:40; froward, 1 Peter 2:18. Perverse, lit., warped, twisted. See on Matthew
17:17; Luke 23:14.

Ye shine (fai>nesqe). Rev., more correctly, ye are seen. Compare Matthew 24:27; Revelation 18:23 A.V., where the same error occurs. Shine would require the verb
in the active voice, as John 1:5; 5:35.

Lights (fwsth~rev). Only here and Revelation 21:11 see note. Properly, luminaries. So Rev., in margin. Generally of the heavenly bodies. See Genesis 1:14, 16 Sept.

In the world. Connect with ye are seen, not with luminaries. The world, not only material, but moral. For the moral sense of ko>smov world, see on John 1:9.

16. Holding forth (ejpe>contev). The verb means literally to hold upon or apply. Hence to fix attention upon, as Luke 14:7; Acts 3:5; 1 Timothy 4:16. In Acts
19:22stayed: where the idea at bottom is the same - kept to. So in Sept., Job 27:8 of setting the heart on gain. Job 30:26"fixed my mind on good." In Genesis 8:10 of
Noah waiting. In classical Greek, to hold out, present, as to offer wine to a guest or the breast to an infant. Also to stop, keep down, confine, cease. Here in the sense
of presenting or offering, as A.V. and Rev. holding forth.

That I may rejoice (eijv kau>chma ejmoiLit., for a cause of glorying unto me.

In the day of Christ (eijv hJme>ran Cristou~). Lit., against the day, as Philippians 1:10. The phrase day of Christ is peculiar to this epistle. The usual expression is day
of the Lord.

Have not run (oujk e]dramon). Rev., better, did not run. Aorist tense. Ignatius writes to Polycarp to ordain some one "beloved and unwearied, who may be styled
God's courier" (qeodro>mov. To Polycarp, 7.).

17. I am offered (spe>ndomai). Lit., I am poured out as a libation. The figure is that of a sacrifice, in which the Philippians are the priests, offering their faith to God,
and Paul's life is the libation poured out at this offering. Compare 2 Corinthians 12:15; 2 Timothy 4:6. Ignatius: "Brethren, I am lavishly poured out in love for
you" (Philadelphia, 5.).

Upon the sacrifice, etc. (ejpi>). The image is probably drawn from heathen rather than from Jewish sacrifices, since Paul was writing to converted heathen. According
to Josephus, the Jewish libation was poured round and not upon the altar; but the preposition ejpi> used here, was also used to describe it. At all events, ejpi> may be
rendered at, which would suit either.

Sacrifice and service (qusi>a| kaia|). Sacrifice, as uniformly in the New Testament, the thing sacrificed. Service, see on ministration, Luke 1:23 and ministered, Acts
13:2. In the Old Testament, used habitually of the ministry of priests and Levites; also of Samuel's service to God; 1 Samuel 2:18; 3:1. Of service to men, 1 Kings 1:4,
15. In the apostolic writings this and its kindred words are used of services to both God and man. See Romans 13:6; 15:16; Luke 1:23; Romans 15:27; 2 Corinthians
9:12; Philippians 2:25.

Of your faith. Offered by you as a sacrifice to God.

Rejoice with(c)
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20. Like minded (ijso>yucon) Only here in the New Testament. With Paul himself, not Timothy.
9:12; Philippians 2:25.

Of your faith. Offered by you as a sacrifice to God.

Rejoice with (sugcai>rw). There seems to be no sufficient reason for rendering congratulate.

20. Like minded (ijso>yucon) Only here in the New Testament. With Paul himself, not Timothy.

Who (o[stiv). Double relative, classifying: such that he.

Naturally (ynhsi>wv). Rev., truly. The adverb only here in the New Testament. The kindred adjective gnh>siov true, own, occurs 1 Timothy 1:2; Titus 1:4; 2
Corinthians 8:8 (see note).

21. All (oij pa>ntev). The all; that is, one and all. The expression, however, must have limitations, since it cannot include those spoken of in Philippians 1:14, 17. It
probably means, all except Timothy, that he has at his disposal of those who would naturally be selected for such an office.

22. In the Gospel (eijv tolion). In furtherance of, as Philippians 1:5. So Rev.

23. I shall see (ajfi>dw). The compounded preposition ajpo> gives the sense of looking away from the present condition of affairs to what is going to turn out.

25. Epaphroditus. Mentioned only in this epistle. See on Epaphras, Philemon 1:23. The name is derived from Aphrodite (Venus), and means charming.

Messenger (ajpo>stolon). The same word as apostle, one sent with a commission.

He that ministered (leitourgo). Kindred with leitourgi>a service, in ver. 17. Rev., minister.

26. Was full of heaviness (h+n ajdhmonw~n). Rev., was sore troubled. Used of Christ in Gethsemane, Matthew 26:27.

27. Sorrow upon sorrow (lu>phn ejpiphn). The accusative implies motion. Sorrow coming upon sorrow, as wave after wave.

30. The work of Christ. The text varies: some reading work of the Lord, and others the work absolutely. If the latter, the meaning is labor for the Gospel; compare
Acts 15:38. If the Lord or Christ, the reference may be to the special service of Epaphroditus in bringing the contribution of the Philippians.

Not regarding his life (parabouleusa>menov th|~ yuch|~). The correct reading is paraboleusa>menov, meaning to venture, to expose one's self. It was also a gambler's
word, to throw down a stake. Hence Paul says that Epaphroditus recklessly exposed his life. Rev., hazarding. The brotherhoods of the ancient Church, who cared for
the sick at the risk of their lives, were called parabolani, 181 or reckless persons.

Your lack of service (torhma leitourgi>av). An unfortunate rendering, since it might be taken to imply some neglect on the Philippians' part. Rev., that which was lacking
in your service. The expression is complimentary and affectionate, to the effect that all that was wanting in the matter of their service was their ministration in person,
which was supplied by Epaphroditus.

CHAPTER 3

1. Finally (ton). Lit., for the rest. Frequent in Paul's writings in introducing the conclusions of his letters. See 1 Thessalonians 4:1; 2 Thessalonians 3:1; 2 Corinthians
13:11 note. Evidently Paul was about to close his letter, when his thought was directed into another channel - the Judaizing teachers, and their attempts to undermine his
influence.

Rejoice (cai>rete). See on 2 Corinthians 13:11.

The same things. It is doubtful what is referred to. Possibly previous letters, or the dissensions in the Church.

Grievous (ojknhro>n). Only here, Matthew 25:26; Romans 12:11 in both instances rendered slothful. From ojkne>w to delay. Hence, in classical Greek, shrinking,
backward, unready. The idea of delay underlies the secondary sense, burdensome, troublesome. It is the vexation arising from weary waiting, and which appears in the
middle English irken to tire or to become tired, cognate with the Latin urgere to press, and English irk, irksome, work.

2. Beware (ble>pete). Lit., look to. Compare Mark 4:24; 8:15; Luke 21:8.

Dogs. Rev., correctly, the dogs, referring to a well-known party - the Judaizers. These were nominally Christians who accepted Jesus as the Messiah, but as the Savior
of Israel only. They insisted that Christ's kingdom could be entered only through the gate of Judaism. Only circumcised converts were fully accepted by God. They
appeared quite early in the history of the Church, and are those referred to in Acts 15:1. Paul was the object of their special hatred and abuse. They challenged his
birth, his authority, and his motives. "'Paul must be destroyed,' was as truly their watchword as the cry for the destruction of Carthage had been of old to the Roman
senator" (Stanley, "Sermons and Lectures on the Apostolic Age"). These are referred to in ch. 1:16; and the whole passage in the present chapter, from ver. 3 to ver.
11, is worthy of study, being full of incidental hints lurking in single words, and not always apparent in our versions; hints which, while they illustrate the main point of the
discussion, are also aimed at the assertions of the Judaizers. Dogs was a term of reproach among both Greeks and Jews. Homer uses it of both women and men,
implying shamelessness in the one, and recklessness in the other. Thus Helen: "Brother-in-law of me, a mischief devising dog" ("Iliad," vi., 344). Teucer of Hector: "I
cannot hit this raging dog" ("Iliad," viii., 298). Dr. Thomson says of the dogs in oriental towns: "They lie about the streets in such numbers as to render it difficult and
often dangerous to pick one's way over and amongst them - a lean, hungry, and sinister brood. They have no owners, but upon some principle known only to
themselves, they combine into gangs, each of which assumes jurisdiction over a particular street; and they attack with the utmost ferocity all canine intruders into their
territory. In those contests, and especially during the night, they keep up an incessant barking and howling, such as is rarely heard in any European city. The
imprecations of David upon his enemies derive their significance, therefore, from this reference to one of the most odious of oriental annoyances" ("Land and Book,"
Central palestine and Phoenicia, 593). See Psalms 59:6; 22:16. Being unclean animals, dogs were used to denote what was unholy or profane. So Matthew 7:6;
Revelation 22:15. The Israelites are forbidden in Deuteronomy to bring the price of a dog into the house of God for any vow: Deuteronomy 23:18. The Gentiles of the
Christian era were denominated "dogs" by the Jews, see Matthew 15:26. Paul here retorts upon them their own epithet.

Evil workers. Compare deceitful workers, 2 Corinthians 11:13.

Concision (katatomh>n). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred verb occurs in the Septuagint only, of mutilations forbidden by the Mosaic law. See Leviticus
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                               upon peritomh>                                                                                                       Page
                                              circumcision. It means mutilation. Paul bitterly characterizes those who were not of the true circumcision     145 / 2:28,
                                                                                                                                                         (Romans    567
29; Colossians 2:11; Ephesians 2:11) as merely mutilated. Compare Galatians 5:12 where he uses ajpoko>ptein to cut off, of those who would impose circumcision
upon the Christian converts: "I would they would cut themselves off who trouble you;" that is, not merely circumcise, but mutilate themselves like the priests of Cybele.
Evil workers. Compare deceitful workers, 2 Corinthians 11:13.

Concision (katatomh>n). Only here in the New Testament. The kindred verb occurs in the Septuagint only, of mutilations forbidden by the Mosaic law. See Leviticus
21:5. The noun here is a play upon peritomh> circumcision. It means mutilation. Paul bitterly characterizes those who were not of the true circumcision (Romans 2:28,
29; Colossians 2:11; Ephesians 2:11) as merely mutilated. Compare Galatians 5:12 where he uses ajpoko>ptein to cut off, of those who would impose circumcision
upon the Christian converts: "I would they would cut themselves off who trouble you;" that is, not merely circumcise, but mutilate themselves like the priests of Cybele.

3. The circumcision. The abstract term for those who are circumcised. In the Old Testament, circumcision was a metaphor for purity. See Leviticus 26:41;
Deuteronomy 10:16; 30:6; Ezekiel 44:7 etc.

Worship God in the spirit (pneu>mati Qew|~ latreu>ontev). The correct reading is qeou~ of God. Render, as Rev., worship by the Spirit of God. Worship. See on
Revelation 22:3. Paul uses the Jews' word which denoted their own service of Jehovah as His peculiar people. Compare Acts 26:7. A Jew would be scandalized by
the application of this term to Christian worship.

Rejoice in Christ Jesus (kaucw>menoi). Rev., better, glory. Compare Jeremiah 9:23, 24 and 1 Corinthians 1:31; 2 Corinthians 10:17.

In the flesh. External privileges of every kind.

4. Though I might also have confidence (kai>per ejgwqhsin). Lit., even though myself having confidence. Also should be joined with the flesh and rendered even. Rev.,
though I myself might have confidence even in the flesh. The sense of the translation might have is correct; but Paul puts it that he actually has confidence in the flesh,
placing himself at the Jews' stand-point.

Thinketh that he hath whereof he might trust (dokei~ pepoiqe>nai). The A.V. is needlessly verbose. Rev., much better, thinketh to have confidence.

5. Circumcised the eighth day (peritomh|~ ojktah>merov). Lit., eight days old in circumcision; or passing the eighth day. For the idiom, see on John 11:39 and compare
Acts 28:13. Converts to Judaism were circumcised in maturity: Ishmaelites in their thirteenth year. He was thus shown to be neither a heathen nor an Ishmaelite.

Of the stock of Israel. Not a proselyte, but of the original stock (ge>nouv); not grafted into the covenant race. A descendant of Jacob, not an Idumaean nor an
Ishmaelite. For Israel, see on Acts 3:12 and compare Romans 9:4; 11:1; John 1:47. Descended not from Jacob, the supplanter, but from Israel, the prince of God. See
Genesis 32:28.

Of the tribe of Benjamin. Not from one of the lost tribes, but from that which gave to Israel its first king; which alone was faithful to Judah at the separation under
Rehoboam, and which had always held the post of honor in the army. See Judges 5:14; Hosea 5:8. Benjamin only of the twelve patriarchs was born in the land of
promise. Mordecai, the deliverer of the Jews from Haman was a Benjamite. Paul's own original name, Saul, was probably derived from Saul the son of Kish, the
Benjamite.

A Hebrew of the Hebrews (*~ov ejx *>wn). The (Hebrews) of the A.V. gives a wrong coloring to the phrase, as if Paul were claiming to be preeminently a Hebrew
among other Hebrews He means a Hebrew from (ejx) Hebrew parents. Rev., a Hebrew of Hebrews, which is no special improvement. The expression implies
characteristics of language and manners. He might be an Israelite and yet a child of Greek-speaking Jews: but his parents had retained their native tongue and customs,
and he himself, while understanding and speaking Greek, also spoke in Hebrew on occasion. See Acts 21:40; 22:2.

The law. The Mosaic law. See on Romans 2:12. The validity of that law was the principle upheld by the Judaizers.

A Pharisee. See Acts 23:6; Galatians 1:14. Compare on the whole verse, 2 Corinthians 11:22.

6. Zeal. Ironical.

Blameless (geno>menov a]memptov). The A.V. does not render the participle, proven or found. Rev., correctly, found blameless.

7. What things (a[tina). The double relative classifies; things which came under the category of gain. Compare Galatians 4:24; Colossians 2:23.

Gain (ke>rdh). Lit., gains. So Rev., in margin, and better. The various items of privilege are regarded separately.

I counted loss (h[ghmai zhmi>an). Better, as Rev., have counted. The perfect tense implies that he still counts them as loss. See on ver. 8. Notice the singular number
loss, and the plural gains. The various gains are all counted as one loss.

8. Yea doubtless (ajlla). but, ver. 7, puts that verse in direct contrast with the preceding verse. yea or verily, in this verse affirms more than the preceding statement,
while ou+n therefore (not rendered), collects and concludes from what has been previously said: Yea verily therefore.

All things. An advance on those (things) of ver. 7.

For the excellency, etc. (dia). On account of: because the knowledge of Christ is so much greater than all things else.

I have suffered the loss (ejzhmiw>qhn). Rev., better, I suffered; when I embraced Christianity. Lit., was mulcted. See on Matthew 16:26 and cast away, Luke 9:25.

All things (tanta). Collectively. All things mentioned in vers. 5-7.

Dung (sku>bala). Rev., refuse. Either excrement or what is thrown away from the table; leavings. The derivation is uncertain. According to some it is a contraction from
ejv ku>nav ba>llw to throw to the dogs. See on filth, 1 Corinthians 4:13. Notice the repetition of gain, count, loss, all things, Christ.

Win (kerdh>sw). Rev., better, gain, corresponding with gain, ver. 7.

9. Be found (euJreqw~). Discovered or proved to be. See on Phillippians 2:8. Compare Romans 7:10; Galatians 2:17.

Mine own righteousness (ejmhnhn). Rev., correctly, a righteousness of mine own. The A.V. would require the article with ejmh mine, and assumes the existence of a
personal righteousness; whereas Paul says, not having any righteousness which can be called mine.
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alone could be personal, viz., righteousness consisting in the strict fulfillment of the law.
Mine own righteousness (ejmhnhn). Rev., correctly, a righteousness of mine own. The A.V. would require the article with ejmh mine, and assumes the existence of a
personal righteousness; whereas Paul says, not having any righteousness which can be called mine.

Which is of the law (thmou). Rev., better, even that which is of the law; thus bringing out the force of the article which defines the character of that righteousness which
alone could be personal, viz., righteousness consisting in the strict fulfillment of the law.

Through the faith of Christ (diastewv Cristou~). Rev., better, through faith in Christ. Faith as opposed to the law. The change of prepositions, through (dia) faith, and of
(ejk) the law, as turning on the distinction between faith represented as the medium, and the law as the source of justification, cannot be insisted upon as a rule, since
both the prepositions are used with faith, as in Galatians 2:16. Compare Romans 3:30; 5:1.

Of God. Contrasted with my own.

By faith (ejpi). Resting upon faith, or on the condition of. Compare Acts 3:16.

10. That I may know Him (tou~ gnw~nai aujto). Know is taken up from knowledge, ver. 8, and is joined with be found in Him, qualified by not having, etc. That I may
be found in Him not having, etc., but having the righteousness which is of God so as to know him, etc.

The power of His resurrection (thnamin th~v ajnasta>sewv aujtou~). Power of His resurrection and fellowship of His sufferings furnish two specific points further
defining the knowledge of Him. By the power of Christ's resurrection is meant the power which it exerts over believers. Here, more especially, according to the
context, in assuring their present justification, and its outcome in their final glorification. See Romans 4:24, 25; 8:11, 30; 1 Corinthians 15:17; Colossians 3:4; Philippians
3:21.

Fellowship of His sufferings. Participation in Christ's sufferings. See Matthew 20:22, 23; and on Colossians 1:24. Compare 2 Corinthians 1:5; 1 Peter 4:13. Faith
makes a believer one with a suffering Christ.

Being made conformable (summorfizo>menov). Explaining the previous clause: by my becoming conformed, etc. Rev., becoming conformed. Compare 2 Corinthians
4:10; Romans 6:5. For conformed see on Matthew 17:2 and on form, Phillippians 2:6. The most radical conformity is thus indicated: not merely undergoing physical
death like Christ, but conformity to the spirit and temper, the meekness and submissiveness of Christ; to His unselfish love and devotion, and His anguish over human
sin.

11. If by any means (ei] pwv). For the form of expression compare Romans 1:10; 11:14. Not an expression of doubt, but of humility.

I might attain (katanth>sw). See on Acts 26:7.

The resurrection of the dead (thstasin th). Rev., more correctly, from the dead. Lit., the resurrection, that, namely, from the dead. Compare Acts 4:2. This compound
noun for resurrection is found only here, and expresses the rising from or from among (ejx), which is further emphasized by the repetition of the preposition ejk (from).
The kindred compound verb occurs Mark 12:19; Luke 20:28; Acts 15:5 but in neither passage of raising the dead. The word here does not differ in meaning from
ajna>stasiv, commonly used, except that the idea is more vividly conceived as a rising from the earth. See Matthew 22:31; Luke 20:35. The phrase resurrection of or
from the dead does not often occur in the Gospels, and resurrection ejk from the dead only twice in the New Testament, Acts 4:2; 1 Peter 1:3. For the phrase, see on
Luke 16:31. Resurrection of the dead is a generic phrase, denoting the general resurrection of the dead, bad and good. Resurrection from the dead, in the only two
passages where it occurs, signifies resurrection unto life. In 1 Peter 1:3 it is applied to Christ.

12. Not as though (oujc o[ti). Lit., not that, as Rev. By this I do not mean to say that. For similar usage, see John 7:22; 2 Corinthians 1:24; Philippians 4:17.

Had attained - were perfect (e]labon - tetelei>wmai). Rev., have attained, am made perfect. There is a change of tenses which may be intentional; the aorist attained
pointing to the definite period of his conversion, the perfect, am made perfect, referring to his present state. Neither when I became Christ's did I attain, nor, up to this
time, have I been perfected. With attained supply the prize from ver. 14. Rev., am made perfect, is preferable, as preserving the passive form of the verb.

I follow after (diw>kw). Rev., better, press on. The A.V. gives the sense of chasing; whereas the apostle's meaning is the pressing toward a fixed point. The continuous
present would be better, I am pressing.

May apprehend (katala>bw) American Rev., lay hold on. Neither A.V. nor Rev. give the force of kai also; if I may also apprehend as well as pursue. For the verb, see
on John 1:5.

For which also I am apprehended. Rev., correctly, was apprehended. American Rev., laid hold on. Paul's meaning is, "I would grasp that for which Christ grasped me.
Paul's conversion was literally of the nature of a seizure. That for which Christ laid hold of him was indeed his mission to the Gentiles, but it was also his personal
salvation, and it is of this that the context treats. Some render, seeing that also I was apprehended. Rev., in margin.

13. Myself. As others count themselves.

14. One thing. I do is supplied. Some supply I count, which is less appropriate, since what follows is concerned with action rather than with thinking or reckoning.

Reaching forth (ejpekteino>menov). Only here in the New Testament. > direction, after; ejk forth; tei>nw to stretch. Rev., stretching forward. The metaphor is that of
the footrace. Bengel says: "The eye outstrips and draws onward the hand, and the hand the foot."

15. Toward the mark (kata). Rev., goal. Bear down upon (kata>). Skopo>v mark, only here in the New Testament. See on look, Phillippians 2:4. Used in the classics
of a mark for shooting at, or as a moral or intellectual end. A somewhat similar figure occurs 1 Timothy 1:6; 6:21; 2 Timothy 2:18 in the verb ajstoce>w to miss the aim
or the shot. A.V., swerved and erred.

Prize (brabei~on). See on 1 Corinthians 9:24. Ignatius uses the word qe>ma that which is deposited as a prize: a prize of money as distinct from the crown. "Be
temperate as God's athlete. The prize is incorruption and eternal life" (to Polycarp, 2.). Chrysostom says: "He that runs looks not at the spectators, but at the prize.
Whether they be rich or poor, if one mock them, applaud them, insult them, throw stones at them - if one plunder their house, if they see children or wife or anything
whatsoever - the runner is not turned aside, but is concerned only with his running and winning the prize. He that runneth stoppeth nowhere; since, if he be a little
remiss, all is lost. He that runneth relaxeth in no respect before the end, but then, most of all, stretcheth over the course."

High calling (a]nw klh>sewv). Lit., upward calling. A calling which is from heaven and to heaven. Klh~siv calling, is habitually used in the New Testament of the act of
calling. Compare
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15. Perfect (te>leioi). Mature Christians. See On 1 Corinthians 2:6.
remiss, all is lost. He that runneth relaxeth in no respect before the end, but then, most of all, stretcheth over the course."

High calling (a]nw klh>sewv). Lit., upward calling. A calling which is from heaven and to heaven. Klh~siv calling, is habitually used in the New Testament of the act of
calling. Compare Hebrews 3:1. The prize is bound up with the calling; promised when the call is issued, and given when the call is fulfilled.

15. Perfect (te>leioi). Mature Christians. See On 1 Corinthians 2:6.

Be thus minded. Lit., think this, or have this mind, namely, to forget the past and to press forward.

16. Nevertheless. Rev., only. Notwithstanding the minor points in which you may be otherwise minded.

Whereto we have already attained (eijv o{ ejfqa>samen). Whatever real christian and moral attainment you may have made, let that serve as a rule for your further
advance. The character of this standard of attainment is illustrated by the words in ver. 15, be thus minded, and by those in ver. 17, as ye have us for an example. The
individual variations are not considered. He regards rather the collective development, and assumes the essentials of christian attainment on the part of his readers. For
attained, see on we are come, 2 Corinthians 10:14.

Let us walk by the same rule (tw|~ aujtw|~ stoicei~n) The idea of a regulative standard is implied, but rule kano>ni must be omitted from the Greek text. Rev. brings
out the antithesis better: whereunto we have already attained, by that same rule let us walk. Omit let us mind the same thing.

17. Followers together of me (summimhtai> mou). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., more correctly, imitators. Compare 1 Corinthians 11:1. Not imitators of
Christ in common with me, but be together, jointly, imitators of me.

Mark (skopei~te). See on looking, Philippians 2:4.

So as (ou[twv kaqw). Rev., "which so walk even as ye have," etc. The two words are correlative. Briefly, imitate me and those who follow my example.

18. Many walk. No word is supplied describing the character of their walk; but this is brought out by enemies of the cross of Christ, and in the details of ver. 19. The
persons alluded to were probably those of Epicurean tendencies. This and Judaic formalism were the two prominent errors in the Philippian church.

19. Belly. Romans 16:18. So the Cyclops in Euripides: "My flocks which I sacrifice to no one but myself, and not to the gods, and to this my belly the greatest of the
gods: for to eat and drink each day, and to give one's self no trouble, this is the God for wise men" ("Cyclops," 334-338).

Glory. That which they esteem glory.

Earthly things (tageia). See on 2 Corinthians 5:1. Compare Colossians 3:2.

20. Conversation (pali>teuma). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., citizenship, commonwealth in margin. The rendering conversation, in the sense of manner of life
(see on 1 Peter 1:15), has no sufficient warrant; and that poli>teuma commonwealth, is used interchangeably with politei>a citizenship, is not beyond question.
Commonwealth gives a good and consistent sense. The state of which we are citizens is in heaven. See on Phillippians 1:27. Compare Plato: "That city of which we are
the founders, and which exists in idea only; for I do not believe that there is such an one anywhere on earth. In Heaven, I replied, there is laid up the pattern of it
methinks, which he who desires may behold, and beholding may settle himself there" ("Republic," 592).

Is in heaven (uJpa>rcei). The use of this word instead of ejsti is is peculiar. See on being, Philippians 2:6. It has a backward look. It exists now in heaven, having been
established there of old. Compare Hebrews 11:16; John 14:2.

We look for (ajpekdeco>meqa). Rev., wait for. See on 1 Corinthians 1:7. Used only by Paul, and in Hebrews 9:28. Compare Romans 8:19, 23, 25; Galatians 5:5. It
indicates earnest, patient waiting and expectation. As in ajpokaradokia earnest expectation, Philippians 1:20, the compounded preposition ajpo> denotes the
withdrawal of attention from inferior objects. The word is habitually used in the New Testament with reference to a future manifestation of the glory of Christ or of His
people.

The Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ (swth~ra). Savior has no article, and its emphatic position in the sentence indicates that it is to be taken predicatively with Jesus
Christ, and not as the direct object of the verb. Hence render: we await as Savior the Lord, etc. Compare Hebrews 9:28"To them that wait for Him will He appear a
second time unto salvation."

21. Shall change (metaschmati>sei). See on Matthew 17:2; 1 Corinthians 4:6; 11:13. Also on from, Philippians 2:6; and fashion, Philippians 2:8. The word thus
indicates a change in what is outward and shifting - the body. Rev., correctly, shall fashion anew. Refashion(?).

Our vile body (tosewv hJmw~n). Wrong. Render, as Rev., the body of our humiliation. See, for the vicious use of hendiadys in A.V., on Ephesians 1:19. Lightfoot
observes that the A.V. seems to countenance the stoic contempt of the body. Compare Colossians 1:22. The biographer of Archbishop Whately relates that, during his
last illness, one of his chaplains, watching, during the night at his bedside, in making some remark expressive of sympathy for his sufferings, quoted these words: "Who
shall change our vile body." The Archbishop interrupted him with the request "Read the words." The chaplain read them from the English Bible; but he reiterated, "Read
his own words." The chaplain gave the literal translation, "this body of our humiliation." "That's right, interrupted the Archbishop, "not vile - nothing that He made is vile."

That it may be fashioned like (eijv tosqai aujtommorfon). The words that it may be, or become, are omitted from the correct Greek text, so that the strict rendering is
the body of our humiliation conformed, etc. The words are, however, properly inserted in A.V. and Rev. for the sake of perspicuity. Rev., correctly, conformed for
fashioned like. Fashion belongs to the preceding verb. See on shall change The adjective conformed is compounded with morfh> form (see on Phillippians 2:6 and
made conformable, Phillippians 3:10). As the body of Christ's glory is a spiritual body, this word is appropriate to describe a conformation to what is more essential,
permanent, and characteristic. See 1 Corinthians 15:35-53.

His glorious body (tw|~ sw>mati th~v do>xhv aujtou~). Wrong. Rev., correctly, the body of His glory. The body in which He appears in His present glorified state.
See on Colossians 2:9.

The working whereby He is able (thrgeian tou~ du>nasqai). Lit., the energy of His being able. Du>nasqai expresses ability, faculty, natural ability, not necessarily
manifest. >rgeia is power in exercise, used only of superhuman power. See on John 1:12; 2 Peter 2:11. Hence, as Calvin remarks, "Paul notes not only the power of
God as it resides in Him, but the power as it puts itself into act." See Ephesians 1:19 where four of the six words for power are used.

Subdue (uJpota>xai). Rev., subject. See on James 4:7. It is more than merely subdue. It is to bring all things within His divine economy; to marshal them all under
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city, an organized commonwealth. The verb is thus in harmony with ver. 20. The work of God in Christ is therefore not only to transform, but to subject, and that not
only the body, but all things. See 1 Corinthians 15:25-27; Romans 8:19, 20; Ephesians 1:10, 21, 22; 4:10.
God as it resides in Him, but the power as it puts itself into act." See Ephesians 1:19 where four of the six words for power are used.

Subdue (uJpota>xai). Rev., subject. See on James 4:7. It is more than merely subdue. It is to bring all things within His divine economy; to marshal them all under
Himself in the new heaven and the new earth in which shall dwell righteousness. Hence the perfected heavenly state as depicted by John is thrown into the figure of a
city, an organized commonwealth. The verb is thus in harmony with ver. 20. The work of God in Christ is therefore not only to transform, but to subject, and that not
only the body, but all things. See 1 Corinthians 15:25-27; Romans 8:19, 20; Ephesians 1:10, 21, 22; 4:10.

CHAPTER 4

1. Longed for (ejpipo>qhtoi). Only here in the New Testament. Compare I long for you, Philippians 1:8; and for kindred words see 2 Corinthians 7:7; Romans 15:23.

Joy and crown (carafanov). Nearly the same phrase occurs 1 Thessalonians 2:19. The Philippian converts are his chaplet of victory, showing that he has not run in vain,
Phillippians 2:16. For crown, see on Revelation 4:4; 1 Peter 5:4.

So stand fast. As I have exhorted, and have borne myself in the conflict which you saw and heard to be in me, Philippians 1:30.

2. I beseech Euodias and beseech Syntyche (Eujwdi>an parakalw~ kaichn parakalw~). Euodias is incorrect, the name being feminine, Euodia. According to the Tex.
Rec., with the long o, the name means fragrance; but the correct reading is with the short o, the meaning being prosperous journey. Syntyche means happy chance.
These were prominent women in the Church, possibly deaconesses. The position of women in Macedonia was exceptional. In Greece, generally, their standing was
inferior. The Athenian law prescribed that everything that a man might do by the consent or request of a woman should be null in law. In Macedonia monuments were
erected to women by public bodies, and in Macedonian inscriptions records of male proper names are found formed on the mother's name instead of the father's.
Macedonian women were permitted to hold property. In the account of Paul's labors in Macedonia there are notices of the addition of women of rank to the church in
Thessalonica and Beroea. 182

For beseech, render exhort, and notice the repetition of that word with each name, making the exhortation individual and specific.

To be of the same mind (to). The same expression as in Philippians 2:2, see note. Compare Romans 12:16. The verb frone>w to be minded, occurs eleven times in this
epistle, and but seventeen times in the rest of the New Testament.

3. True yoke-fellow (gnh>sie su>nzuge). For true, see on naturally, Philippians 2:20. It is supposed by some that the word rendered yoke-fellow is a proper name,
Synzygus, and that true is to be explained as rightly so called. This explanation would be favored by the play upon the name Onesimus in the Epistle to Philemon, and is
not improbably correct. The name has not been found in inscriptions, as is the case with many of the names in these epistles, as, for instance, Euodia and Syntyche.
Some suppose that the chief of the bishops or superintendents at Philippi is thus addressed; but, in that case, the word would probably appear elsewhere in the New
Testament. Clement of Alexandria, assuming that Paul was married, thinks that he addresses his wife. Others suppose that Lydia is addressed. 183

Help (sullamba>nou). Lit., take hold with. Compare Luke 5:7. The verb is used of conception, Luke 1:24; arrest, Matthew 26:55; Acts 12:3; catching, as fish, Luke
5:9. Compare the compound sunantila>mbanomai help, Luke 10:40 (note); Romans 8:26.

Which labored with me (ai[tinev sunh>qlhsa>n moi). The double relative explains and classifies: for they belonged to the number of those who labored. Rev., for they
labored. Labored, lit., strove as athletes, as Philippians 1:27. Compare Sophocles: "These girls preserve me, these my nurses, these who are men, not women, in
laboring with me" ("Oedipus at Colonus," 1367-8).

Clement. Supposed by some to be Clement the Bishop of Rome. Origen identifies them, saying: "Clement to whom Paul bears Testimony in Philippians 4:3." So also
Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Jerome. Chrysostom speaks of Clement as the constant companion of Paul in all his travels. Irenaeus, on the contrary, who mentions him as
the pupil of an apostle, says nothing of his connection with Paul, by name, and would not have been likely to pass over this identity in silence had he been aware of it.
Clement was a member of the Roman church, and the name was a very common one. A Roman consul, Flavius Clemens, was sentenced to death by Domitian on
account of atheism, which was the common pagan designation of Christianity. The Roman catacombs furnish evidence that Christianity had penetrated into the Flavian
family, so that there may have been two prominent Christians in Rome of the same name. The identity of Clement of Rome with the Clement of this epistle has been
very generally abandoned. The latter was probably a Philippian.

Other (tw~n loipw~n). Rev., correctly, the rest.

Book of life. The phrase occurs seven times in Revelation. Compare Luke 10:20; Hebrews 12:23 and see on Revelation 3:5. The figure is founded on the register of
the covenant people. Isaiah 4:3; Ezekiel 13:9; Exodus 32:32; Psalms 69:28; Daniel 12:1. The phrase was also used by the Rabbins. Thus in the Targum 184 on Ezekiel
13:9: "In the book of eternal life which has been written for the just of the house of Israel, they shall not be written." God is described as "the king, sitting upon the
judgment-seat, with the books of the living and the books of the dead open before Him."

5. Rejoice. See on Philippians 1:4 and 2 Corinthians 13:11.

Moderation (to). Wrong. Rev., correctly, forbearance. See on gentle, 1 Peter 2:18.

The Lord is at hand. See on 1 Corinthians 16:22.

6. Be careful (merimna~te). See on Matthew 6:25. Rev., better, be anxious.

Prayer and supplication. General and special. See on Luke 5:33; 8:38. Proseuch> prayer, only of prayer to God. The two words often occur together, as Ephesians
6:18; 1 Timothy 2:1; 5:5.

Requests (aijth>mata). Specific details of supplication.

Unto God (pron). The force of pro>v is rather in your intercourse with God. See on with God, John 1:1.

7. Peace of God. As the antidote to anxiety, ver. 6.

Which passeth all understanding (hJ uJpere>cousa pa>nta nou~n). Either, which passes all power of comprehension, compare Ephesians 3:20; or, better, which
surpasses every (human) reason, in its power to relieve anxiety. Compare Matthew 6:31, 32. For understanding, see on Romans 7:23.
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Shall keep (frourh>sei). Lit., guard, as Rev., or mount guard over. God's peace, like a sentinel, patrols before the heart. Compare Tennyson:

"Love is and was my King and Lord,
7. Peace of God. As the antidote to anxiety, ver. 6.

Which passeth all understanding (hJ uJpere>cousa pa>nta nou~n). Either, which passes all power of comprehension, compare Ephesians 3:20; or, better, which
surpasses every (human) reason, in its power to relieve anxiety. Compare Matthew 6:31, 32. For understanding, see on Romans 7:23.

Shall keep (frourh>sei). Lit., guard, as Rev., or mount guard over. God's peace, like a sentinel, patrols before the heart. Compare Tennyson:

"Love is and was my King and Lord,

And will be, though as yet I keep

Within his court on earth, and sleep

Encompassed by his faithful guard,

And hear at times a sentinel

Who moves about from place to place,

And whispers to the worlds of space,

In the deep night, that all is well."

"In Memoriam."

Gurnall. a little differently: "The peace of God is said to garrison the believer's heart and mind. He is surrounded with such blessed privileges that he is as safe as one in
an impregnable castle" ("Christian in Complete Armor," p. 419).

Hearts - minds (kardi>av - noh>mata). For hearts, see on Romans 1:21. For minds, Rev., thoughts, on 2 Corinthians 3:14. The guardianship is over the source and the
issues of thought and will. "Your hearts and their fruits" (Alford).

8. Honest (semna). Rev., honorable, reverend in margin. In classical Greek an epithet of the gods, venerable, reverend. The word occurs only here and in the pastoral
epistles, 1 Timothy 3:8, 11; Titus 2:2 where it is rendered grave, both in A.V. and Rev. There lies in it the idea of a dignity or majesty which is yet inviting and attractive,
and which inspires reverence. Grave, as Trench observes, does not exhaust the meaning. Gravity may be ridiculous. "The word we want is one in which the sense of
gravity and dignity, and of these as inviting reverence, is combined." Ellicott's venerable is perhaps as near as any word, if venerable be divested of its modern
conventional sense as implying age, and confined to its original sense, worthy of reverence.

Pure (aJgna>). See on 1 John 3:3.

Lovely (prosfilh~). Only here in the New Testament. Adapted to excite love, and to endear him who does such things.

Of good report (eu]fhma). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., sounding well. The kindred verb is commonly used in an active sense. Hence not well spoken of, but
fairspeaking, and so winning, gracious (Rev., in margin).

Virtue (ajreth). With this exception the word occurs only in Peter's epistles; 1 Peter 2:9; 2 Peter 1:3, 5; see notes on both.

Praise (e]painov). Commendation corresponding to the moral value of the virtue. In the Septuagint, ajreth virtue is four times used to translate the Hebrew praise. The
two ideas seem to be coordinated. Lightfoot remarks that Paul seems studiously to avoid this common heathen term for moral excellence, and his explanation is very
suggestive: "Whatever value may reside in your old heathen conception of virtue, whatever consideration is due to the praise of men."

10. Your care of me hath flourished again (ajneqa>lete to). Lit., ye caused your thinking on my behalf to bloom anew. Rev., ye revived your thought for me. The verb
occurs only here in the New Testament. In the Septuagint it appears as both transitive and intransitive, to flourish, or to cause to flourish. Thus Psalms 27:7 where
Septuagint reads for my heart greatly rejoiceth, my flesh flourished (ajne>qalen); Ezekiel 17:24have made the dry tree to flourish.

Wherein. The matter of my wants and sufferings. Implied in your care of me.

Ye were careful (ejfronei~te). Rev., ye did take thought. Note the imperfect tense: ye were all along thoughtful.

11. Content (aujta>rkhv). Lit., self-sufficient. Only here in the New Testament. A stoic word, expressing the favorite doctrine of the sect, that man should be sufficient
to himself for all things; able, by the power of his own will, to resist the shock of circumstance. Paul is self-sufficient through the power of the new self: not he, but Christ
in him. The kindred noun aujtarkei>a sufficiency, occurs 2 Corinthians 9:8; 1 Timothy 6:6.

12. I am instructed (memu>hmai). Rev., have I learned the secret. The metaphor is from the initiatory rites of the pagan mysteries. I have been initiated. See on
Colossians 1:26.

To be full (corta>zesqai). See on Matthew 5:6.

13. I can do (ijscu>w). See on Luke 14:30.

Strengtheneth (ejndunamou~nti). More literally, infuses strength into me, as the old verb inforce.

14. Notwithstanding. Lest, in declaring his independence of human aid, he should seem to disparage the Philippians' gift.

15. When I departed from Macedonia. On his first European circuit, going by way of Athens to Corinth, where he was joined by Silvanus and Timothy, bringing a
contribution from Macedonia. Acts 18:5; 2 Corinthians 11:9.

16. Even in Thessalonica (kai). Better also: in addition to the contribution received at Corinth.
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18. I have (ajpe>cw). I have received in full. See on Matthew 6:2; Luke 6:24.

Odor of a sweet smell. See on 2 Corinthians 2:15, 16. Frequent in Septuagint, of the odor of sacrifices.
contribution from Macedonia. Acts 18:5; 2 Corinthians 11:9.

16. Even in Thessalonica (kai). Better also: in addition to the contribution received at Corinth.

18. I have (ajpe>cw). I have received in full. See on Matthew 6:2; Luke 6:24.

Odor of a sweet smell. See on 2 Corinthians 2:15, 16. Frequent in Septuagint, of the odor of sacrifices.

19. In glory. This is differently connected by expositors. Some with riches, as A.V. and Rev. Others with shall supply, but with different explanations, as, shall supply
your need with glory: in a glorious way: by placing you in glory. It is better to construe with shall supply, and to explain in glory as the element and instrument of the
supply. The need shall be supplied in glory and by glory; by placing you in glory where you shall be partakers of glory.

22. Of Caesar's household. Probably the slaves and freedmen attached to the palace.

THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS
CHAPTER 1

2. Colossae. The form of the name appears to have been both Kolossai and Kolassai, the former being probably the earlier.

The city was in Phrygia, in the valley of the Lycus, about ten or twelve miles beyond Laodicaea and Hierapolis. The region is volcanic, and the earthquakes common to
large portions of Asia Minor are here peculiarly severe. The tributaries of the Lyous carried calcareous matter which formed everywhere deposits of travertine, said to
be among the most remarkable formations of this character in the world. "Ancient monuments are buried, fertile lands overlaid, river-beds choked up, and streams
diverted, fantastic grottos and cascades and arches of stone formed by this strange, capricious power, at once destructive and creative, working silently and relentlessly
through long ages. Fatal to vegetation, these incrustations spread like a stony shroud over the ground. gleaming like glaciers on the hillside, they attract the eye of the
traveler at a distance of twenty miles, and form a singularly striking feature in scenery of more than common beauty and impressiveness" (Lightfoot).

The fertility of the region was nevertheless great. The fine sheep, and the chemical qualities of the streams which made the waters valuable for dyeing purposes, fostered
a lively trade in dyed woolen goods. All the three cities were renowned for the brilliancy of their dyes.

Colossae stood at the junction of the Lycus with two other streams, on a highway between eastern and western Asia, and commanding the approaches to a pass in the
Cadmus mountains. Both Herodotus and Xenophon speak of it as a prosperous and great city; but in Paul's time its glory had waned. Its site was at last completely
lost, and was not identified until the present century. Its ruins are insignificant. Paul never visited either of the three cities. The church at Colossae was the least important
of any to which Paul's epistles were addressed.

To the saints. A mode of address which characterizes Paul's later epistles. The word is to be taken as a noun, and not construed as an adjective with faithful brethren:
to the holy and faithful brethren.

And faithful brethren in Christ. Or believing brethren. Compare Ephesians 1:1. There is no singling out of the faithful brethren from among others who are less faithful.

Our Father. The only instance in which the name of the Father stands in the opening benediction of an epistle without the addition and Jesus Christ.

3. And the Father. Some of the best texts omit and. So Rev. The form with and is the more common. Compare Colossians 3:17.

Praying always for you. Rather connect always with we give thanks, and render we give thanks for you always, praying, or in our prayers. According to the Greek
order, praying for you (as Rev. and A.V.), would make for you unduly emphatic.

5. For the hope (diada). The A.V. connects with we give thanks (ver. 3). But the two are too far apart, and Paul's introductory thanksgiving is habitually grounded on
the spiritual condition of his readers, not on something objective. See Romans 1:8; 1 Corinthians 1:4; Ephesians 1:15. Better connect with what immediately precedes,
love which ye have, and render as Rev., because of the hope, etc. Faith works by love, and the ground of their love is found in the hope set before them. Compare
Romans 8:24. The motive is subordinate, but legitimate. "The hope laid up in heaven is not the deepest reason or motive for faith and love, but both are made more
vivid when it is strong. It is not the light at which their lamps are lit, but it is the odorous oil which feeds their flame" (Maclaren). Hope. See on 1 Peter 1:3. In the New
Testament the word signifies both the sentiment of hope and the thing hoped for. Here the latter. Compare Titus 2:13; Galatians 5:5; Hebrews 6:18: also Romans 8:24
where both meanings appear. Lightfoot observes that the sense oscillates between the subjective feeling and the objective realization. The combination of faith, hope,
and love is a favorite one with Paul. See 1 Thessalonians 1:3; 1 Corinthians 13:13; Romans 5:1-5; 12:6-12.

Laid up (ajpokeime>nhn). Lit., laid away, as the pound in the napkin, Luke 19:20. With the derivative sense of reserved or awaiting, as the crown, 2 Timothy 4:8. In
Hebrews 9:27 it is rendered appointed (unto men to die), where, however, the sense is the same: death awaits men as something laid up. Rev., in margin, laid up for.
Compare treasure in heaven, Matthew 6:20; 19:21; Luke 12:34. "Deposited, reserved, put by in store out of the reach of all enemies and sorrows" (Bishop Wilson).

Ye heard before (prohkou>sate). Only here in the New Testament, not in Septuagint, and not frequent in classical Greek. It is variously explained as denoting either an
undefined period in the past, or as contrasting the earlier Christian teaching with the later heresies, or as related to Paul's letter (before I wrote), or as related to the
fulfillment of the hope (ye have had the hope pre-announced). It occurs several times in Herodotus in this last sense, as 2:5, of one who has heard of Egypt without
seeing it: v., 86, of the Aeginetans who had learned beforehand what the Athenians intended. Compare 8:79; 6:16. Xenophon uses it of a horse, which signifies by
pricking up its ears what it hears beforehand. In the sense of mere priority of time without the idea of anticipation, Plato: "Hear me once more, though you have heard
me say the same before" ("Laws," vii., 797). I incline to the more general reference, ye heard in the past. The sense of hearing before the fulfillment of the hope would
seem rather to require the perfect tense, since the hope still remained unfulfilled.

The word of the truth of the Gospel. The truth is the contents of the word, and the Gospel defines the character of the truth.

6. Which is come unto you (tou~ paro>ntov eijv uJma~v). Lit., which is present unto you. Has come and is present. Compare Luke 11:7"are with me into bed."

In all the world. Hyperbolical. Compare Romans 1:8; 1 Thessalonians 1:8; Acts 17:6. Possibly with a suggestion of the universal character of the Gospel as contrasted
with the local and special character of false Gospels. Compare ver. 23.

And bringeth forth fruit (kaimenon). Lit., and is bearing fruit. The text varies. The best texts omit and. Some join e]sti is with the previous clause, as it is in all the world,
and  take bearing
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             (c) 2005-2009,            participle.
                                Infobase   MediaSo   Rev. Others, better, join is with the participle, "even as it is bearing fruit." This would emphasize the continuous
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fruitfulness of the Gospel. The middle voice of the verb, of which this is the sole instance, marks the fruitfulness of the Gospel by its own inherent power. Compare the
active voice in ver. 10, and see Mark 4:28"the earth bringeth forth fruit aujtoma>th of herself, self-acting. For a similar use of the middle, see show, Ephesians 2:7;
worketh, Galatians 5:6.
with the local and special character of false Gospels. Compare ver. 23.

And bringeth forth fruit (kaimenon). Lit., and is bearing fruit. The text varies. The best texts omit and. Some join e]sti is with the previous clause, as it is in all the world,
and take bearing fruit as a parallel participle. So Rev. Others, better, join is with the participle, "even as it is bearing fruit." This would emphasize the continuous
fruitfulness of the Gospel. The middle voice of the verb, of which this is the sole instance, marks the fruitfulness of the Gospel by its own inherent power. Compare the
active voice in ver. 10, and see Mark 4:28"the earth bringeth forth fruit aujtoma>th of herself, self-acting. For a similar use of the middle, see show, Ephesians 2:7;
worketh, Galatians 5:6.

Increasing (aujxano>menhn). Not found in Tex. Rec., nor in A.V., but added in later and better texts, and in Rev. "Not like those plants which exhaust themselves in
bearing fruit. The external growth keeps pace with the reproductive energy" (Lightfoot). "It makes wood as well" (Maclaren).

7. Fellow-servant. Used by Paul only here and Colossians 4:7.

Minister (dia>konov). See on Matthew 20:26; Mark 9:35.

For you (uJpe). Read hJmw~n, us as Rev., on our behalf: as Paul's representative.

8. Declared (dhlw>sav). Or made manifest. See on 1 Corinthians 1:11.

In the Spirit. Connect with your love. Compare Galatians 5:22.

9. We also. Marking the reciprocal feeling of Paul and Timothy with that of the Colossians.

Pray - desire (proseuco>menoi - aijtou>menoi). The words occur together in Mark 11:24. The former is general, the latter special. Rev. make request is better than
desire. The A.V. renders indiscriminately ask and desire. Rev. alters desire to ask. Desire in the sense of ask occurs in Shakespeare and Spenser.

Knowledge (ejpi>gnwsin). See on Romans 3:20; Philemon 1:6. Full knowledge. See Romans 1:21, 28; 1 Corinthians 13:12 where Paul contrasts ginw>skein to know
gnw~siv knowledge, with ejpiginw>skein to know fully, ejpi>gnwsiv full knowledge. Here appropriate to the knowledge of God in Christ as the perfection of
knowledge.

Wisdom and spiritual understanding (sofi>a| kaisei pneumatikh|~). Rev., better, applies spiritual to both - spiritual wisdom and understanding. The kindred adjectives
sofo>v wise and suneto>v prudent, occur together, Matthew 11:25; Luke 10:21. For sofi>a wisdom, see on Romans 11:33 and on wise, James 3:13. For su>nesiv
understanding, see on Mark 12:33 and prudent, Matthew 11:25. The distinction is between general and special. Understanding is the critical apprehension of particulars
growing out of wisdom, which apprehension is practically applied by fro>nhsiv prudence, see on Luke 1:17; Ephesians 1:8. Spiritual is emphatic, as contrasted with the
vain philosophy of false teachers.

10. Walk worthy (peripath~sai ajxi>wv). The phrase occurs Ephesians 4:1; 1 Thessalonians 2:12. Rev. gives the correct adverbial rendering worthily.

Unto all pleasing (eijv pa~san ajre>skeian). So as to please God in all ways. Compare 1 Thessalonians 4:1>skeia pleasing, only here in the New Testament. In classical
Greek it has a bad sense, obsequiousness, cringing. Compare men-pleasers, Colossians 3:22.

In the knowledge (eijv thgnwsin). Lit. unto the knowledge. The best texts read th|~ ejpignw>sei "by the knowledge:" by means of.

11. Strengthened (dunamou>menoi). Only here in the New Testament, but found in Septuagint. The compound (ejndunamo>w to make strong) is frequent in Paul,
Romans 4:20; Ephesians 6:10; Philippians 4:13; 1 Timothy 1:12.

Power - might (duna>mei - kra>tov). See on 2 Peter 2:11; John 1:12.

Glory. See on Romans 3:23.

Patience - long-suffering (uJpomonh - makroqumi>an). See on 2 Peter 1:6; James 5:7.

With joyfulness. Compare ver. 24; James 1:2, 3; 1 Peter 4:13. Some connect with giving thanks, ver. 12, and this is favored by the construction of the previous clauses:
in every good work bearing fruit: with all power strengthened: with joy giving thanks. But Paul is not always careful to maintain the symmetry of his periods. The idea of
joy is contained in thanksgiving, which would make the emphatic position of with joy inexplicable; besides which we lose thus the idea of joyful endurance (ver. 24) and
of joyful suffering expressing itself in thanksgiving. Compare Romans 5:3.

12. Made us meet (iJkanw>santi). See on 2 Corinthians 3:6.

To be partakers of the inheritance (eijv thda tou~ klh>rou). Lit., for the portion of the lot; that is, the portion which is the lot. Compare Acts 8:21 where the two words
are coordinated.

In light (ejn tw|~ fwti>). Connect with inheritance: the inheritance which is in light. This need not be limited to future glory. The children of God walk in light on earth.
See John 3:21; 11:9; 12:36; Ephesians 5:8; 1 Thessalonians 5:5; 1 John 1:7; 2:10.

13. Power (ejxousi>av). See on Mark 2:10. 185

Translated (mete>sthsen). The word occurs five times in the New Testament: of putting out of the stewardship, Luke 16:4; of the removal of Saul from the kingdom,
Acts 13:22; of Paul turning away much people, Acts 19:26; and of removing mountains, 1 Corinthians 13:2. A change of kingdoms is indicated.

Kingdom. Hence God's kingdom is in the present, no less than in heaven. See on Luke 6:20.

Of His dear Son (tou~ uiJou~ th~v ajga>phv aujtou~). Lit., of the Son of His love. So Rev. The Son who is the object of His love, and to whom, therefore, the
kingdom is given. See Psalms 2:7, 8; Hebrews 1:3-9. It is true that love is the essence of the Son as of the Father; also, that the Son's mission is the revelation of the
Father's love; but, as Meyer correctly says, "the language refers to the exalted Christ who rules."

14. Redemption (ajpolu>trwsin). See on Romans 3:24. Continuing the image of an enslaved and ransomed people. Omit through His blood.
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Forgiveness (a]fesin). See on remission, Romans 3:25; forgiven, James 5:15. Forgiveness defines redemption. Lightfoot's suggestion is very interesting that this precise
definition may convey an allusion to the perversion of the term ajpolu>trwsiv by the Gnostics of a later age, and which was possibly foreshadowed in the teaching of the
Father's love; but, as Meyer correctly says, "the language refers to the exalted Christ who rules."

14. Redemption (ajpolu>trwsin). See on Romans 3:24. Continuing the image of an enslaved and ransomed people. Omit through His blood.

Forgiveness (a]fesin). See on remission, Romans 3:25; forgiven, James 5:15. Forgiveness defines redemption. Lightfoot's suggestion is very interesting that this precise
definition may convey an allusion to the perversion of the term ajpolu>trwsiv by the Gnostics of a later age, and which was possibly foreshadowed in the teaching of the
Colossian heretics. The Gnostics used it to signify the result of initiation into certain mysteries. Lightfoot quotes from Irenaeus the baptismal formula of the Marcosians
186 "into unity and redemption (ajpolu>trwsin) and communion of powers." The idea of a redemption of the world, and (in a perverted form) of the person and work
of Christ as having part in it, distinctively marked the Gnostic schools. That from which the world was redeemed, however; was not sin, in the proper sense of the term,
but something inherent in the constitution of the world itself, and therefore due to its Creator.

In the following passage the person of Christ is defined as related to God and to creation; and absolute supremacy is claimed for Him. See Introduction to this volume,
and compare Ephesians 1:20-23 and Philippians 2:6-11.

15. The image (eijkw>n). See on Revelation 13:14. For the Logos (Word) underlying the passage, see on John 1:1. Image is more than likeness which may be
superficial and incidental. It implies a prototype, and embodies the essential verity of its prototype. Compare in the form of God, Philippians 2:6 (note), and the
effulgence of the Father's glory, Hebrews 1:3. Also 1 John 1:1.

Of the invisible God (tou~ Qeou~ tou~ ajora>tou). Lit., of the God, the invisible. Thus is brought out the idea of manifestation which lies in image. See on Revelation
13:14.

The first born of every creature (prwto>tokov pash~v kti>sewv). Rev., the first-born of all creation. For first-born, see on Revelation 1:5; for creation, on 2
Corinthians 5:17. As image points to revelation, so first-born points to eternal preexistence. Even the Rev. is a little ambiguous, for we must carefully avoid any
suggestion that Christ was the first of created things, which is contradicted by the following words: in Him were all things created. The true sense is, born before the
creation. Compare before all things, ver. 17. This fact of priority implies sovereignty. He is exalted above all thrones, etc., and all things are unto (eijv) Him, as they are
elsewhere declared to be unto God. Compare Psalms 89:27; Hebrews 1:2.

16. By him (ejn aujtw~). Rev., in Him. In is not instrumental but local; not denying the instrumentality, but putting the fact of creation with reference to its sphere and
center. In Him, within the sphere of His personality, resides the creative will and the creative energy, and in that sphere the creative act takes place. Thus creation was
dependent on Him. In Christ is a very common phrase with Paul to express the Church's relation to Him. Thus "one body in Christ," Romans 12:5;" fellow-workers in
Jesus Christ," Romans 16:3. Compare Romans 16:7, 9, 11; 1 Corinthians 1:30; 4:15 etc.

All things (tanta). The article gives a collective sense - the all, the whole universe of things. Without the article it would be all things severally.

Were created (ejkti>sqh). See on John 1:3. The aorist tense, denoting a definite historical event.

Visible - invisible. Not corresponding to earthly and heavenly. There are visible things in heaven, such as the heavenly bodies, and invisible things on earth, such as the
souls of men.

Thrones, dominions, principalities, powers (qro>noi, kurio>thtev, ajrcaiai). Compare Ephesians 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Romans 8:38; Colossians 2:10,
15; Titus 3:1. In Titus 3:1 they refer to earthly dignities, and these are probably included in 1 Corinthians 15:24. It is doubtful whether any definite succession of rank is
intended. At any rate it is impossible to accurately define the distinctions. It has been observed that wherever principalities (ajrcai) and powers (ejxousi>ai) occur
together, principalities always precedes, and that du>namiv power (see Ephesians 1:21) when occurring with either of the two, follows it; or, when occurring with both,
follows both. The primary reference is, no doubt, to the celestial orders; but the expressions things on earth, and not only in this world in the parallel passage, Ephesians
1:21 indicate that it may possibly include earthly dignities. Principalities and powers are used of both good and evil powers. See Ephesians 3:10; 6:12; Colossians 2:15.
The passage is aimed at the angel-worship of the Colossians (see Introduction); showing that while they have been discussing the various grades of angels which fill the
space between God and men, and depending on them as media of communion with God, they have degraded Christ who is above them all, and is the sole mediator.
Compare Hebrews 1:5-14 where the ideas of the Son as Creator and as Lord of the angels are also combined. 187 Thrones occurs only here in enumerations of this
kind. It seems to indicate the highest grade. Compare Revelation 4:4qro>noi thrones, A.V. seats, and see note. Thrones here probably means the enthroned angels.
Dominions or dominations, also Ephesians 1:21. Principalities or princedoms. In Romans 8:38 this occurs without powers which usually accompanies it.

All things (tanta). Recapitulating. Collectively as before.

Were created (e]ktistai). Rev., correctly, have been created. The perfect tense instead of the aorist, as at the beginning of the verse. "The latter describes the definite,
historical act of creation; the former the continuous and present relations of creation to the Creator" (Lightfoot). So John 1:3. "Without Him did not any thing come into
being (ejge>neto, aorist) which hath come into being" (and exists, ge>gonen, see note).

By Him and for Him (di' aujtou~ kai). Rev., better, through Him and unto Him. See on Romans 11:36. Compare in Him at the beginning of the verse. There Christ was
represented as the conditional cause of all things. All things came to pass within the sphere of His personality and as dependent upon it. Here He appears as the
mediating cause; through Him, as 1 Corinthians 8:6. Unto Him. All things, as they had their beginning in Him, tend to Him as their consummation, to depend on and
serve Him. Compare Revelation 22:13; and Hebrews 2:10; "for whose sake (di' o{n) and through whose agency (di' ou=) are all things" Rev., "for whom and through
whom." See also Ephesians 1:10, 23; 4:10; Philippians 2:9-11; 1 Corinthians 15:28. The false teachers maintained that the universe proceeded from God indirectly,
through a succession of emanations. Christ, at best, was only one of these. As such, the universe could not find its consummation in Him.

17. He is (aujto). Both words are emphatic. &Estin is, is used as in John 8:58 (see note), to express Christ's absolute existence. "He emphasizes the personality, is the
preexistence" (Lightfoot). For similar emphasis on the pronoun, see Ephesians 2:14; 4:10, 11; 1 John 2:2; Revelation 19:15.

Before all things. In time.

By Him (ejn aujtw|~). In Him as ver. 16. So Rev.

Consist (sune>sthken). Cohere, in mutual dependence. Compare Acts 27:28; Hebrews 1:3. For other meanings of the verb, see on Romans 3:5. Christ not only
creates, but maintains in continuous stability and productiveness. "He, the All-powerful, All-holy Word of the Father, spreads His power over all things everywhere,
enlightening things seen and unseen, holding and binding all together in Himself. Nothing is left empty of His presence, but to all things and through all, severally and
collectively, He is the giver and sustainer of life.... He, the Wisdom of God, holds the universe in tune together. He it is who, binding all with each, and ordering all things
by His will and pleasure, produces the perfect unity of nature and the harmonious reign of law. While He abides unmoved forever with the Father, He yet moves all
things by His own appointment according to the Father's will" (Athanasius).
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18. And He. Emphatic. The same who is before all things and in whom all things consist.
enlightening things seen and unseen, holding and binding all together in Himself. Nothing is left empty of His presence, but to all things and through all, severally and
collectively, He is the giver and sustainer of life.... He, the Wisdom of God, holds the universe in tune together. He it is who, binding all with each, and ordering all things
by His will and pleasure, produces the perfect unity of nature and the harmonious reign of law. While He abides unmoved forever with the Father, He yet moves all
things by His own appointment according to the Father's will" (Athanasius).

18. And He. Emphatic. The same who is before all things and in whom all things consist.

The head of the body, the Church. The Church is described as a body, Romans 12:4 sq.; 1 Corinthians 12:12-27; 10:17 by way of illustrating the functions of the
members. Here the image is used to emphasize the position and power of Christ as the head. Compare Colossians 2:19; Ephesians 1:22, 23; 4:4, 12, 15, 16; 5:23, 30.

Who is the beginning (o[v ejstin ajrch). Who is, equivalent to seeing He is. Beginning, with reference to the Church; not the beginning of the Church, but of the new life
which subsists in the body - the Church.

The first-born from the dead (prwto>tokov ejk tw~n nekrw~n). Defining how Christ is the beginning of the new spiritual life: by His resurrection. Compare 1
Corinthians 15:20, 23 and Prince of life, Acts 3:15 (note) See on Revelation 1:5 where the phrase is slightly different, "first-born of the dead." He comes forth from
among the dead as the first-born issues from the womb. Compare Acts 2:4"having loosed the pains of death," where the Greek is wjdi~nav birth-throes. 188 There is a
parallelism between first-born of the creation and first-born from the dead as regards the relation of headship in which Christ stands to creation and to the Church alike;
but the parallelism is not complete. "He is the first-born from the dead as having been Himself one of the dead. He is not the first-born of all creation as being himself
created" (Dwight).

In all things. The universe and the Church.

Might have the preeminence (ge>nhtai prwteu>wn). Lit., might become being first. Prwteu>w to be first only here in the New Testament. Ge>nhtai become states a
relation into which Christ came in the course of time: ejstin is (the first-born of all creation) states a relation of Christ's absolute being. He became head of the Church
through His incarnation and passion, as He is head of the universe in virtue of His absolute and eternal being. Compare Philippians 2:6"being (uJpa>rcwn) in the form of
God - was made (geno>menov) obedient unto death." This sense is lost in the rendering might have the preeminence.

19. It pleased the Father that in Him should all fullness dwell (ejn aujtw|~ eujdo>khsen pa~n torwma katoikh~sai). Eujdoke>w to think it good, to be well pleased is
used in the New Testament, both of divine and of human good-pleasure; but, in the former case, always of God the Father. So Matthew 3:17; Luke 12:32; 1
Corinthians 1:21. The subject of was well pleased, God, is omitted as in James 1:12 and must be supplied; so that, literally, the passage would read, God was well
pleased that in Him, etc. 189 Rev., it was the good pleasure of the Father. Fullness, Rev, correctly, the fullness. See on Romans 11:12; John 1:16. The word must be
taken in its passive sense - that with which a thing is filled, not that which fills. The fullness denotes the sum-total of the divine powers and attributes. In Christ dwelt all
the fullness of God as deity. The relation of essential deity to creation and redemption alike, is exhibited by John in the very beginning of his gospel, with which this
passage should be compared. In John the order is: 1. The essential nature of Christ; 2. Creation; 3. Redemption. Here it is: 1. Redemption (ver. 13); 2. Essential being
of the Son (15); 3. The Son as Creator (16); 4. The Church, with Christ as its head (18). Compare 2 Corinthians 5:19; Ephesians 1:19, 20, 23. Paul does not add of
the Godhead to the fullness, as in Colossians 2:9 since the word occurs in direct connection with those which describe Christ's essential nature, and it would seem not
to have occurred to the apostle that it could be understood in any other sense than as an expression of the plenitude of the divine attributes and powers.

Thus the phrase in Him should all the fullness dwell gathers into a grand climax the previous statements - image of God, first-born of all creation, Creator, the eternally
preexistent, the Head of the Church, the victor over death, first in all things. On this summit we pause, looking, like John, from Christ in His fullness of deity to the
exhibition of that divine fullness in redemption consummated in heaven (vers. 20-22).

There must also be taken into the account the selection of this word fullness with reference to the false teaching in the Colossian church, the errors which afterward
were developed more distinctly in the Gnostic schools. Pleroma fullness was used by the Gnostic teachers in a technical sense, to express the sum-total of the divine
powers and attributes. "From the pleroma they supposed that all those agencies issued through which God has at any time exerted His power in creation, or manifested
His will through revelation. These mediatorial beings would retain more or less of its influence, according as they claimed direct parentage from it, or traced their
descent through successive evolutions. But in all cases this pleroma was distributed, diluted, transformed, and darkened by foreign admixture. They were only partial
and blurred images, often deceptive caricatures, of their original, broken lights of the great Central Light" (Lightfoot). Christ may have been ranked with these inferior
images of the divine by the Colossian teachers. Hence the significance of the assertion that the totality of the divine dwells in Him. 190

Dwell (katoikh~sai). Permanently. See on Luke 11:26. Compare the Septuagint usage of katoikei~n permanent dwelling, and paroikei~n transient sojourning. Thus
Genesis 37:1"Jacob dwelt (permanently, katw>|kei) in the land where his father sojourned (parw|~khsen A.V., was a stranger). Perhaps in contrast with the partial and
transient connection of the pleroma with Christ asserted by the false teachers. The word is used of the indwelling of the Father, Ephesians 2:22 (katoikhth>rion tou~
Qeou~ habitation of God); of the Son, Ephesians 3:17; and of the Spirit, James 4:5.

20. Having made peace (eijrhnopoih>sav). Only here in the New Testament. Having concluded peace; see on John 3:21. The participle is parallel with to reconcile,
and marks peace-making and reconciliation as contemporaneous. The kindred eijrhnopoio>v peacemaker, only in Matthew 5:9. The phrase making peace, in which
the two factors of this verb appear separately, occurs only Ephesians 2:15.

To reconcile (ajpokatalla>xai). Only here, ver. 21, and Ephesians 2:16. The connection is: it was the good pleasure of the Father (ver. 19) to reconcile. The
compounded preposition ajpo> gives the force of back, hinting at restoration to a primal unity. So, in Ephesians 2:12-16 it occurs as in ver. 21, in connection with
ajphllotriwme>noi alienated, as if they had not always been strangers. See on Ephesians 2:12. Others explain to reconcile wholly. For the verb katalla>ssw to reconcile,
see on Romans 5:10.

All things (tanta). Must be taken in the same sense as in vers. 16, 17, 18, the whole universe, material and spiritual. 191 The arrangement of clauses adopted by Rev. is
simpler.

21. Enemies. To God, in the active sense.

Mind (dianoi>a|). See on imagination, Luke 1:51. The spiritual seat of enmity.

By wicked works (ejn toi~v e]groiv toi~v ponhroi~v). Rev., better, in your evil works. In the performance of - the sphere in which, outwardly, their alienation had
exhibited itself.

22. Body of His flesh. Which consisted of flesh; without which there could have been no death (see next clause).

To present (parasth`sai). Purpose of the reconciliation. Compare Romans 8:30. See on shewed himself, Acts 1:3. Compare Romans 12:1 where it is used of presenting
aCopyright
  sacrifice. 192
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Holy, unblamable, unreprovable (aJgi>ouv, ajmw>mouv, ajnegklh>touv). Holy, see on saints, Acts 26:10; Revelation 3:7. The fundamental idea of the word is
separation unto God and from worldly defilement. Unblamable, Rev. much better, without blemish. Compare Ephesians 1:4; 5:27; and see on 1 Peter 1:19 and
22. Body of His flesh. Which consisted of flesh; without which there could have been no death (see next clause).

To present (parasth`sai). Purpose of the reconciliation. Compare Romans 8:30. See on shewed himself, Acts 1:3. Compare Romans 12:1 where it is used of presenting
a sacrifice. 192

Holy, unblamable, unreprovable (aJgi>ouv, ajmw>mouv, ajnegklh>touv). Holy, see on saints, Acts 26:10; Revelation 3:7. The fundamental idea of the word is
separation unto God and from worldly defilement. Unblamable, Rev. much better, without blemish. Compare Ephesians 1:4; 5:27; and see on 1 Peter 1:19 and
blemishes, 2 Peter 2:13. Unreprovable, not only actually free from blemish, but from the charge of it. See on 1 Corinthians 1:8 and compare 1 Timothy 6:14.

In His sight (katew>pion aujotu~). Rev., before Him. Him refers to God, not Christ. Whether the reference is to God's future judgment or to His present approval, can
hardly be determined by the almost unexceptional usage of katenw>pion before, in the latter sense, as is unquestionably the case in Ephesians 1:4. The simple
ejnw>pion before, is used in the former sense, Luke 12:9. &Emprosqen before, occurs in both senses. The reference to the future judgment seems the more natural as
marking the consummation of the redemptive work described in vers. 20-22. Compare 1 Thessalonians 3:13 and Ephesians 5:27 which corresponds with the figure of
the bride, the Lamb's wife, in Revelation 21:9 sqq. This view is further warranted by the following words, if ye continue, etc., the final presentation being dependent on
steadfastness. 193

23. Continue in the faith (ejpime>nete th|~ pi>stei.). The verb means to stay at or with (ejpi>). So Philippians 1:24to abide by the flesh. See on Romans 6:1. The faith is
not the gospel system (see on Acts 6:7), but the Colossians' faith in Christ. Your faith would be better.

Grounded and settled (teqelewme>noi kai). For grounded, see on settle, 1 Peter 5:10; compare Luke 6:48, 49; Ephesians 3:17. Settled, from e[dra a seat. Rev.,
steadfast. See 1 Corinthians 7:37; 15:58 the only other passages where it occurs. Compare eJdrai>wma ground, 1 Timothy 3:15. Bengel says: "The former is
metaphorical, the latter more literal. The one implies greater respect to the foundation by which believers are supported; but settled suggests inward strength which
believers themselves possess."

Moved away (metakinou>menoi). The present participle signifying continual shifting. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:58.

To every creature (ejn pa>sh| kti>sei). Rev, correctly, in all creation. See on 2 Corinthians 5:17 and compare ver. 15.

24. Who now. Omit who. Now is temporal: in the midst of my imprisonment and sufferings, after having become a minister of the Gospel, and having preached it.

In my sufferings. Not as our idiom, rejoice in, as rejoice in the Lord, but in the midst of; while enduring.

Fill up (ajntanaplhrw~). Only here in the New Testament. Lit., fill up in turn. Rev., on my part (ajnti>). h>w to fill up occurs 1 Corinthians 14:16; 16:17; Galatians 6:2
and elsewhere. The double compound prosanaplhro>w to fill up by adding, 2 Corinthians 9:12 (note); 2 Corinthians 11:9. q> on my part offsets Christ in the next
clause. Lightfoot explains well: "It signifies that the supply comes from an opposite quarter to the deficiency, and so describes the correspondence of the personal
agents," and not merely the correspondence of the supply with the deficiency.

That which is lacking of the afflictions of Christ (tamata tw~n qli>yewn tou~ Cristou~). Lacking, lit., behind. Used with different compounds of plhro>w to fill, 1
Corinthians 16:17; 2 Corinthians 9:12; 11:9; Philippians 2:30. Of the afflictions of Christ. The afflictions which Christ endured; which belonged to Him: not Paul's
afflictions described as Christ's because endured in fellowship with Him (Meyer); nor the afflictions which Christ endures in His Church (Alford, Ellicott, Eadie).

These afflictions do not include Christ's vicarious sufferings, which are never denoted by qli>yeiv tribulations. That which is lacking of the afflictions of Christ signifies
that portion of Christ's ministerial sufferings which was not endured by Him in person, but is endured in the suffering of Christians in all generations in carrying out
Christ's work. Compare 2 Corinthians 1:5, 7; Philippians 3:10. Hence those are mistaken interpretations which explain the filling up as a correspondence of the supply
with the deficiency. The correspondence is between the two parties, Christ and His followers, and the supply does not correspond with the deficiency, but works
toward supplying it. The point is not the identification of Paul with Christ in His sufferings (which is true as a fact), but the distinction between Paul and Christ. Hence
the present tense, I am filling up, denoting something still in process. The full tale of sufferings will not be completed until the Church shall have finished her conflict, and
shall have come up "out of great tribulation" to sit at the marriage-supper of the Lamb.

In my flesh. Connect with fill up.

For His body's sake, which is the Church. Sa>rx flesh is never used of a metaphorical organism like the Church, but sw~ma body. Sec on flesh, Romans 7:5 sec. 3. In
ver. 22, flesh was used with body in order to define the reference of body to the fleshly human organism of Christ. Compare John 1:14. Here sw~ma body only,
defined by Church.

25. The dispensation (oijkonomi>an). From oi+kov house and ne>mw to dispense or manage. Hence oijkono>mov a house-steward. Here the meaning is stewardship
- the office of a steward or administrator in God's house. See on 1 Corinthians 9:17 and compare Luke 16:2-4; 1 Corinthians 4:1; Titus 1:7; 1 Peter 4:10. In Ephesians
3:2 the word is used of the divine arrangement or economy committed to Paul. In Ephesians 1:10 of the divine government or regulation of the world.

For you (eijv uJma~v). Rev., more strictly, to youward. Connect with was given. The stewardship was assigned to me with you as its object. Compare Ephesians 3:2;
Romans 15:16.

To fulfill (plhrw~sai). Fully discharge my office, so that the divine intent shall be fully carried out in the preaching of the Gospel to the Gentiles no less than to the Jews.
Compare fully preached, Romans 15:19.

26. The mystery. See on Romans 11:25. The kindred word memu>hmai I have been initiated (A.V., instructed) occurs Philippians 4:12 in the sense drawn from the
technical use of the term, denoting the induction into pagan mysteries. Ignatius addresses the Ephesians as "fellow-initiates (summu>stai), or students of the mysteries,
with Paul" (Ephesians 12.). In the New Testament the word implies something which, while it may be obscure in its nature, or kept hidden in the past, is now revealed.
Hence used very commonly with words denoting revelation or knowledge. So, "to know the mysteries," Matthew 13:11; "revelation of the mystery," Romans 16:25;
made known, Ephesians 3:3 etc. In Colossians and Ephesians it is used, with a single exception, of the admission of the Gentiles to gospel privileges. Compare Romans
16:25, 26.

From ages - generations (ajpo - aijw>nwn - genew~n). The unit and the factors: the aeon or age being made up of generations. Compare Ephesians 3:21 where the
literal translation is unto all the generations of the age of the ages. The preposition ajpo from,. differs from pro> before (1 Corinthians 2:7), as marking the point from
which concealment could properly begin. Before the beginning of the ages of the world the counsel of God was ordained, but not concealed, because there were no
human beings from whom to conceal it. The concealment began from the beginning of the world, with the entrance of subjects to whom it could be a fact.
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    Would make              Infobase gnwri>sai).
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                                                 Lit., willed to make known. Rev., was pleased. Hence the apostles who were called to make known the155 / 567
                                                                                                                                                    Gospel were
such by the will of God (ver. 1).
literal translation is unto all the generations of the age of the ages. The preposition ajpo from,. differs from pro> before (1 Corinthians 2:7), as marking the point from
which concealment could properly begin. Before the beginning of the ages of the world the counsel of God was ordained, but not concealed, because there were no
human beings from whom to conceal it. The concealment began from the beginning of the world, with the entrance of subjects to whom it could be a fact.

27. Would make known (hjqe>lhsen gnwri>sai). Lit., willed to make known. Rev., was pleased. Hence the apostles who were called to make known the Gospel were
such by the will of God (ver. 1).

Riches. See on Romans 2:4.

Of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles. The mystery of the admission of the Gentiles to the gospel covenant, now revealed through Paul's preaching, was
divinely rich and glorious. This glory is the manifestation of the kingdom of Christ among the Gentiles as their inheritance (ver. 12; compare Romans 8:18, 21; 2
Corinthians 4:17). The richness exhibited itself in the free dispensation of the Gospel to the Gentile as well as to the Jew. It was not limited by national lines. Compare
"the same Lord is rich unto all," Romans 10:12; and beggarly elements, Galatians 4:9.

Which is Christ in you. The readings differ. Some read o[v, masculine, which, referring to the riches: others o{, neuter, which, referring to mystery. The latter
corresponds with Colossians 2:2the mystery of God, Christ, etc. In either case the defining words are Christ in you, i.e., in the Gentiles; either as constituting the
richness of glory in this mystery, or as being the essence of the myself itself. In you may be either within you, dwelling in your hearts, or among you. The latter accords
with among the Gentiles, the former with dwell in your hearts, Ephesians 3:17. Compare Romans 8:10; 2 Corinthians 13:5; Galatians 4:19.

The hope of glory (hJ ejlpixhv). Lit., of the glory. The Gentiles, in receiving the manifestation of Christ, did not realize all its glory. The full glory of the inheritance was a
hope, to be realized when Christ should appear "the second time unto salvation" (Hebrews 9:28). Compare 1 Timothy 1:1. Glory refers to the glory of the mystery;
hence the glory, but with more emphasis upon the idea of the same glory consummated at Christ's coming - the glory which shall be revealed. See Romans 8:18; 2
Corinthians 4:17; 1 Peter 1:7

28. Warning (nouqetou~ntev). Rev., admonishing. See on Acts 20:31. Compare nouqesi>a| admonition, Ephesians 6:4.

Every. Thrice repeated, in order to emphasize the universality of the Gospel against the intellectual exclusiveness encouraged by the false teachers. For similar emphatic
repetitions of all or every, compare 1 Corinthians 10:1, 2; 12:13; Romans 9:6, 7; 11:32 etc.

In all wisdom (ejn pa>sh| sofi>a|). In every form of wisdom. Thus opposed to the idea of esoteric and exoteric 194 wisdom represented by the false teachers; higher
knowledge for the few philosophic minds, and blind faith for the masses. In christian teaching the highest wisdom is freely open to all. Compare Colossians 2:2, 3.

Perfect. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:6, 7 and see note. There may be in this word a hint of its use in the ancient mysteries to designate the fully instructed as distinguished
from the novices. Peter uses the technical word ejpo>ptai eye-witnesses, which designated one admitted to the highest grade in the Eleusinian mysteries, of those who
beheld Christ's glory in His transfiguration, 2 Peter 1:16. From this point of view Bishop Lightfoot appropriately says: "The language of the heathen mysteries is
transferred by Paul to the christian dispensation, that he may the more effectively contrast the things signified. The true Gospel also has its mysteries, its hierophants, its
initiation; but these are open to all alike. In Christ every believer is te>leiov fully initiated, for he has been admitted as ejpo>pthv eye-witness of its most profound, most
awful secrets."

29. I labor (kopiw~). Unto weariness. See on Luke 5:5. The connection with the following ajgwnizo>menov contending in the arena, seems to show that I labor has the
special sense of labor in preparing for the contest. The same combination occurs 1 Timothy 4:10 where the correct reading is ajgwnizo>meqa we strive for
ojneidizo>meqa we suffer reproach; and there is a similar combination, Philippians 2:16run and labor. So Ignatius, Epistle to Polycarp, 6.: "Labor ye one with another
(sugkopia~te); strive together (sunaqlei~te, see Philippians 1:27); run together, suffer together, go to rest together, arise together" (the last two probably with reference
to the uniform hours prescribed for athletes under training). So Clement of Rome: "Who have labored (kopia>santev) much, and contended (ajgwnisa>menoi)
honorably" (Colossians 2:7). See on 1 Corinthians 9:24-27.

Striving (ajgwnizo>menov). From ajgw>n originally an assembly, a place of assembly, especially for viewing the games. Hence the contest itself, the word being united
with different adjectives indicating the character of the contest, as iJppiko>v of horses; gumniko>v gymnastic; mousiko>v of music; ca>lkeov, where the prize is a
brazen shield, etc. Generally, any struggle or trial. Hence the verb means to enter a contest, to contend, to struggle. The metaphor is a favorite one with Paul, and, with
the exception of three instances (Luke 13:24; John 18:36; Hebrews 12:1), the words ajgw>n contest and ajgwni>zomai to contend are found only in his writings. See 1
Timothy 6:12; 2 Timothy 4:7; 1 Corinthians 9:25.(note); 1 Thessalonians 2:2.

Working (ejne>rgeian). From ejnergh>v ejn in, e]rgon work; lit. being in or at work. See on 1 Corinthians 16:9. 'Ene>rgeia is the state of being at work; energy,
efficiency. Used only of superhuman energy, good or evil.

Which worketh (thnhn). Kindred with the preceding. See on James 5:16. 195

CHAPTER 2

1. I would that ye knew (qe>lw uJma~v eijde>nai): Paul's more usual form of expression is, I would not have you to be ignorant. See on Romans 1:13.

What great conflict I have (hJli>kon ajgw~na e]cw). Rev., how greatly I strive. a>kon what great, only here and James 3:5. Conflict, continuing the metaphor of
Colossians 1:29. Here of inward conflict, anxiety, prayer, as Colossians 4:12.

Laodicaea. See on Revelation 3:14.

And for as many as (kai). Including all who come under the same category as the Colossians and Laodicaeans. Hence equivalent to all who, like yourselves, have not
seen, etc. See, for a similar usage, Acts 4:6; Revelation 18:17. Indicating that the Colossians and Laodicaeans were both personally unknown to Paul.

2. Comforted (paraklhqw~sin). Not so much tranquilized as braced. See on John 14:16.

Knit together (sumbibasqe>ntev). See on proving, Acts 9:22. In the Septuagint it means to instruct, as Exodus 18:16; Deuteronomy 4:9; Isaiah 40:13 (compare 1
Corinthians 2:16); Psalms 31:8. Used of putting together in one's mind, and so to conclude by comparison. Thus Acts 16:10assuredly gathering, Rev., concluding.

Full assurance (plhrofori>av). Or fullness. See Hebrews 6:11; 10:22.

Of understanding (sune>sewv). See on Mark 12:33; Luke 2:47.
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To the acknowledgment (eijv ejpi>gnwsin). Wrong. >gnwsiv is the full knowledge, as Colossians 1:9 (note). Rev., that they may know.
Full assurance (plhrofori>av). Or fullness. See Hebrews 6:11; 10:22.

Of understanding (sune>sewv). See on Mark 12:33; Luke 2:47.

To the acknowledgment (eijv ejpi>gnwsin). Wrong. >gnwsiv is the full knowledge, as Colossians 1:9 (note). Rev., that they may know.

Of God. The best textual authorities add Cristou~ of Christ. So Rev., of God, even Christ. Christ is in apposition with mystery. Compare Colossians 1:27.

3. Hid (ajpo>krufoi). Only here, Mark 4:22; Luke 8:17. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:7. Not to be joined with are, as A.V. Its position at the end of the sentence, and so
far from are, shows that it is added as an emphatic secondary predicate. Hence, as Rev., in whom are all the treasures, etc., hidden. For a similar construction, see
Colossians 3:1, "where Christ is on the right hand of God seated (there)." James 1:17"Every perfect gift is from above, coming down." 196 Grammatically, hidden may
be taken as an attribute of treasures; "in whom the hidden treasures are contained;" but the other is preferable. The words which immediately follow in ver. 4, suggest
the possibility that hidden may convey an allusion to the Apocrypha or secret writings of the Essenes, whose doctrines entered into the Colossian heresy. Such writings,
which, later, were peculiar also to the Gnostics, contained the authoritative secret wisdom, the esoteric teaching for the learned few. If such is Paul's allusion, the word
suggests a contrast with the treasures of christian wisdom which are accessible to all in Christ.

Wisdom and knowledge. See on Romans 11:33.

4. Beguile (paralogi>zhtai). Only here and James 1:22. See note. Rev., delude. So Ignatius, speaking of the duty of obedience to the bishop, says: "He that fails in this,
does not deceive the visible bishop, but attempts to cheat (paralogi>zetai) the Invisible" (Epistle to Magnesians, 3.). The word is found in the Septuagint, Joshua 9:22; 1
Samuel 19:17; 2 Samuel 21:5.

Enticing words (piqanologi>a|). Rev., persuasiveness of speech. Only here in the New Testament. In classical Greek, of probable argument as opposed to
demonstration. So Plato: "Reflect whether you are disposed to admit of probability (piqanologi>a|) and figures of speech in matters of such importance" ("Theaetetus,"
163). Compare 1 Corinthians 2:4.

5. Order (ta>xin). Or orderly array. A military metaphor, quite possibly suggested by Paul's intercourse with the soldiers in his confinement. See on Philippians 1:13.

Steadfastness (stere>wma). Only here in the New Testament. See on 1 Peter 5:9. The kindred adjective stereo>v solid, occurs 2 Timothy 2:19; Hebrews 5:12; 1
Peter 5:9; and the verb stereo>w to make solid, Acts 3:7; 16:5. The military metaphor is continued. Faith is represented as a host solidly drawn up: your solid front,
close phalanx. The verb is found in this sense in the Apocrypha, 1 Macc. x. 50, "ejstere>wse tolemon, he solidified the battle; massed his lines. Compare Ezekiel 13:5
where the noun has the sense of stronghold: "They stood not ejn stere>wmati in the stronghold." So Psalms 17:2"The Lord is my strength;" stronghold or bulwark. The
firmament, Genesis 1:6; Ezekiel 1:22. In Esther 9:22 of the confirmation of a letter.

6. Ye received (parela>bete). By transmission from (para>) your teachers.

Christ Jesus the Lord (ton x~n to). The Christ, specially defined by the following words, thus emphasizing the personal Christ rather than the Gospel, because the true
doctrine of Christ's person was perverted by the Colossian teachers. The Christ, even Jesus, the Lord.

7. Rooted - built up (ejrjrJizwme>noi - ejpoikodomou>menoi). Note the change of metaphor from the solidity of military array to walking, rooting of a tree, and then to
building. The metaphors of rooting and being founded occur together, Ephesians 3:17. Compare 1 Corinthians 3:9. In Jeremiah 1:10ejkrizou~n to root out is applied to
a kingdom, and the words to build and to plant follow. It must be said that rJizo>w to cause to take root is often used in the sense of firmness or fixedness without
regard to its primary meaning. Built up. The preposition ejpi> upon indicates the placing of one layer upon another. See on Acts 20:32 and 1 Corinthians 3:9. Compare
1 Corinthians 3:10-14; Ephesians 2:20. note also the change of tenses: having been rooted (perfect participle), being (in process of) built up and strengthened (present
participle).

In Him (ejn aujtw~). Rather than upon Him, as might have been expected. In this and in the Ephesian epistle, Christ is represented as the sphere within which the
building goes on. Compare Ephesians 2:20. The whole upbuilding of the Church proceeds within the compass of Christ's personality, life, and power.

Thanksgiving (eujcaristi>a|). For Paul's emphasis on thanksgiving, see Romans 1:21; 14:6; 2 Corinthians 1:11; 4:15; 9:11, 12; Ephesians 5:20; 1 Timothy 2:1 etc.
Eujcaristo>v thankful, eujcaristei~n to give thanks, eujcaristi>a thanksgiving, are found only in Paul's writings.

8. Beware (ble>pete). Lit., see to it.

Lest any man spoil you (mh). The Greek is more precise and personal: lest there shall be any one that maketh spoil. So Rev. Sulagwge>w to carry off booty, only here
in the New Testament. A very strong, expression for the work of the false teachers; make you yourselves a booty. The A.V. is ambiguous, and might be taken to mean
corrupt or damage you.

Philosophy and vain deceit (th~v filosofi>av kaithv). Rev. gives the force of the article, his philosophy: kai and is explanatory, philosophy which is also vain deceit.
Hence the warning is not against all philosophy. Filosofi>a, philosophy, only here in the New Testament. It had originally a good meaning, the love of wisdom, but is
used by Paul in the sense of vain speculation and with special reference to its being the name by which the false teachers at Colossae designated not only their
speculative system, but also their practical system, so that it covered their ascetic practices no less than their mysticism. Bishop Lightfoot remarks upon the fact that
philosophy, by which the Greeks expressed the highest effort of the intellect, and virtue (ajreth>), their expression for the highest moral excellence, are each used but
once by Paul, showing "that the Gospel had deposed the terms as inadequate to the higher standard, whether of knowledge or practice, which it had introduced."

After the tradition. Connect with the whole phrase philosophy and vain deceit, as descriptive of its source and subject matter. Others connect with make spoil. The
term is especially appropriate to the Judaeo-Gnostic teachings in Colossae, which depended for their authority, not on ancient writings, but on tradition. The later
mystical theology or metaphysic of the Jews was called Kabbala, literally meaning reception or received doctrines, tradition.

Rudiments (stoicei~a). See on 2 Peter 3:10. Rudimentary teachings, as in Hebrews 5:12; applicable alike to Jewish and to Gentile teaching. Ceremonialism - meats,
drinks, washings, Essenic asceticism, pagan symbolic mysteries and initiatory rites - all belonged to a rudimentary moral stage. Compare vers. 11, 21, and Galatians
4:9.

Of the world. Material as contrasted with spiritual.

9. Fullness. See on Colossians 1:19.
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Godhead (qeo>thtov). Only here in the New Testament. See on Romans 1:20 where qeio>thv divinity or godhood is used. Appropriate there, because                 personally
would not be known from His revelation in nature, but only His attributes - His majesty and glory. Here Paul is speaking of the essential and personal deity as belonging
to Christ. So Bengel: "Not the divine attributes, but the divine nature."
Of the world. Material as contrasted with spiritual.

9. Fullness. See on Colossians 1:19.

Godhead (qeo>thtov). Only here in the New Testament. See on Romans 1:20 where qeio>thv divinity or godhood is used. Appropriate there, because God personally
would not be known from His revelation in nature, but only His attributes - His majesty and glory. Here Paul is speaking of the essential and personal deity as belonging
to Christ. So Bengel: "Not the divine attributes, but the divine nature."

Bodily (swmatikw~v). In bodily fashion or bodily-wise. The verse contains two distinct assertions: 1. That the fullness of the Godhead eternally dwells in Christ. The
present tense katoikei~ dwelleth, is used like ejstin is (the image), Colossians 1:15, to denote an eternal and essential characteristic of Christ's being. The indwelling of
the divine fullness in Him is characteristic of Him as Christ, from all ages and to all ages. Hence the fullness of the Godhead dwelt in Him before His incarnation, when
He was "in the form of God" (Philippians 2:6). The Word in the beginning, was with God and was God (John 1:1). It dwelt in Him during His incarnation. It was the
Word that became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth, and His glory which was beheld was the glory as of the Only begotten of the Father (John 1:14;
compare 1 John 1:1-3. The fullness of the Godhead dwells in His glorified humanity in heaven.

2. The fullness of the Godhead dwells in Him in a bodily way, clothed the body. This means that it dwells in Him as one having a human body. This could not be true of
His preincarnate state, when He was "in the form of God," for the human body was taken on by Him in the fullness of time, when "He became in the likeness of
men" (Philippians 2:7), when the Word became flesh. The fullness of the Godhead dwelt in His person from His birth to His ascension. He carried His human body with
Him into heaven, and in His glorified body now and ever dwells the fullness of the Godhead.

"O, for a sight, a blissful sight

Of our Almighty Father's throne!

There sits the Savior crowned with light,

Clothed in a body like our own.

"Adoring saints around Him stand,

And thrones and powers before Him fall;

The God shines gracious through the man,

And sheds sweet glories on them all."

WATTS

"What a contrast to the human tradition and the rudiments of the world" (Meyer). What a contrast to the spiritual agencies conceived as intermediate between God and
men, in each of which the divine fullness was abridged and the divine glory shaded, in proportion to the remoteness from God in successive emanation.

10. Ye are complete in Him (ejste ejn aujtw|~ peplhrwme>noi). Rev., made full. Compare John 1:16; Ephesians 1:23; 3:19; 4:13. Not, ye are made full in Him, but ye
are in Him, made full. In Him dwells the fullness; being in Him, ye are filled. Compare John 17:21; Acts 17:28. 197

11. Not made with hands. Compare Mark 14:58; 2 Corinthians 5:1. In allusion to the literal circumcision insisted on by the false teachers.

In the putting off (ejn th|~ ajpekdu>sei). Only here in the New Testament; and the kindred verb ajpekdu>omai to put off only ver. 15 and Colossians 3:9. The verb
ejkdu>omai means to strip off from one's self, as clothes or armor; ejk out of, having the force of getting out of one's garments. By the addition to the verb of ajpo>
from, there is added to the idea of getting out of one's clothes that of getting away from them; so that the word is a strong expression for wholly putting away from one's
self. In the putting off, is in the act or process of. Not by.

The body of the sins of the flesh (tou~ sw>matov tw~n aJmartiw~n th~v sarko). Omit of the sins. The body of the flesh (compare on Colossians 1:22) is the body
which consists of the flesh, flesh having its moral sense of that material part which is the seat and organ of sin, "the flesh with its passions and lusts" (Galatians 5:24;
compare 1 John 2:16). See on Colossians 1:24. For the distinction between sw~ma body and sa>rx flesh, see on flesh, Romans 7:5 sec. 3.

In the circumcision of Christ (ejn th|~ peritomh|~ tou~ Cristou~). The spiritual circumcision effected through Christ. See Ephesians 2:11; Philippians 3:3; Romans 2:29.
In, as above. The fleshly circumcision removed only a portion of the body. In spiritual circumcision, through Christ, the whole corrupt, carnal nature is put away like a
garment which is taken off and laid aside.

12. Buried (suntafe>ntev). See on Romans 6:4. The aorist tense puts the burial as contemporaneous with the circumcision. Ye were circumcised when ye were buried,
etc.

In baptism (ejn tw|~ bapti>smati or baptismw|~). The article, the baptism points to the familiar rite, or may have the force of your.

Wherein also (ejn w|= kai). Referring to baptism, not to Christ.

Ye were raised with Him (sunhge>rqhte). The burial and the raising are both typified in baptism. The raising is not the resurrection to eternal life at Christ's second
coming, but the moral resurrection to a new life. This corresponds with the drift of the entire passage, with the figurative sense of buried, and with Romans 6:4 which is
decisive.

Through the faith of the operation of God. Not the faith which God works, but your faith in God's working: faith in God's energy as displayed in Christ's resurrection.
Hence the emphasis which is laid on faith in the resurrection. See 1 Corinthians 15:3, 4 (note); Romans 10:9; Ephesians 1:19. vers. 11, 12 should be compared with
Romans 6:2-6.

13. Dead (nekrou). Morally, as Ephesians 2:1-5; Romans 6:11. In your sins (ejn toi~v paraptw~masin). The best texts omit ejn in, and the dative is instrumental,
through or by. Rev., through your trespasses. See on Matthew 6:14.

The uncircumcision
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                                       sinful,Corp.
                                              carnal nature of which uncircumcision was the sign, and which was the source of the trespasses. Compare
                                                                                                                                                 PageEphesians 2:11.
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He quickened together (sunezwopoi>hsen). Only here and Ephesians 2:5. Endowed with a new spiritual life, as ver. 12. This issues in immortal life. Compare Ephesians
2:6.
13. Dead (nekrou). Morally, as Ephesians 2:1-5; Romans 6:11. In your sins (ejn toi~v paraptw~masin). The best texts omit ejn in, and the dative is instrumental,
through or by. Rev., through your trespasses. See on Matthew 6:14.

The uncircumcision of your flesh. That sinful, carnal nature of which uncircumcision was the sign, and which was the source of the trespasses. Compare Ephesians 2:11.

He quickened together (sunezwopoi>hsen). Only here and Ephesians 2:5. Endowed with a new spiritual life, as ver. 12. This issues in immortal life. Compare Ephesians
2:6.

Having forgiven us (carisa>menov hJmi~n). Freely (ca>riv grace, free gift), as Luke 7:42; 2 Corinthians 2:7, 10; Colossians 3:13. Note the change of pronoun from
you to us, believers generally, embracing himself. This change from the second to the first person, or, vice versa, is common in Paul's writings. See Colossians 1:10-13;
3:3, 4; Ephesians 2:2, 3, 13, 14; 4:31, 32.

14. Blotting out (ejxalei>yav). See on Acts 3:19: compare Revelation 3:5. The simple verb ajlei>fw means to anoint, see on John 11:2. Hence to besmear. The
compounded preposition ejx means completely. The compound verb here is used by Thucydides of whitewashing a wall; 1 Chronicles 29:4 of overlaying walls with
gold. The preposition also carries the sense of removal; hence to smear out; to wipe away.

The handwriting (tografon). The A.V. has simply translated according to the composition of the noun, cei>r hand, gra>fw to write. Properly an autograph, and specially
a note of hand, bond. Compare Tobit 5:3; 9:5. Transcribed, chirographus and chirographon, it appears often in Latin authors, especially in law-books. So Juvenal, of a
rascally neighbor, who declares his note of hand void, and the tablets on which it is written as so much useless wood (16:41). Suetonios, of the promise of marriage
given by Caligula to Ennia Naevia "under oath and bond" (chirographo, "Caligula," 12).

Of ordinances (toi~v do>gmasin). See on Luke 2:1. Lit., in ordinances; consisting in, or, as Rev., written in, as suggested by handwriting. As Paul declares this bond to
be against us, including both Jews and Gentiles, the reference, while primarily to the Mosaic law, is to be taken in a wider sense, as including the moral law of God in
general, which applied to the Gentiles as much as to the Jews. See Romans 3:19. The law is frequently conceived by Paul with this wider reference, as a principle which
has its chief representative in the Mosaic law, but the applications of which are much wider. See on Romans 2:12. This law is conceived here as a bond, a bill of debt,
standing against those who have not received Christ. As the form of error at Colossae was largely Judaic, insisting on the Jewish ceremonial law, the phrase is probably
colored by this fact. Compare Ephesians 2:15.

Which was contrary to us (o{ h+n uJpenanti>on hJmi~n). He has just said which was against us (to kaq' hJmw~n); which stood to our debit, binding us legally. This
phrase enlarges on that idea, emphasizing the hostile character of the bond, as a hindrance. Compare Romans 4:15; 5:20; 1 Corinthians 15:56; Galatians 3:23. "Law is
against us, because it comes like a taskmaster, bidding us do, but neither putting the inclination into our hearts nor the power into our hands. And law is against us,
because the revelation of unfulfilled duty is the accusation of the defaulter, and a revelation to him of his guilt. And law is against us, because it comes with threatenings
and foretastes of penalty and pain. Thus, as standard, accuser, and avenger it is against us" (Maclaren).

Took it out of the way (aujtosou). Lit., out of the midst.

Nailing it to His cross (proshlw>sav aujto). Rev., the cross. The verb occurs nowhere else. The law with its decrees was abolished in Christ's death, as if crucified with
Him. It was no longer in the midst, in the foreground, as a debtor's obligation is perpetually before him, embarrassing his whole life. Ignatius: "I perceived that ye were
settled in unmovable faith, as if nailed (kaqhlwme>nouv) upon the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, both in flesh and spirit" (To Smyrna, 1.).

15. Having spoiled principalities and powers (ajpekdusa>menov taav). For the verb spoiled, see on putting off, ver. 11. The principalities and powers are the angelic
hosts through whose ministry the law was given. See Deuteronomy 33:2; Acts 7:53; Hebrews 2:2; Galatians 3:19. Great importance was attached, in the later
rabbinical schools, to the angels who assisted in giving the law; and that fact was not without influence in shaping the doctrine of angelic mediators, one of the elements
of the Colossian heresy, which was partly Judaic. This doctrine Paul strikes at in Colossians 1:16; 2:10; here, and ver. 18. God put off from himself, when the bond of
the law was rendered void in Christ's crucifixion, that ministry of angels which waited on the giving of the law, revealing Christ as the sole mediator, the head of every
principality and power (ver. 10). The directness of the gospel ministration, as contrasted with the indirectness of the legal ministration, is touched upon by Paul in
Galatians 3:19 sqq.; 2 Corinthians 3:12 sqq.; Hebrews 2:2.

He made a show of them (ejdeigma>tisen). Only here and Matthew 1:19 see note. The compound paradeigmati>zw to expose to public infamy, is found Hebrews 6:6;
and dei~gma example, in Jude 1:7. The word is unknown to classical Greek. The meaning here is to make a display of, exhibit. He showed them as subordinate and
subject to Christ. Compare especially Hebrews 1. throughout, where many points of contact with the first two chapters of this epistle will be found.

Openly (ejn parjrJhsi>a|). Or boldly. See on Philemon 1:8. Not publicly, but as by a bold stroke putting His own ministers, chosen and employed for such a glorious
and dignified office, in subjection before the eyes of the world.

Triumphing over them (qraimbeu>sav aujtou). See on 2 Corinthians 2:14. If we take this phrase in the sense which it bears in that passage, leading in triumph, there
seems something incongruous in picturing the angelic ministers of the law as captives of war, subjugated and led in procession. The angels "do His commandments and
hearken unto the voice of His word." But while I hold to that explanation in 2 Corinthians, I see no reason why the word may not be used here less specifically in the
sense of leading a festal procession in which all share the triumph; the heavenly ministers, though set aside as mediators, yet exulting in the triumph of the one and only
Mediator. Even in the figure in 2 Corinthians, the captives rejoice in the triumph. Compare Revelation 19:11. Our knowledge of the word qriambeu>w is not so
extensive or accurate as to warrant too strict limitations in our definition.

In it (ejn aujtw|~). The cross. Many expositors, however, render in Him, Christ. This I adopt as harmonizing with the emphatic references to Christ which occur in
every verse from 5 to 14; Christ, four times; in Him, four; in whom, two; with Him, three. In it is necessary only if the subject of the sentence is Christ; but the very
awkward change of subject from God (quickened us together, ver. 13) is quite unnecessary. God is the subject throughout. 198

16. Therefore. Conclusion from the canceling of the bond. The allusions which follow (vers. 16-19) are to the practical and theoretical forms of the Colossian error, as
in vers. 9-15; excessive ritualism, asceticism, and angelic mediation.

Judge (krine>tw). Sit in judgment.

Meat - drink (brw>sei - po>sei). Properly, eating, drinking, as 1 Corinthians 8:4; but the nouns are also used for that which is eaten or drunk, as John 4:32 (see note);
6:27, 55; Romans 14:17. For the subject-matter compare Romans 14:17; 1 Corinthians 8:8; Hebrews 9:10 and note on Mark 7:19. The Mosaic law contained very
few provisions concerning drinks. See Leviticus 10:9; 11:34, 36; Numbers 6:3. Hence it is probable that the false teachers had extended the prohibitions as to the use
of wine to all Christians. The Essenes abjured both wine and animal food.

In respect (ejn
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Holyday (eJorth~v). Festival or feast-day. The annual festivals. The word holyday is used in its earlier sense of a sacred day.
6:27, 55; Romans 14:17. For the subject-matter compare Romans 14:17; 1 Corinthians 8:8; Hebrews 9:10 and note on Mark 7:19. The Mosaic law contained very
few provisions concerning drinks. See Leviticus 10:9; 11:34, 36; Numbers 6:3. Hence it is probable that the false teachers had extended the prohibitions as to the use
of wine to all Christians. The Essenes abjured both wine and animal food.

In respect (ejn me>rei). See on 2 Corinthians 3:10. Lit., in the division or category.

Holyday (eJorth~v). Festival or feast-day. The annual festivals. The word holyday is used in its earlier sense of a sacred day.

New moon (noumhni>av). Only here in the New Testament. The monthly festivals. The festival of the new moon is placed beside the Sabbath, Isaiah 1:13; Ezekiel
46:1. The day was celebrated by blowing of trumpets, special sacrifices, feasting, and religious instruction. Labor was suspended, and no national or private fasts were
permitted to take place. The authorities were at great pains to fix accurately the commencement of the month denoted by the appearance of the new moon. Messengers
were placed on commanding heights to watch the sky, and as soon as the new moon appeared, they hastened to communicate it to the synod, being allowed even to
travel on the Sabbath for this purpose. The witnesses were assembled and examined, and when the judges were satisfied the president pronounced the words it is
sanctified, and the day was declared new moon.

Sabbath days (sabba>twn). The weekly festivals. Rev., correctly, day, the plural being used for the singular. See on Luke 4:31; Acts 20:7. The plural is only once used
in the New Testament of more than a single day (Acts 17:2). The same enumeration of sacred seasons occurs 1 Chronicles 23:31; 2 Chronicles 2:4; 31:3; Ezekiel
45:17; Hosea 2:11.

17. Which are. Explanatory. Seeing they are. Referring to all the particulars of ver. 16.

Shadow of things to come. Shadow, not sketch or outline, as is shown by body following. The Mosaic ritual system was to the great verities of the Gospel what the
shadow is to the man, a mere general type or resemblance.

The body is Christ's. The substance belongs to the Christian economy. It is derived from Christ, and can be realized only through union with Him.

18. Beguile of reward (katabrabeue>tw). Only here in the New Testament. From kata> against, brabeu>w to act as a judge or umpire. Hence to decide against one,
or to declare him unworthy of the prize. Bishop Lightfoot's rendering rob you of your prize, adopted by Rev., omits the judicial idea, 199 which, however, I think must
be retained, in continuation of the idea of judgment in ver. 16, "let no man judge," etc. The attitude of the false teachers would involve their sitting in judgment as to the
future reward of those who refused their doctrine of angelic mediation. Paul speaks from the standpoint of their claim.

In a voluntary humility (qe>lwn ejn tapeinofrosu>nh|). Render delighting in humility. This rendering is well supported by Septuagint usage. See 1 Samuel 18:22; 2
Samuel 15:26; 1 Kings 10:9; 2 Chronicles 9:8.200 It falls in, in the regular participial series, with the other declarations as to the vain conceit of the teachers; signifying
not their purpose or their wish to deprive the Christians of their reward, but their vain enthusiasm for their false doctrine, and their conceited self-complacency which
prompted them to sit as judges. The worship of angels involved a show of humility, an affectation of superior reverence for God, as shown in the reluctance to attempt
to approach God otherwise than indirectly: in its assumption that humanity, debased by the contact with matter, must reach after God through successive grades of
intermediate beings. For humility, see on Matthew 11:29.

Worship of angels (qrhskei>a|). See on religious, James 1:26. Defining the direction which their humility assumed. The usage of the Septuagint and of the New
Testament limits the meaning to the external aspects of worship. Compare Acts 26:5; James 1:27.

Intruding (ejmbateu>wn). Rev., dwelling in. Only here in the New Testament. It is used in three senses: 1. To step in or upon, thence to haunt or frequent. So
Aeschylus: "A certain island which Pan frequents on its beach" ("Persae," 449). 2. To invade. So in Apocrypha, 1 Macc. xii. 25; 13:20; 14:31; 15:40. 3. To enter into
for examination; to investigate or discuss a subject. So 2 Macc. ii. 30, and so Philo, who compares truth-seekers to well-diggers. Patristic writers use it of searching the
heart, and of investigating divine mysteries. Byzantine lexicographers explain it by zhte>w to seek; ejxereuna>w to track out; skope>w to consider. In this last sense the
word is probably used here of the false teachers who professed to see heavenly truth in visions, and to investigate and discuss philosophically the revelation they had
received.

Which he hath not seen. Not must be omitted: which he imagines or professes that he has seen in vision. Ironical. "If, as we may easily imagine, these pretenders were
accustomed to say with an imposing and mysterious air, 'I have seen, ah! I have seen,' - in relating alleged visions of heavenly things, the Colossians would understand
the reference well enough" (Findlay).

Vainly puffed up (eijkhmenov). Vainly characterizes the emptiness of such pretension; puffed up, the swelling intellectual pride of those who make it. See on 1
Corinthians 4:6; and compare 1 Corinthians 8:1. The humility is thus characterized as affected, and the teachers as charlatans.

By his fleshly mind (uJpo). Lit., by the mind of his flesh. The intellectual faculty in its moral aspects as determined by the fleshly, sinful nature. See on Romans 8:23.
Compare Romans 7:22-25; 8:7. The teachers boasted that they were guided by the higher reason. Paul describes their higher reason as carnal. 201

19. Holding the head (kratw~n thn). Holding by or fast, as commonly in the New Testament. Compare Sophocles: "If thou art to rule (a]rxeiv) this land, even as thou
holdest it (kratei~v "Oedipus Tyrannus," 54). The head, Christ as contrasted with the angelic mediators.

From whom (ejx ou=). Fixing the personal reference of the head to Christ. Compare Ephesians 4:16.

By joints and bands (diasmwn). Joints (aJfw~n) only here and Ephesians 4:16. The word means primarily touching, and is used in classical Greek of the touch upon
harpstrings, or the grip of a wrestler. Not quite the same as joints in the sense of the parts in contact, but the relations between the adjacent parts. The actual connection
is expressed by bands 202 or ligaments.

Ministered (ejpicorhgoume>non). See on add, 2 Peter 1:5. Rev., supplied.

Knit together. See on ver. 2. "The discoveries of modern physiology have invested the apostle's language with far greater distinctness and force than it can have worn to
his own contemporaries. Any exposition of the nervous system more especially reads like a commentary on the image of the relations between the body and the head.
At every turn we meet with some fresh illustration which kindles it with a flood of light. The volition communicated from the brain to the limbs, the sensations of the
extremities telegraphed back to the brain, the absolute mutual sympathy between the head and the members, the instantaneous paralysis ensuing, on the interruption of
continuity, all these add to the completeness and life of the image" (Lightfoot).

20. Ye be dead (ajpeqa>nete). Rev., more correctly, ye died; the aorist tense indicating a definite event. Paul uses the word died in many different relations, expressing
that with which death dissolves the connection. Thus, died unto sin, unto self, unto the law, unto the world.
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Rudiments of the world. Elementary teachings and practices the peculiar sphere of which is the world. World (ko>smou) has its ethical sense, the sum-total of human
life in the ordered world, considered apart from, alienated from, and hostile to God, and of the earthly things which seduce from God. See on John 1:9.
continuity, all these add to the completeness and life of the image" (Lightfoot).

20. Ye be dead (ajpeqa>nete). Rev., more correctly, ye died; the aorist tense indicating a definite event. Paul uses the word died in many different relations, expressing
that with which death dissolves the connection. Thus, died unto sin, unto self, unto the law, unto the world.

Rudiments of the world. Elementary teachings and practices the peculiar sphere of which is the world. World (ko>smou) has its ethical sense, the sum-total of human
life in the ordered world, considered apart from, alienated from, and hostile to God, and of the earthly things which seduce from God. See on John 1:9.

Are ye subject to ordinances (dogmati>zesqe). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., subject yourselves. Better passive, as emphasizing spiritual bondage. Why do
ye submit to be dictated to? See on 1 Corinthians 1:22 where the imperious attitude of the Jews appears in their demanding credentials of the Gospel as sole
possessors of the truth. The ordinances include both those of the law and of philosophy.

21. Touch - taste - handle (a[yh| - geu>sh| - qi>gh|v). %Aptomai, A.V., touch, is properly to fasten one's self to or cling to. So John 20:17 (note). Frequently rendered
touch in the New Testament, and used in most cases of Christ's touching or being touched by the diseased. To get hands on so as to injure, 1 John 5:18. To have
intercourse with, 1 Corinthians 7:1; 2 Corinthians 6:17. Thus, in every case, the contact described exerts a modifying influence, and a more permanent contact or effect
of contact is often implied than is expressed by touch. "The idea of a voluntary or conscious effort is often involved." No single English word will express all these
phases of meaning. Handle comes, perhaps, as near as any other, especially in its sense of treatment, as when we say that a speaker or writer handles a subject; or that
a man is roughly handled by his enemies. This wider and stronger sense does not attach to qigga>nein A.V., handle, though the two words are sometimes used
interchangeably, as Exodus 19:12 and though qigga>nein also implies a modifying contact, unlike yhlafa>w, which signifies to touch with a view of ascertaining the
quality of the object; to feel after, to grope. See Luke 24:39; Acts 17:27. Thus yhlafi>nda is blind-man's-bluff. The contact implied by qigga>nein is more superficial
and transitory. It lies between a[ptomai and yhlafa>w. Thus we have here a climax which is lost in the A.V. Handle not, taste not, do not even touch. Rev., handle not,
nor taste, nor touch.

22. Which things. Meats, drinks, etc.

Are to perish (ejstin eijv fqora). Lit., are for corruption; destined for (eijv). Corruption, in the physical sense of decomposition.

With the using (th|~ ajpocrh>sei). Only here in the New Testament. Rather, using up, consumption. Their very using destroys them. Which things-using form a
parenthesis.

After the commandments and doctrines (katalmata kaiav). Connect with vers. 20, 21. z>lmata are specific injunctions. Rev., better, precepts: didaskali>av, more
general, doctrinal instructions. Both answer to the rudiments of the world (ver. 20). Compare Matthew 15:1-20; Mark 7:1-23.

23. Which things (a[tina). The double relative classifies, putting these precepts and teachings, and all that are like them, in one category: a class of things which. For
similar usage, see Galatians 4:24; 5:19; Philippians 4:3.

Have a show of wisdom (ejstin lo>gon e]conta sofi>av). Lit., are having a reputation for wisdom. The finite verb are, with the participle having, denotes what is
habitual, and marks the permanent quality of these precepts, etc. Lo>gon, A.V., show, is rather plausible reason, a show of reason, and hence a reputation. They pass
popularly for wisdom.

Will-worship (ejqeloqrhskei>a|). Only here in the New Testament. Worship self-imposed or volunteered. Similar compounds of ejqe>lw to will sometimes carry the
meaning of pretence, unreality; as ejqelo>kwfov pretending deafness; ejqelorh>twr a pretentious orator. Augustine makes hybrid Latin compounds, as thelodives, one
who takes on the airs of a rich man; thelosapiens, one who affects wisdom. More commonly, however, the sense is that of voluntariness or officiousness. Thus
Thucydides says that Pithias acted as ejqelopro>xenov voluntary agent or representative of the Athenians (iii., 70). Eqeloki>ndunov is running voluntarily into danger,
foolhardy: ejqelodoulei>a is voluntary slavery. The idea of pretense seems to be involved here along with that of self-chosen worship.

Humility. Voluntary and affected.

And neglecting (kaia|). Only here in the New Testament. From aj not and fei>domai to spare. Hence unsparing treatment or severity. Also used for lavishness,
extravagance of means and of life. So Thucydides: "The running aground of the ships was reckless (ajfeidh." 4:26). Neglecting is wrong. Rev., correctly, severity. The
kai and before severity is doubtful. If omitted, severity to the body defines have a reputation for wisdom, the outward austerity being that which makes the popular
impression of a higher wisdom.

In any honor (ejn timh|~ tini). Rev., better, of any value. The real value of these ascetic practices contrasted with their popular estimation. Price or value is the original
meaning of timh>, and its use in this sense is frequent in classical Greek. So in the New Testament, as Matthew 27:9"the price of Him who was priced
(tetimhme>nou)." In Paul, 1 Corinthians 6:20; 7:23. The idea of value appears in 1 Peter 1:19. "Ye were redeemed - with the precious (timi>w|) blood of Christ;"
something of real and adequate value. So 1 Peter 2:4 of Christ as the living stone, precious (e]ntimon), of recognized value.

To the satisfying (pro). To means as a remedy against. Plhsmonh denotes repletion, surfeiting. Paul says that these ascetic observances, while they appeal to men as
indications of superior wisdom and piety, have no value as remedies against sensual indulgence.

CHAPTER 3

1. Be risen (sunhge>rqhte). Rev., correctly, were raised. See Colossians 2:12. In their baptism in which they died (Colossians 2:20). Compare Romans 6:2 sqq.

Sitteth (ejstin kaqh>menov). According to the A.V. the literal rendering would be is sitting. Is, however, must be taken separately; where Christ is, seated. Seated is a
secondary predicate, as hidden in Colossians 2:3. Compare Ephesians 2:4-6; Revelation 3:21.

2. Set your affection (fronei~te). Lit., be minded, think. As Rev., set your mind. Seek marks the practical striving; set your mind, the inward impulse and disposition.
Both must be directed at things above. "You must not only seek heaven, you must think heaven" (Lightfoot). Compare Philippians 3:19, 20.

3. Ye are dead (ajpeqa>nete). Rev., correctly, ye died, as Colossians 2:20.

Is hid (ke>kruptai). Your new spiritual life is no longer in the sphere of the earthly and sensual, but is with the life of the risen Christ, who is unseen with God. Compare
Philippians 3:20.

4. Who is our life (zwh). See on John 1:4. The life is not only with Christ, it is Christ. Compare John 14:6; 2 Corinthians 4:10, 11; 1 John 5:11, 12. For the change of
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Shall appear (fanerwqh|~). Rev., correctly, shall be manifested. Compare 1 John 3:2 note. See on Romans 3:21.
Philippians 3:20.

4. Who is our life (zwh). See on John 1:4. The life is not only with Christ, it is Christ. Compare John 14:6; 2 Corinthians 4:10, 11; 1 John 5:11, 12. For the change of
person, our for your, see on Colossians 2:13.

Shall appear (fanerwqh|~). Rev., correctly, shall be manifested. Compare 1 John 3:2 note. See on Romans 3:21.

In glory. Compare Romans 8:17.

5. Mortify (nekrw>sate). Only here, Romans 4:19; Hebrews 11:12. Mortify is used in its literal sense of put to death.

So Erasmus: "Christ was mortified and killed." And Shakespeare:

" - his wildness mortified in him,

Seemed to die too."

"I Henry v., 1, 26"

Members (me>lh). See on Romans 6:13. The physical members, so far as they are employed in the service of sin. The word falls in with the allusions to bodily
austerities in Colossians 2.

Which are upon the earth. Compare ver. 2. The organs of the earthly and sensuous life.

Fornication, etc. In apposition with members, denoting the modes in which the members sinfully exert themselves.

Inordinate affection, evil concupiscence (pa>qov, ejpiqumi>an kakh>n). See on Romans 1:26.

And covetousness (kaian). And has a climactic force; and especially; see on Romans 1:29.

Which is (h[tiv ejstin). The compound relative, explanatory and classifying. Seeing it stands in the category of. Compare Ephesians 5:5.

Idolatry. See on 1 Corinthians 5:10.

6. Wrath - cometh. Compare Romans 1:18. The present tense denotes the certainty of the future event, as Matthew 17:11; John 4:21. The best texts omit upon the
children of disobedience.

7. In the which (ejn oi=v). The omission of upon the children, etc., necessitates the reference to which things (ver. 6) Otherwise we might render among whom.

Walked - lived. Walked, referring to their practice, lived, to their condition. Their conduct and their condition agreed. Compare Galatians 5:25.

8. Put off (ajpo>qesqe). Compare Romans 13:12; Ephesians 4:22, 25; Hebrews 12:1; James 1:21; 1 Peter 2:1.

Anger, wrath (ojrgh). See on John 3:36.

Malice (kaki>an). See on naughtiness, James 1:21.

Blasphemy (blasfhmi>an). See on Mark 7:22. Compare Romans 3:8; 14:16; 1 Corinthians 4:13; Ephesians 4:31. Rev. railing.

Filthy communication (aijscrologi>an). Only here in the New Testament. Not merely filthy talking, as A.V., but foul-mouthed abuse. Rev., shameful speaking.

Out of your mouth. Construe with the preceding word. As Colossians 2:20-22 suggests Christ's words in Matthew 15:1-20 this phrase suggests Matthew 15:11, 18.

9. Seeing that ye have put off (ajpekdusa>menoi). See on Colossians 2:15.

The old man. See on Romans 6:6.

10. New (ne>on). See on Matthew 26:29. Compare Ephesians 5:24.

Is renewed (ajnakainou>menon). Rev., better, giving the force of the present participle, is being renewed: in process of continuous renewal. The word kaino>v new,
which enters into the composition of the verb, gives the idea of quality. Compare 2 Corinthians 4:16 and the contrast in Ephesians 4:22.

In knowledge (eijv ejpi>gnwsin). Rev., correctly, unto knowledge, the end to which the renewal tended. Compare Ephesians 4:13.

After the image. Construe with renewed. Compare Ephesians 4:24 and see Genesis 1:26, 27.

Where there is (o[pou e]ni). Where, in the renewed condition; there is, better, as Rev., can be: e]ni strengthened from ejn in signifies not merely the fact but the
impossibility: there is no room for.

Greek, Jew, etc. Compare Galatians 3:28. National, ritual, intellectual, and social diversities are specified. The reference is probably shaped by the conditions of the
Colossian church, where the form of error was partly Judaistic and ceremonial, insisting on circumcision; where the pretense of superior knowledge affected contempt
for the rude barbarian, and where the distinction of master and slave had place as elsewhere.

Circumcision. For the circumcised. So Romans 4:12; Ephesians 2:11; Philippians 3:3.

Barbarian, Scythian. See on 1 Corinthians 14:11. The distinction is from the Greek and Roman point of view, where the line is drawn by culture, as between the Jew
and the Greek it was drawn by religious privilege. From the former stand-point the Jew ranked as a barbarian. Scythian. "More barbarous than the
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barbarians" (Bengel). Hippocrates describes them as widely different from the rest of mankind, and like to nothing but themselves, and gives an absurd       description of
their physical peculiarities. Herodotus describes them as living in wagons, offering human sacrifices, scalping and sometimes flaying slain enemies, drinking their blood,
and using their skulls for drinking-cups. When a king dies, one of his concubines is strangled and buried with him, and, at the close of a year, fifty of his attendants are
Circumcision. For the circumcised. So Romans 4:12; Ephesians 2:11; Philippians 3:3.

Barbarian, Scythian. See on 1 Corinthians 14:11. The distinction is from the Greek and Roman point of view, where the line is drawn by culture, as between the Jew
and the Greek it was drawn by religious privilege. From the former stand-point the Jew ranked as a barbarian. Scythian. "More barbarous than the
barbarians" (Bengel). Hippocrates describes them as widely different from the rest of mankind, and like to nothing but themselves, and gives an absurd description of
their physical peculiarities. Herodotus describes them as living in wagons, offering human sacrifices, scalping and sometimes flaying slain enemies, drinking their blood,
and using their skulls for drinking-cups. When a king dies, one of his concubines is strangled and buried with him, and, at the close of a year, fifty of his attendants are
strangled, disemboweled, mounted on dead horses, and left in a circle round his tomb. 203 The Scythians passed through Palestine on their road to Egypt, B.C. 600,
and a trace of their invasion is supposed to have existed in the name Scythopolis, by which Beth Shean 204 was known in Christ's time. Ezekiel apparently refers to
them (xxxviii., 39.) under the name Gog, which reappears in Revelation. See on Revelation 20:8. 205

Bowels of mercies (spla>gcna oijktirmou~). See on 1 Peter 3:8; 2 Corinthians 1:3. Rev., a heart of compassion.

Kindness (crhsto>thta). See on Romans 3:12.

Meekness (prau`>thta). See on Matthew 5:5.

Long-suffering (makroqumi>an). See on James 5:7.

13. One another - one another (ajllh>lwn - eJautoi~v). Lit., one another - yourselves. For a similar variation of the pronoun see Ephesians 4:32; 1 Peter 4:8-10. The
latter pronoun emphasizes the fact that they are all members of Christ's body - everyone members one of another - so that, in forgiving each other they forgive
themselves.

Quarrel (momfh>n). Only here in the New Testament. Cause of blame. Rev., complaint. The A.V. uses quarrel in its earlier sense of cause of complaint. So
Shakespeare:

"The lady Beatrice hath a quarrel to you."

"Much Ado," ii., 1.

"Against whom comest thou, and what's thy quarrel?"

"Richard II.," i., 3, 33.

Holinshed: "He thought he had a good quarrel to attack him." It was used of a plaintiff's action at law, like the Latin querela.

14. Above all (ejpi). According to the metaphor of the garment. Over all, like an upper garment, put on, etc.

Charity. See on 1 Corinthians 13:1.

Bond of perfectness (su>ndesmov th~v teleio>thtov). Love embraces and knits together all the virtues. Teleio>thv perfectness is a collective idea, a result of
combination, to which bond is appropriate. Compare Plato: "But two things cannot be held together without a third; they must have some bond of union. And the fairest
bond is that which most completely fuses and is fused into the things which are bound" ("Timaeus," 31).

15. Peace of Christ. Which comes from Christ. See John 14:27; Ephesians 2:14.

Rule (brabeu>etw). Lit., be umpire. Only here in the New Testament. See on Colossians 2:18. The previous references to occasions for meekness, long-suffering,
forbearance, forgiveness, etc., indicate a conflict of passions and motives in the heart. Christ is the one who adjusts all these, so that the metaphorical sense is
appropriate, as in Colossians 2:18.

Called in one body. See Ephesians 4:4. So that ye are in one body according to your call.

16. The word of Christ. The only occurrence of the phrase. The word spoken by Christ.

Richly. See on Romans 2:4 and compare Colossians 1:27.

In all wisdom. Some connect with the preceding words, others with the following - in all wisdom, teaching, etc. The latter seems preferable, especially in view of
Colossians 1:28 where the phrase occurs teaching and admonishing in all wisdom; because the adverb richly forms an emphatic qualification of dwell in, and so
appropriately terminates the clause; and because the whole passage is thus more symmetrical. "Dwell in has its single adverb richly, and is supported and expanded by
two coordinate participial clauses, each of which has its spiritual manner or element of action (in all wisdom, in grace) more exactly defined" (Ellicott).

Admonishing. See on Colossians 1:28. The participles teaching and admonishing are used as imperatives, as Romans 12:9-13 16-19; Ephesians 4:2, 3; Hebrews 13:5;
1 Peter 3:1, 7, 9, 16.

One another (eJautou>v). Yourselves. See on ver. 13.

Psalms. See the parallel passage, Ephesians 5:19. A psalm was originally a song accompanied by a stringed instrument. See on 1 Corinthians 14:15. The idea of
accompaniment passed away in usage, and the psalm, in New-Testament phraseology, is an Old-Testament psalm, or a composition having that character. A hymn is a
song of praise, and a song (w|jdh> ode) is the general term for a song of any kind. Hymns would probably be distinctively Christian. It is supposed by some that Paul
embodies fragments of hymns in his epistles, as 1 Corinthians 13; Ephesians 5:14; 1 Timothy 3:16; 2 Timothy 2:11-14. James 1:17 and Revelation 1:5, 6; 15:3 are also
supposed to be of this character. In both instances of his use of w|jdh> song, Paul adds the term spiritual. The term may, as Trench suggests, denote sacred poems
which are neither psalms nor hymns, as Herbert's "Temple," or Keble's "Christian Year." 206 This is the more likely, as the use of these different compositions is not
restricted to singing nor to public worship. They are to be used in mutual christian teaching and admonition.

With grace (ejn th|~ ca>riti). Lit., the grace. The article limits the meaning to the grace of God. With grace begins the second participial clause.

17. In the name. See on Matthew 28:19.
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Giving thanks. Notice the emphasis on the duty of thanksgiving placed at the close of the exhortations. See Colossians 1:12; 2:7; 3:15; 4:2.

18. Wives, etc. Compare the parallel passages, Ephesians 5:22-6:9. See also 1 Peter 2:18-3:7; Titus 2:1-5.
With grace (ejn th|~ ca>riti). Lit., the grace. The article limits the meaning to the grace of God. With grace begins the second participial clause.

17. In the name. See on Matthew 28:19.

Giving thanks. Notice the emphasis on the duty of thanksgiving placed at the close of the exhortations. See Colossians 1:12; 2:7; 3:15; 4:2.

18. Wives, etc. Compare the parallel passages, Ephesians 5:22-6:9. See also 1 Peter 2:18-3:7; Titus 2:1-5.

Is fit (ajnh~ken). See on Philemon 1:8. The imperfect tense, was fitting, or became fitting, points to the time of their entrance upon the christian life. Not necessarily
presupposing that the duty remained unperformed. Lightfoot illustrates by ought, the past tense of owed, and says, "the past tense perhaps implies an essential a priori
obligation."

In the Lord. Connect with is fitting, and compare well-pleasing in the Lord, ver. 20.

19. Be not bitter (mhnesqe). Lit., be not embittered. Used only here by Paul. Elsewhere only in Revelation. The compounds parapikrai>nw to exasperate, and
parapikrasmo>v provocation, occur only in Hebrews 3:16; 3:8, 15. Compare Ephesians 4:31.

20. This is well pleasing. Expanded in Ephesians 6:2, 3. Unto the Lord should be in the Lord.

21. Provoke to anger (ejreqi>zete). Only here and 2 Corinthians 9:2 where it is used of stirring up to good works. To anger is added by A.V.

Be discouraged (ajqumw~sin). Only here in the New Testament. Lose heart, or become dispirited.

22. Masters (kuri>oiv). See on Lord, 2 Peter 2:1 and Matthew 21:3. Ku>riov Lord and despo>thv master came to be used interchangeably in the New Testament,
though originally the latter involved such authority as is implied in our use of despot, or in the relation of a master to a slave. The Greeks applied despo>thv only to the
gods.

With eye-service (ejn ojfqalmodoulei>aiv). Only here and Ephesians 6:6. The word seems to have been coined by Paul.

Men pleasers (ajnqrwpa>reskoi). Only here and Ephesians 6:6. Compare Plato: "And this art he will not attain without a great deal of trouble, which a good man ought
to undergo, not for the sake of speaking and acting before men, but in order that he may be able to say what is acceptable to God, and always to act acceptably to
Him as far as in him lies. For there is a saying of wiser men than ourselves, that a man of sense should not try to please his fellow-servants (at least this should not be his
first object), but his good and noble masters" "Phaedrus," 273).

Singleness (aJplo>thti). See on Romans 12:8. Without duplicity or doubleness.

Fearing the Lord (torion). The one Master contrasted with the masters (kuri>oiv) according to the flesh. The parallel in Ephesians 6:5 has as unto Christ.

23. Ye do - do it (poih~te - ejrga>zesqe). Rev., correctly, ye do - work; the latter being the stronger term as opposed to idleness. See on James 2:9. An idle man may
do. Compare ejrgasi>a diligence, Luke 12:58.

Heartily (ejk yuch~v). Lit., from the soul. With a personal interest. Note that the apostle uses both heart (kardi>av, ver. 22) and soul (yuch~v); and in Ephesians 6:7
adds met' eujnoi>av with good disposition (A.V., good will). See on Romans 11:3; 7:23; 1:21. Compare su>myucoi of one accord, Philippians 2:2; ijso>yucon like-
minded, Philippians 2:20; mia|~ yuch|~ with one mind, Philippians 1:27.

24. Of the inheritance. Which consists or is in the inheritance. Compare the similar construction, ch 1:12. See Matthew 21:35-38 where the dou~lov bond-servant and
the klhrono>mov heir are contrasted; and Romans 8:15-17; Galatians 4:1-7.

For ye serve (gaete). Omit for. Some take the verb as imperative, serve ye; but the indicative is better as explaining from the Lord.

25. He that doeth wrong (oJ ajdikw~n). Compare Philemon 1:18. The reference is primarily to the slave; but the following clause extends it to the master. If the slave
do wrong, he shall be punished; but the master who does wrong will not be excused, for there is no respect of persons. Tychicus, who carried this letter to Colossae,
carried at the same time the letter to Philemon, and escorted Onesimns to his master.

Shall receive (komi>setai). See on 1 Peter 1:8. Compare Ephesians 6:8.

Respect of persons. See on James 2:1. In the Old Testament it has, more commonly, a good sense, of kindly reception, favorable regard. In the New Testament
always a bad sense, which came to it through the meaning of mask which attached to pro>swpon face.

CHAPTER 4

1. Masters, etc. The best texts attach this verse to the preceding chapter.

Render (pare>cesqe). The Greek implies on your part.

Equal (ththta). Lit., the equality. Not equality of condition, but the brotherly equality growing out of the Christian relation in which there is neither bond nor free. See on
Philemon 1:16.

2. Continue (proskarterei~te). See on Acts 1:14. Compare Acts 2:42, 46; 6:4; Romans 12:12; 13:6; 1 Thessalonians 5:17. Rev., correctly, continue steadfastly.

Watching (grhgorou~ntev). See on Mark 13:35; 1 Peter 5:8. In Ephesians 6:18ajgrupnou~ntev watching is used, on which see Mark 13:33.

Therein (ejn aujth|~). In prayer. Compare thereunto, Ephesians 6:18.

3. Door of utterance (qu>ran tou~ lo>gou). Rev., better, a door for the world. Compare 1 Corinthians 16:9; 2 Corinthians 2:12; Revelation 3:8. See also entering in, 1
Thessalonians 1:9; 2:1. And the parallel passage, Ephesians 6:19. There may be an allusion to a release from imprisonment.
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4. That I may make it manifest (i[na fanerw>sw). Compare speak boldly, Ephesians 6:20. That connects with the clause that God-Christ.

5. In wisdom (ejn sofi>a|). Compare Ephesians 5:15as wise.
3. Door of utterance (qu>ran tou~ lo>gou). Rev., better, a door for the world. Compare 1 Corinthians 16:9; 2 Corinthians 2:12; Revelation 3:8. See also entering in, 1
Thessalonians 1:9; 2:1. And the parallel passage, Ephesians 6:19. There may be an allusion to a release from imprisonment.

4. That I may make it manifest (i[na fanerw>sw). Compare speak boldly, Ephesians 6:20. That connects with the clause that God-Christ.

5. In wisdom (ejn sofi>a|). Compare Ephesians 5:15as wise.

Those that are without (tou). As 1 Corinthians 5:12, 13; 1 Thessalonians 4:12. Compare tou those within, 1 Corinthians 5:12.

Redeeming the time (tomenoi). Compare Ephesians 5:16 and Daniel 2:8 Sept. The word is used in the New Testament only by Paul, Galatians 3:13; 4:5; Ephesians
5:16. The compounded preposition ejx has the meaning out of; as Galatians 3:13"Christ redeemed us out of the curse," etc., and out and out, fully. So here and
Ephesians 5:16buy up. Rev., in margin, buying up the opportunity. The favorable opportunity becomes ours at the price of duty.

6. Seasoned with salt (a[lati hjrtume>nov). Both words only here in Paul. The metaphor is from the office of salt in rendering palatable. Both in Greek and Latin
authors, salt was used to express the pungency and wittiness of speech. Horace speaks of having praised a poet for rubbing the city with abundant salt, i.e., for having
wittily satirized certain parties so as to make them smart as if rubbed with salt, and so as to excite the laughter of those who are not hit ("Satires," 1 x., 3). Lightfoot
gives some interesting citations from Plutarch, in which, as here, grace and salt are combined. Thus: "The many call salt ca>ritav graces, because, mingled with most
things, it makes them agreeable and pleasant to the taste." Seasoned is, literally, prepared. It is not likely that the fact has any connection with this expression, but it is
interesting to recall Herodotus' story of a salt lake in the neighborhood of Colossae, which has been identified, and which still supplies the whole surrounding country
with salt (7:30). The exhortation to well-seasoned and becoming speech is expanded in Ephesians 4:29; 5:4 in a warning against corrupt communication.

7. Tychicus. Mentioned Acts 20:4; Ephesians 6:21; 2 Timothy 4:12; Titus 3:12.

Minister (dia>konov). Probably to Paul himself. Compare Acts 19:22; 20:4. Scarcely in the official sense of deacon.

Fellow-servant (su>ndoulov). Used by Paul only here and Colossians 1:7, of Epaphras. By this term he designates Tychicus as, in common with himself, a servant of
Jesus Christ. Probably not with a strict, but with a quasi official reference.

8. I have sent. Epistolary aorist. Tychicus carried the letter.

He might know your estate (gnw|~ ta). The correct reading is gnw~te ta ye might know the things about us, or our estate. Compare Ephesians 6:21.

9. Onesimus. See on Philemon 1:10.

The faithful and beloved brother. Whom the Colossians had known only as the worthless, runaway slave. See Philemon 1:11, 16.

10. Aristarchus, my fellow-prisoner. See on Philemon 1:23, 24. Unnecessary difficulty is made over the fact that the term fellow-prisoner is applied to Epaphras in
Philemon 1:23 and not to Aristarchus; while here the case is reversed. It is not necessary to suppose that the two had changed places, or that the captivity was
voluntary, if a literal captivity was meant. All the three terms fellow-prisoner, fellow-servant, fellow-worker - might be applied to both; and, as Dwight remarks,
"Reasons unknown to us may easily have determined the use of one word or the other, independently of the question as to the particular time when they were in
imprisonment."

Mark. See on Philemon 1:24.

Sister's son (ajneyio>v). Only here in the New Testament. Rev., correctly, cousin. The sense of nephew did not attach to the word until very late. Lightfoot remains that
this incidental notice explains why Barnabas should have taken a more favorable view of Mark's defection than Paul, Acts 15:37, 39.

11. Jesus Justus. Not mentioned elsewhere. The only one of these names not mentioned in the salutations of the Epistle to Philemon.

Have been a comfort (ejgenh>qhsan parhgori>a). Parhgori>a comfort, only here in the New Testament. Properly, an address, an exhortation: an exhortation for the
purpose of encouraging: hence a comfort. Plutarch, in his "Life of Cimon," uses it with pe>nqouv grief; a comfort, for grief; and in his "Life of Pericles," of consolation
for a dead son. Aretaeus, a medical writer, of the assuaging of a paroxysm. This word, and the kindred adjectives parhgoriko>v and parhgorhtiko>v soothing, are
common in medical writings. So Galen, of soothing fictions, pretenses to quiet the diseased. Have been is, more strictly, have proved.

12. Laboring fervently (ajgwnizo>menov). Rev., striving. See on Colossians 1:29; 2:1. Compare Romans 15:30.

Perfect (te>leioi). See on 1 Corinthians 2:6, 7; Colossians 1:28.

Complete (peplhroforhme>noi). See on most surely believed, Luke 1:1; and compare full assurance, Colossians 2:2. Rev., fully assured.

In all the will (ejn pantimati). Lit., in every will. Will means the thing willed, as Luke 12:47; James 5:30; 1 Thessalonians 5:18. Hence used sometimes in the plural, as
Acts 13:22shall do all my will (qelh>mata), i.e., perform all the things willed by me. Ephesians 2:3desires, strictly willings. So here the sense is, everything willed by
God. The connection is apparently with staqh~te ye may stand. For a similar construction see John 8:44; Romans 5:2; 1 Corinthians 15:1; 16:13. As Meyer observes,
this connection gives stand both a modal definition (perfect and fully assured) and a local definition (in all the will).

13. Zeal (zh~lon). Read po>non labor, which occurs elsewhere only in Revelation 16:10, 11; 21:4 in the sense of pain. Ponov labor is from the root of pe>nomai to
work for one's daily bread, and thence to be poor. Po>nov toil, pe>nhv one who works for his daily bread, and ponhro>v wicked, have a common root. See on
wickedness, Mark 7:22. In their original conceptions, ko>pov labor (1 Corinthians 15:58; 2 Corinthians 6:5) emphasizes the fatigue of labor: mo>cqov hard labor (2
Corinthians 11:27; 1 Thessalonians 2:9), the hardship: po>nov the effort, but po>nov has passed, in the New Testament, in every instance but this, into the meaning of
pain.

Hierapolis. The cities are named in geographical order. Laodicaea and Hierapolis faced each other on the north and south sides of the Lycus valley, about six miles
apart. Colossae was ten or twelve miles farther up the stream. Hierapolis owed its celebrity to its warm mineral springs, its baths, and its trade in dyed wools. It was a
center of the worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, 207 whose rites were administered by mutilated priests known as Galli, and of other rites representing different
oriental cults. Hence the name Hierapolis or sacred city.

14. Luke - Demas.
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The beloved physician. See Introduction to Luke.
apart. Colossae was ten or twelve miles farther up the stream. Hierapolis owed its celebrity to its warm mineral springs, its baths, and its trade in dyed wools. It was a
center of the worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, 207 whose rites were administered by mutilated priests known as Galli, and of other rites representing different
oriental cults. Hence the name Hierapolis or sacred city.

14. Luke - Demas. See on Philemon 1:24.

The beloved physician. See Introduction to Luke.

15. Nymphas. Probably contracted from Nymphodorus, as Artemas from Artemidorus (Titus 3:12): Zenas from Zenodorus (Titus 3:13); Olympas from Olympiodorus
(Romans 16:15).

The Church. Compare Philemon 1:2; Romans 16:5; 1 Corinthians 16:19; Acts 12:12.

His house (aujtou~). Others read aujtw~n their (so Rev., Lightfoot, Meyer). Others, as Westcott and Hort, aujth~v her, regarding the name as female, Nympha. It is
difficult, however, to know to whom the plural can refer. Some explain, Nymphas and his family. Meyer refers it to the brethren at Laodicaea and Nymphas, and thinks
that the allusion is to a foreign church in filial association with the church at Laodicaea, and holding its meetings in the same place.

16. The epistle from Laodicaea (thav). That is, the letter left at Laodicaea, and to be obtained by you from the church there. This letter cannot be positively identified.
The composition known as the Epistle to the Laodicaeans is a late and clumsy forgery, existing only in Latin MSS., and made up chiefly of disconnected passages from
Philippians, with a few from other epistles. 208

18. With mine own hand. The letter was written by an amanuensis, Paul adding his autograph.

Grace be with you. On the benedictions, see on 2 Corinthians 13:14. This short form occurs only here, 1 Timothy 6:21; 2 Timothy 4:22.

THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON
1. A prisoner of Jesus Christ (de>smiov). A prisoner for Christ's sake. This is the only salutation in which Paul so styles himself. The word is appropriate to his
confinement at Rome. Apostle would not have suited a private letter, and one in which Paul takes the ground of personal friendship and not of apostolic authority. A
similar omission of the official title occurs in the Epistles to the Thessalonians and Philippians, and is accounted for on the similar ground of his affectionate relations with
the Macedonian churches. Contrast the salutation to the Galatians.

Timothy, our brother. Lit., the brother. Timothy could not be called an apostle. He is distinctly excluded from this office in 2 Corinthians 1:1; Colossians 1:1; compare
Philippians 1:1. In Philippians and Philemon, after the mention of Timothy the plural is dropped. In Colossians it is maintained throughout the thanksgiving only. The title
brother is used of Quartus, Romans 16:23; Sosthenes, 1 Corinthians 1:1; Apollos, 1 Corinthians 16:12.

Philemon. An inhabitant, and possibly a native of Colossae in Phrygia. The name figured in the beautiful Phrygian legend of Baucis and Philemon, related by Ovid
("Metamorphoses," viii., 626 sqq. See note on Acts 14:11). He was one of Paul's converts (ver. 19), and his labors in the Gospel at Colossae are attested by the title
fellow-laborer, and illustrated by his placing his house at the disposal of the Colossian Christians for their meetings (ver. 2). The statements that he subsequently became
bishop of Colossae and suffered martyrdom are legendary.

2. Our beloved Apphia (>a| th|~ ajgaphth|~). Read th|~ ajdelfh|~ the (our) sister. Commonly supposed to have been Philemon's wife. The word is not the common
Roman name Appia, but is a Phrygian name, occurring frequently in Phrygian inscriptions. It is also written Aphphia, and sometimes Aphia.

Archippus. Possibly the son of Philemon and Apphia. From Colossians 4:17 he would appear to have held some important office in the church, either at Colossae or at
Laodicaea, which lay very near. In Colossians his name occurs immediately after the salutation to the Laodicaeans.

Fellow-soldier. In christian warfare. Perhaps at Ephesus. Applied also to Epaphroditus, Philippians 2:25.

The church in thy house. See on Romans 16:5.

4. Thank - always. Construe with thank. For similar introductory thanksgivings compare Romans 1:8; 1 Corinthians 1:4; Ephesians 1:16; Philippians 1:3; Colossians
1:3; 1 Thessalonians 1:2; 2 Thessalonians 1:3.

Making mention (mnei>an poiou>menov). Mnei>a primarily means remembrance, so that the phrase expresses the two ideas, mentioning thee when I call thee to mind.

In my prayers (ejpi>). On the occasions of.

Thy love and faith - toward (pro>v) the Lord Jesus and toward (eijv) all saints. The clauses are arranged crosswise, 209 love referring to saints, faith to Christ.
Toward. Two different prepositions are thus translated. Practically the difference is not material, but pro>v toward, with pi>stiv faith is unusual. See 1 Thessalonians
1:8. Eijv is the preposition of contact; to, unto; faith exerted upon.

6. That (o[pwv). Connect with making mention.

The communication of thy faith (hJ koinwni>a th~v pi>stew>v sou). Koinwni>a fellowship is often used in the active sense of impartation, as communication,
contribution, almsgiving. So Romans 15:26; 2 Corinthians 9:13; Hebrews 13:16. This is the sense here: the active sympathy and charity growing out of your faith.

May become effectual (ejnergh). See on James 5:16. This adjective, and the kindred ejnerge>w to work, be effectual, ejne>rghma working, operation, and ejne>rgeia
energy, power in exercise, are used in the New Testament only of superhuman power, good or evil. Compare Ephesians 1:19; Matthew 14:2; Philippians 2:13; 1
Corinthians 12:10; Hebrews 4:12.

In the knowledge (ejn ejpignw>sei). In denotes the sphere or element in which Philemon's charity will become effective. His liberality and love will result in perfect
knowledge of God's good gifts. In the sphere of christian charity he will be helped to a full experience and appropriation of these. He that gives for Christ's sake
becomes enriched in the knowledge of Christ. Knowledge is full, perfect knowledge; an element of Paul's prayer for his readers in all the four epistles of the captivity.

In you. Read in us.

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7. For we have (ga). Read e]scon I had. Connect with I thank in ver. 4, giving the reason for thankfulness as it lay in his own heart; as, in ver. 5, he had given the
becomes enriched in the knowledge of Christ. Knowledge is full, perfect knowledge; an element of Paul's prayer for his readers in all the four epistles of the captivity.

In you. Read in us.

In Christ Jesus (eijv Cristo). Connect with may become effectual, and render, as Rev., unto Christ; that is, unto Christ's glory.

7. For we have (ga). Read e]scon I had. Connect with I thank in ver. 4, giving the reason for thankfulness as it lay in his own heart; as, in ver. 5, he had given the
reason which lay in outward circumstances.

Bowels (spla>gcna). Rev., hearts. See on 1 Peter 3:8.

Are refreshed (ajnape>pautai). See on Matthew 11:28. Compare 1 Corinthians 16:18; 2 Corinthians 7:13.

Brother. Closing the sentence with a word of affection. Compare Galatians 3:15; 6:1.

8. Wherefore. Seeing that I have these proofs of thy love. Connect with I rather beseech (ver. 9).

I might be much bold (pollhan e]cwn). Better, as Rev., I have all boldness. ParjrJhsi>a boldness is opposed to fear, John 7:13; to ambiguity or reserve, John 11:14.
The idea of publicity may attach to it as subsidiary, John 7:4.

In Christ. As holding apostolic authority from Christ.

That which is convenient (to). Rev., befitting. Convenient is used in A.V., in the earlier and stricter sense of suitable. Compare Ephesians 5:4. Thus Latimer: "Works
which are good and convenient to be done." Applied to persons, as Hooper: "Apt and convenient persons." The modern sense merges the idea of essential fitness. The
verb ajnh>kw originally means to come up to; hence of that which comes up to the mark; fitting. Compare Colossians 3:18; Ephesians 5:4. It conveys here a delicate
hint that the kindly reception of Onesimus will be a becoming thing.

9. Being such an one as Paul the aged (toiou~tov w+n wJv Pau~lov presbu>thv). Being such an one, connect with the previous I rather beseech, and with Paul the
aged. Not, being such an one (armed with such authority), as Paul the aged I beseech (the second beseech in ver. 10); but, as Rev., for love's sake I rather beseech,
being such an one as Paul the aged. The beseech in ver. 10 is resumptive. Aged; or ambassador (so Rev., in margin). The latter rendering is supported by presbeu>w I
am an ambassador, Ephesians 6:10. 210 There is no objection to aged on the ground of fact. Paul was about sixty years old, besides being prematurely aged from
labor and hardship. For aged see Luke 1:18; Titus 2:2.

10. I beseech. Resuming the beseech of ver. 9. I beseech, I repeat.

Onesimus (>simon). The name is withheld until Paul has favorably disposed Philemon to his request. The word means helpful, and it was a common name for slaves.
The same idea was expressed by other names, as Chresimus, Chrestus (useful); Onesiphorus (profit-bringer, 2 Timothy 1:16); Symphorus (suitable). Onesimus was a
runaway Phrygian slave, who had committed some crime and therefore had fled from his master and hidden himself in Rome. Under Roman law the slave was a chattel.
Varro classified slaves among implements, which he classifies as vocalia, articulate speaking implements, as slaves; semivocalia, having a voice but not articulating, as
oxen; muta, dumb, as wagons. The attitude of the law toward the slave was expressed in the formula servile caput nullum jus habet; the slave has no right. The master's
power was unlimited. He might mutilate, torture, or kill the slave at his pleasure. Pollio, in the time of Augustus, ordered a slave to be thrown into a pond of voracious
lampreys. Augustus interfered, but afterward ordered a slave of his own to be crucified on the mast of a ship for eating a favorite quail. Juvenal describes a profligate
woman ordering a slave to be crucified. Some one remonstrates. She. replies: "So then a slave is a man, is he! 'He has done nothing,' you say. Granted. I command it.
Let my pleasure stand for a reason" (vi., 219). Martial records an instance of a master cutting out a slave's tongue. The old Roman legislation imposed death for killing a
plough-ox; but the murderer of a slave was not called to account. Tracking fugitive slaves was a trade. Recovered slaves were branded on the forehead, condemned to
double labor, and sometimes thrown to the beasts in the amphitheater. The slave population was enormous. Some proprietors had as many as twenty thousand. 211

Have begotten in my bonds. Made a convert while I was a prisoner.

11. Unprofitable (a]crhston). A play on the word Onesimus profitable. Compare unprofitable (ajcrei~ov) servant, Matthew 25:30. These plays upon proper names are
common both in Greek and Roman literature. Thus Aeschylus on the name of Helen of Troy, the play or pun turning on the root eJl, hel, destroy: Helene, helenaus,
helandras, heleptolis: Helen, ship-destroyer, man-destroyer, city-destroyer ("Agamemnon," 671). Or, as Robert Browning: "Helen, ship's-hell, man's-hell, city's-hell."
So on Prometheus (forethought): "Falsely do the gods call thee Prometheus, for thou thyself hast need of prometheus, i.e., of forethought" ("Prometheus Bound," 85,
86). Or Sophocles on Ajax. Aias (Ajax) cries ai, ai! and says, "Who would have thought that my name would thus be the appropriate expression for my
woes?" ("Ajax," 430). In the New Testament, a familiar example is Matthew 16:18; "thou art Petros, and on this petra will I build my church." See on Epaenetus, 2
Corinthians 8:18. 212

Now profitable. "Christianity knows nothing of hopeless cases. It professes its ability to take the most crooked stick and bring it straight, to flash a new power into the
blackest carbon, which will turn it into a diamond" (Maclaren, "Philemon," in "Expositor's Bible").

And to me. The words are ingeniously thrown in as an afterthought. Compare Philippians 2:27; Romans 16:13; 1 Corinthians 16:18. A strong appeal to Philemon lies in
the fact that Paul is to reap benefit from Onesimus in his new attitude as a christian brother.

12. I have sent again (ajne>pemya). Rev., sent back. The epistolary aorist, see on 1 Peter 5:12. Our idiom would be I send back. That Onesimus accompanied the
letter appears from Colossians 4:7-9.

Thou therefore receive. Omit, and render aujto>n him as Rev., in his own person; his very self.

13. I would (ejboulo>mhn). Rev., I would fain. See on Matthew 1:19. The imperfect tense denotes the desire awakened but arrested. See on I would, ver. 14.

With me (pro). The preposition expresses more than near or beside. It implies intercourse. See on with God, John 1:1.

In thy stead (uJpe). Rev., correctly, in thy behalf. A beautiful specimen of christian courtesy and tact; assuming that Philemon would have desired to render these
services in person.

In the bonds of the Gospel. Connect with me. Bonds with which he is bound for the sake of the Gospel: with which Christ has invested him. A delicate hint at his
sufferings is blended with an intimation of the authority which attaches to his appeal as a prisoner of Christ. This language of Paul is imitated by Ignatius. "My bonds
exhort  you"(c)
 Copyright    (Tralles, 12.). "He
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                               Infobase  Media is my witness, in whom I am bound" (Philadelphia, 7.). "In whom I bear about my bonds as spiritual pearls"
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11.). "In the bonds which I bear about, I sing the praises of the churches" (Magnesians, 1.).

14. I would (hjqe>lhsa). Compare I would, ver. 13. Here the aorist tense and the verb meaning to will denote a single, decisive resolution.
services in person.

In the bonds of the Gospel. Connect with me. Bonds with which he is bound for the sake of the Gospel: with which Christ has invested him. A delicate hint at his
sufferings is blended with an intimation of the authority which attaches to his appeal as a prisoner of Christ. This language of Paul is imitated by Ignatius. "My bonds
exhort you" (Tralles, 12.). "He (Jesus Christ) is my witness, in whom I am bound" (Philadelphia, 7.). "In whom I bear about my bonds as spiritual pearls" (Ephesians,
11.). "In the bonds which I bear about, I sing the praises of the churches" (Magnesians, 1.).

14. I would (hjqe>lhsa). Compare I would, ver. 13. Here the aorist tense and the verb meaning to will denote a single, decisive resolution.

As it were of necessity (wJv katagkhn). q as it were, Rev., as, marks the appearance of necessity. Philemon's kindly reception of Onesimus must not even seem to be
constrained.

15. For perhaps. I sent him back, for, if I had kept him, I might have defeated the purpose for which he was allowed to be separated from you for a time. "We are not
to be too sure of what God means by such and such a thing, as some of us are wont to be, as if we had been sworn of God's privy council.... A humble 'perhaps' often
grows into a 'verily, verily' - and a hasty, over-confident 'verily, verily' often dwindles to a hesitating 'perhaps.' Let us not be in too great a hurry to make sure that we
have the key of the cabinet where God keeps his purposes, but content ourselves with 'perhaps' when we are interpreting the often questionable ways of His
providence, each of which has many meanings and many ends" (Maclaren).

He therefore departed (diasqh). The A.V. misses the ingenious shading of Paul's expression. Not only does he avoid the word ran away, which might have irritated
Philemon, but he also uses the passive voice, not the middle, separated himself, as an intimation that Onesimus' flight was divinely ordered for good. Hence Rev.,
correctly, he was parted. Compare Genesis 45:5.

For a season (pro). A brief season. See 2 Corinthians 7:8; Galatians 2:5.

Thou shouldst receive (ajpe>ch|v). The compounded preposition ajpo> may mean back again, after the temporary separation, or in full, wholly. The former is
suggested by was parted, and would fain have kept: but the latter by ver. 16, no longer as a servant, but more. The latter is preferable. Compare the use of ajpe>cw in
Matthew 6:2they have received. (see note); Matthew 6:16; Luke 6:24; Philippians 4:18; and ajpolamba>nw receive, Galatians 4:5.

16. Not now (oujke>ti). Rev., more correctly, no longer. The negative adverb oujke>ti states the fact absolutely, not as it may be conceived by Philemon (mhke>ti).
However Philemon may regard Onesimus, as a fact he is now no longer as a slave.

Above (uJpe>r). Rev., more than. More than a slave - a whole man.

Especially (ma>lista). Connect with beloved. Especially to me as compared with other Christians.

How much more (po>sw| ma~llon). Beloved most to Paul, how much more than most to Philemon, since he belonged to him in a double sense, as a slave and as a
Christian brother: in the flesh and in the Lord. "In the flesh Paul had the brother for a slave: in the, Lord he had the slave for a brother" (Meyer).

17. Then (ou+n). Resumptive from ver. 12.

Thou count (e]ceiv). Lit., hold, which is often used in this sense. Compare Luke 14:18hold me or count me as excused Philippians 2:29hold such in reputation.

Partner. More than an intimate friend. One in Christian fellowship. 213

18. If he hath wronged (eij hjdi>kdsen). The indicative mood with the conditional particle may imply that what is put hypothetically is really a fact: if he wronged thee as
he did.

Oweth. Perhaps indicating that Onesimus had been guilty of theft. Notice the general word wronged instead of the more exact specification of the crime.

Put that on my account (tou~to ejmoi ejllo>ga). For the verb, compare Romans 5:13 (note).

19. I Paul have written, etc. Rev., write. A promissory note. The mention of his autograph here, rather than at the end of the letter, may indicate that he wrote the whole
epistle with his own hand, contrary to his usual custom of employing an amanuensis.

Albeit I do not say (i[na mhgw). Lit., that I may not say. Connect with I write. I thus give my note of hand that I may avoid saying that thou owest, etc. Rev., that I say
not unto thee.

Thou owest (prosofei>leiv). Lit., owest in addition. I have laid you under obligation, not only for an amount equal to that due from Onesimus, but for yourself as made a
Christian through my ministry.

20. Yea (nai>). A confirmatory particle, gathering up the whole previous intercession for Onesimus. So Matthew 11:26. even so; Rev., yea. Luke 11:51verily; Rev.,
yea. Luke 12:5yea.

Let me have joy (ojnai>mhn). Or help. Lit., may I profit. Again a play upon the name Onesimus. The verb is frequently used with reference to filial doties. Ignatius
employs it, in one instance, directly after an allusion to another Onesimus (Ephesians, 2.).

21. More than I say (uJpe>r). Beyond. Possibly hinting at manumission.

22. Withal (a[ma). Simultaneously with the fulfillment of my request.

A lodging. Paul is expecting a speedy liberation. His original plan of going from Rome to Spain has apparently been altered. Lightfoot observes that "there is a gentle
compulsion in this mention of a personal visit to Colossae. The apostle would thus be able to see for himself that Philemon had not disappointed his expectations."

I shall be given (carisqh>somai). A beautiful assumption of his correspondent's affection for him, in that his visit to them will be a gracious gift (ca>riv). The word is also
used of granting for destruction, Acts 25:11; or for preservation, Acts 3:14.

23. Epaphras my fellow prisoner (*~v oJ sunaicma>lwto>v mou). Epaphras is mentioned Colossians 1:7; 4:12. Some identify him with Epaphroditus, but without
sufficient
 Copyrightreason.  Epaphroditus
             (c) 2005-2009,     appearsMedia
                            Infobase    to have been a native of Philippi (Philippians 2:25), and Epaphras of Colossae (Colossians 4:12). Epaphroditus
                                              Corp.                                                                                              Pageis 168
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of the Philippian, and Epaphras of the Colossian. The names, however, are the same, Epaphras being a contraction.

It is disputed whether fellow-prisoner is to be taken in a literal or in a spiritual sense. For the latter see Romans 7:23; 2 Corinthians 10:5; Ephesians 4:8. Compare
used of granting for destruction, Acts 25:11; or for preservation, Acts 3:14.

23. Epaphras my fellow prisoner (*~v oJ sunaicma>lwto>v mou). Epaphras is mentioned Colossians 1:7; 4:12. Some identify him with Epaphroditus, but without
sufficient reason. Epaphroditus appears to have been a native of Philippi (Philippians 2:25), and Epaphras of Colossae (Colossians 4:12). Epaphroditus is always used
of the Philippian, and Epaphras of the Colossian. The names, however, are the same, Epaphras being a contraction.

It is disputed whether fellow-prisoner is to be taken in a literal or in a spiritual sense. For the latter see Romans 7:23; 2 Corinthians 10:5; Ephesians 4:8. Compare
fellow-soldier, ver. 2, and Philippians 2:25. In Romans 16:7 the word used here is applied to Andronicus and Junia. Paul was not strictly an aijcma>lwtov prisoner of
war (see on Luke 4:18). The probabilities seem to favor the spiritual sense. Lightfoot suggests that Epaphras' relations with Paul at Rome may have excited suspicion
and led to his temporally confinement; or that he may voluntarily have shared Paul's imprisonment.

24. Mark. Probably John Mark the evangelist. He appears as the companion of Paul, Acts 12:25; Colossians 4:10; 2 Timothy 4:11.

Aristarchus. A Thessalonian. Alluded to Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2. He was Paul's companion for a part of the way on the journey to Rome.

Demas. See Colossians 4:14; 2 Timothy 4:10.

Luke. The physician and evangelist. See Introduction to Luke's Gospel.

25. Grace - with your spirit. As in Galatians 6:18 with the omission here of brother. See on 2 Corinthians 13:14.

Out of many private letters which must have been written by Paul, this alone has been preserved. Its place in the New Testament canon is vindicated, so far as its
internal character is concerned, by its picture of Paul as a christian gentleman, and by its exhibition of Paul's method of dealing with a great social evil.

Paul's dealing with the institution of slavery displayed the profoundest christian sagacity. To have attacked the institution as such would have been worse than useless.
To one who reads between the lines, Paul's silence means more than any amount of denunciation; for with his silence goes his faith in the power of christian sentiment to
settle finally the whole question. He knows that to bring slavery into contact with living Christianity is to kill slavery. He accepts the social condition as a fact, and even
as a law. He sends Onesimus back to his legal owner. He does not bid Philemon emancipate him, but he puts the christian slave on his true footing of a christian brother
beside his master. As to the institution, he knows that the recognition of the slave as free in Christ will carry with it, ultimately, the recognition of his civil freedom.

History vindicated him in the Roman empire itself. Under Constantine the effects of christian sentiment began to appear ill the Church and in legislation concerning
slaves. Official freeing of slaves became common as an act of pious gratitude, and burial tablets often represent masters standing before the Good Shepherd, with a
band of slaves liberated at death, and pleading for them at judgment. In A.D. 312 a law was passed declaring as homicide the poisoning or branding of slaves, and
giving them to be torn by beasts. The advance of a healthier sentiment may be seen by comparing the law of Augustus, which forbade a master to emancipate more
than one-fifth of his slaves, and which fixed one hundred males as a maximum for one time - and the unlimited permission to emancipate conceded by Constantine.
Each new ruler enacted some measure which facilitated emancipation. Every obstacle was thrown by the law in the way of separating families. Under Justinian all
presumptions were in favor of liberty. If a slave had several owners, one could emancipate him, and the others must accept compensation at a reduced valuation. The
mutilated, and those who had served in the army with their masters' knowledge and consent, were liberated. All the old laws which limited the age at which a slave
could be freed, and the number which could be emancipated, were abolished. A master's marriage with a slave freed all the children. Sick and useless slaves must be
sent by their masters to the hospital.

Great and deserved praise has been bestowed on this letter. Bengel says: "A familiar and exceedingly courteous epistle concerning a private affair is inserted among the
New Testament books, intended to afford a specimen of the highest wisdom as to how Christians should arrange civil affairs on loftier principles." Franke, quoted by
Bengel, says: "The single epistle to Philemon very far surpasses all the wisdom of the world." Renan: "A true little chef-d'oeuvre of the art of letter-writing." Sabatier:
"This short epistle gleams like a pearl of the most exquisite purity in the rich treasure of the New Testament." 214

Notes
1. The student will find a clear summary of the evidences for the Gentile character of the Church in Weiss' Introduction to the New Testament."

2. Some, however, maintain that the epistle was written at Cenchreae, after Paul had left Corinth on his return to Syria. See notes on ch. 14:23; 16:1.

3. Stalker.

4. Against the majority of authorities.

5. Advocated by Bishop Lightfoot.

6. This theory was elaborately advocated by Dr. Lardner ("Works," 3, ch. 14.). Summaries and discussions of his argument may be found in Alford's and Eadie's
commentaries, and in Dr. Davidson's "Introduction to the Study of the New Testament."

7. Lightfoot.

8. Alexander V. G. Allen, "The Continuity of Christian Thought." See also Newman's "Arians of the Fourth Century," ch. 2, sec. 5,

9. Introduction to the "Commentary on Colossians." See also Aubrey Moore's essay, "The Christian Doctrine of God," in "Lux Mundi," p. 94 sqq.

10. Possibly 2nd John, though kuri>a lady may refer to a church See on 2 John 1:1.

11. These and other topics are most beautifully and forcefully treated by the Rev. Alexander Maclaren in his volume on Colossians and Philemon; "Expositor's Bible."

12. See illustrations in Conybeare and Howson's "Life and Epistles of Paul," ch 5.

13. Wyclif has cleped, i.e., yclept. Jowett, called an apostle; so Hodge. Objectionable, because it might be construed as equivalent to named.

14. Cursive, a MS. written in running hand. MSS. written in capitals are distinguished as unicals.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.
15. Where Tischendorf, Tregelles and Westcott and Hort read ajgge>llousa for ajpagge>llousa. In John 4:51 Tischendorf reads kai for kaiggeilan,Page   169
                                                                                                                                                and omits    / 567
                                                                                                                                                          le>gontev.
Westcott and Hort, simply le>gontev.
13. Wyclif has cleped, i.e., yclept. Jowett, called an apostle; so Hodge. Objectionable, because it might be construed as equivalent to named.

14. Cursive, a MS. written in running hand. MSS. written in capitals are distinguished as unicals.

15. Where Tischendorf, Tregelles and Westcott and Hort read ajgge>llousa for ajpagge>llousa. In John 4:51 Tischendorf reads kai for kaiggeilan, and omits le>gontev.
Westcott and Hort, simply le>gontev.

16. Di>kh and its kindred words were derived by Aristotle from di>ca twofold, the fundamental idea being that of an even relation between parts. Modern philologists,
however, assign the words to the root dik, which appears in dei>knumi I show or point out.

17. This, however, is disputed by those who claim that the earlier sense of di>kh is custom or usage. Schmidt, "Synonmik," 18, 4.

18. Xenophon, "Memorabilia," i., 1, 1; iv., 4, 3.

19. On the Greek conception of righteousness, see Nagelsbach, "Homerisehe Theologie," 139-207; Schmidt, "Synonymik der Griechischen Sprache,." 1:18;
Gladstone, "Homer and the Homeric Age," 2, 423 sqq.; Grote, "History of Greece," 1, ch. 20.

20. Dr. Bushnell, though evidently not aware of this usage, has seized the connection between the ideas of kindness and righteousness. "Righteousness, translated into a
word of the affections, is love; and love, translated back into a word of the conscience, is righteousness. We associate a more fixed exactness, it may be, and a
stronger thunder of majesty, but there is no repugnance between it and the very love itself of Christ.... Nowhere do we feel such a sense of the righteousness of God as
we do in the dying scene of Christ 'Certainly this was a righteous man' - and we only feel the more powerfully that God is a forgiving God" ("Vicarious Sacrifice").

21. All students of the psychological terms used by Paul are under very great obligations to the Rev. William P. Dickson, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the University of
Glasgow. In his Baird Lecture for 1883, on "Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit," he has presented in a most lucid manner the valuable result of Wendt's studies in
this field, in addition to his own investigations. I do not know of any book in which the student will find the results of the later German theories of Paul's psychology so
clearly and compactly set forth and so acutely analyzed. I have drawn freely from his work in all my notes on this subject.

22. On serpent-worship in Egypt see Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," second series, vol. 2.

23. See an interesting article on "The Rhetoric of St. Paul," by Archdeacon Farrar, Expositor, first series, 10, 1 sqq.

24. Paronomasia differs from the play upon words, in that the latter has respect to the meaning of the words, while the former regards only the similarity in sound.

25. See also Bishop Lightfoot in "Contemporary Review," 1878, and 2 Macc., 4:42.

26. Perowne translates the Hebrew actively, when thou judgest.. So Hengstenberg and Alexander. The Vulgate takes it as passive. But even the passive is used in a
middle sense in the New Testament, as Matthew 5:40; 1 Corinthians 6:1, 6; and in the Septuagint this use is frequent, with or without a judicial reference. Genesis
26:21; Judges 21:22; Job 9:3; 13:19; Isaiah 43:26 etc.

27. The rendering adopted is objected to on the ground that the verb is not used in this sense in the middle voice. But the middle is sometimes used in the active sense,
and may have been preferred here because Paul speaks of a superiority which the Jews claimed for themselves. The marginal rendering in Rev., "Do we put forward
anything in excuse," maintained by Meyer and Morison, would require an object for the verb, which is not used absolutely. This is shown by the quotations given by
Morison; Thucydides, 3, 68; 4, 87; Sophocles, "Antigone," so. He urges the very lame plea that there is nothing in the nature of the word to render its absolute use an a
priori improbability, and infers such use from that of the kindred proba>llomai. The student should by all means examine his very full discussion in his monograph on this
chapter, which is, literally, a stupendous piece of exegesis.

28. See Morison's long and acute discussion.

29. Not in Revelation 22:11 where, for dikaiwqh>tw let him be justified, the true reading is dikaiosu>nhn poihsa>tw let him do righteousness.

30. So Meyer, Shedd, Beet, De Wette, Alford.

31. It is doubtful whether kalei~n ever means to dispose of. The passages cited by Schaff in Lange, Psalms 1:1; Isaiah 40:26; 45:3 do not appear to be in point. The
calling of the earth in Psalms 1. is rather summoning it as a witness. In the other two passages the phrase is used of calling by name.

32. The reading ecomen we have is defended on the ground that transcribers often substituted the long for the short o; and also that if the reading were ecwmen that
form would have been retained; which may be the case, though kaucw>meqa (ver. 2) proves nothing, since it may mean either we rejoice or let us rejoice.

33. See Cremer's Lexicon under prosagwgh>, and compare Liddell and Scott.

34. Meyer, however, denies the New Testament use of uJpe>r in the local sense.

35. Meyer's observations are forcible; that while Paul sometimes exchanges uJpe>r for, peri> concerning, he never uses ajnti> instead of it; that with uJpe>r as well as
with peri> he does not invariably use the genitive of the person, but sometimes the genitive of the thing (as aJmartiw~n sins), in which case it would be impossible to
explain by instead of (Romans 8:3; 1 Corinthians 15:3).

36. See President Dwight's note in the American Meyer. His article in the "New Englander," 1867, I have not seen.

37. wJsei> is found in [Aleph], A, B, C. It does not occur elsewhere in Paul. Patristic testimony is in favor of wJv.

38. It is becoming increasingly manifest how necessary is a thorough acquaintance with the language of the Septuagint to a clear understanding of Paul's writings, and
indeed of New-Testament Greek in general. The want of an adequate apparatus in this branch of study constantly makes itself felt by the critical student of the New
Testament. The recent death of Edwin Hatch, of Oxford, who was engaged upon a new Concordance to the Septuagint, is a serious loss to New-Testament
scholarship. The student may profitably consult that scholar's "Essays in Biblical Greek" (1889). See also two interesting articles by Archdeacon Farrar, "Expositor,"
first series, i., 15, 104; and, with special reference to Paul's use of psychological terms, Professor Dickson's "Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit."

39. For other explanations, see Schaff's Lange on this passage.
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40. I hold that, in this chapter, Paul is describing the condition, not of the regenerate man struggling for sanctification, but of the unregenerate. Those who maintain the
opposite view explain I of the regenerate personality, and give now - no more the temporal sense. "It was once my true self, it is no more my true self which works the
will of sin." Dr. Dixon says: "Hardly any recent exegete of mark, except Philippi and Delitzsch, lends countenance to the view that Paul is depicting the experiences of
first series, i., 15, 104; and, with special reference to Paul's use of psychological terms, Professor Dickson's "Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit."

39. For other explanations, see Schaff's Lange on this passage.

40. I hold that, in this chapter, Paul is describing the condition, not of the regenerate man struggling for sanctification, but of the unregenerate. Those who maintain the
opposite view explain I of the regenerate personality, and give now - no more the temporal sense. "It was once my true self, it is no more my true self which works the
will of sin." Dr. Dixon says: "Hardly any recent exegete of mark, except Philippi and Delitzsch, lends countenance to the view that Paul is depicting the experiences of
the believer under grace in conflict with sin."

41. So those who refer the section to the regenerate.

42. See his full discussion of this passage in "St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit," p. 322 sqq.

43. The discussion cannot be entered upon here. It is scarcely fair to test Paul's phraseology by the distinctions of modern psychology; nor, assuming his familiarity with
these, is it to be expected, as has been justly said, that "he would emphasize them in an earnest prayer for his converts, poured out from a full heart." The assumption of
a trichotomy results in a chaos of exegesis, aiming at the accurate definition of the three parts. Professor Riddle, in Schaff's Lange, has some sensible remarks on this
subject. He finds little beside the single passage in Thessalonians to support the trichotomic view, and concludes that the distinction, if real, "is not of such importance as
has been thought, and cannot be made the basis of the startling propositions which human speculation has deduced from it." He claims that the prevailing tone of
scripture implies a twofold rather than a threefold division. This view is also held and expounded by Professor Dickson.

44. Professor Dickson, however, maintains that the Holy Spirit as "the source and vehicle of life" is meant. He urges the deviation from strict parallelism of structure
which would require dead to be offset by living instead of the abstract life.

45. So Morison on Mark 14:36 of its use by Christ in Gethsemane, as personating both Jew and Gentile in Himself.

46. This is the simple, common-sense meaning. The attempt to attach to it the sense of preelection, to make it include the divine decree, has grown out of dogmatic
considerations in the interest of a rigid predestinarianism. The scope of this work does not admit a discussion of the infinitesimal hair-splitting which has been applied to
the passage, and which is as profitless as it is unsatisfactory.

47. So Alford, De Wette, Jowett. The objections are based mainly on the supposed logical correlation of the sentences; on which it seems superfluous to insist in a
rhetorical outburst like this. Meyer's arrangement is adopted by Rev. and Dwight; Lange and Schaff and Riddle hold to the A.V.

48. Meyer says: Not absolutely coinciding with things present in the usual sense, though this is linguistically possible, but never in the New Testament. He renders: What
is in the act of having set in, and cites Galatians 1:4 where, however, commentators differ. The Vulgate favors Meyer, rendering instantia.

49. The American Committee of Revision justly take exception to the variation in the rendering of pneu~ma a[gion Holy Spirit, Ghost, by the English Revisers.
Throughout Matthew, Mark, and Luke they use Ghost, with Spirit in margin, as also throughout Acts and Romans. In John, Spirit throughout, except in John 20:22 for
no apparent reason In 1 Corinthians, both; in 2 Corinthians Ghost throughout; in Ephesians, Spirit. In 1 Thessalonians, both. In Timothy, Titus, 1st and 2nd Peter,
Ghost; in Jude, Spirit. See my article on "The Revised New Testament, Presbytorian Review, October, 1881 and some severe strictures in the same direction by
Professor Dickson, "St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit," p. 240.

50. Some make the words "I could wish - from Christ," parenthetical, and suppose Paul to refer to his own attitude toward Christ before his conversion, by way of
illustrating the sad spiritual condition of his countrymen, and thus accounting for his sorrow of heart. Others retain the same sense without the parenthesis. The word
may also mean "I prayed" (2 Corinthians 13:7; James 5:16). In classical Greek, though not in the New Testament, it has the meaning "vow." Lange renders "I made a
vow," saying that he probably made some fearful pledge when he received authority to persecute the Christians The student will find the various interpretations fully
discussed in Morison's monograph on Romans 9 and 10, and in Schaff's Lange.

51. I incline to the doxological view, but the long and intricate discussion cannot be gone into here. For the doxological view the student may consult Meyer's note,
Professor Ezra Abbot, "Journal of the American Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis," 1881 (also "Critical Essays"), and Beet's "Commentary on Romans" Also
G. Vance Smith, "Expositor," first series ix., 397, to which are appended answers by Archdeacon Farrar and W. Sanday On the other side, President Dwight's note in
the American Meyer. He refers in this to his own article in the same number of the "Journal of Biblical Literature" in which Professor Abbot's article appears. See, also,
Farrar in "Expositor" as above, p. 217, and Godet on Romans.

52. See an article on "The Potter and the Clay," by Dean Plumptre, "Expositor," first series, iv., 469.

53. It is not easy to draw the distinction between this and certain other words for vocal utterances. The earlier distinction seems to have been that fqo>ggov was used
as distinguished from the voice (fwnh>) as a physical power. Hence fqo>ggov would describe the manifold quality of the voice. So Thucydides, vii., 71. "In the
Athenian army one might hear lamentation shouting, cries of victory or defeat, and all the various sounds which a great host in great danger would be compelled to utter
(fqe>ggesqai)" Thus it is sound from the stand-point of the hearer rather than of the speaker or singer. Plato distinguishes fqo>ggoi as swift or slow, sharp or flat, etc.
("Timaeus," 80). It is used of musical sounds.

54. Yet see Homer, "Iliad." 1. 3, 4.' The wrath of Achilles "hurled to Hades many valiant souls yuca of heroes and made the men themselves (autou) a prey to dogs and
all birds." Here the individuality of the man is apparently identified with the body. The soul is a vain shadow. Compare "Odyssey." 24. 14. "There dwell the souls
(yucai>), images of the dead (eidwla kamo>ntwn)." Also, "Odyssey," xi., 476. "Hades, where dwell the senseless dead (nekroi> ajfra>deev) images of departed
mortals."

55. It is, however, occasionally used in the Septuagint to translate other words: for instance, ish man, Leviticus 17:9; chai life, Job 38:39 (A.V., appetite), Psalms 63:1;
Lebh heart, 2 Kings 6:11; 1 Chronicles 12:38; 15:29; Psalms 68:20; Proverbs 6:21 etc.; meth a dead body, Ezekiel 44:25. In Numbers 9:6, nephesh of a dead body;
P'ne look (A.V. state), Proverbs 27:23; ruach spirit, Genesis 41:8; Exodus 35:21.

56. So Hitzig. Delitzsch inclines to his view, and Perowne thinks the Davidic authorship very doubtful. Meyer says, positively, "not David." So Foy.

57. The student will find the subject fully discussed by Bishop Lightfoot, "Commentary on Colossians," p 323; Ellicott on Galatians 4:4; Ephesians 1:23 Eadie and
Alford on Ephesians 1:23. See, also, an article by John Macpherson. "Expositor," second series, 4. 462.

58. For the numerous attempts to make the two figures represent different thoughts, see Lange on the passage.
 Copyright
59.         (c) 2005-2009,
    See Dr. Samuel         Infobase
                   Cox's charming    Media
                                  little    Corp. on the "Book of Ruth." It may be found serially in the "Expositor," first series, vol. 2.
                                         monograph                                                                                                      Page 171 / 567

60. Thayer ("Lexicon"), Knowledge, regarded by itself; wisdom, exhibited in action. Lightfoot, Knowledge is simply intuitive, wisdom is ratiocinative also. Knowledge
Alford on Ephesians 1:23. See, also, an article by John Macpherson. "Expositor," second series, 4. 462.

58. For the numerous attempts to make the two figures represent different thoughts, see Lange on the passage.

59. See Dr. Samuel Cox's charming little monograph on the "Book of Ruth." It may be found serially in the "Expositor," first series, vol. 2.

60. Thayer ("Lexicon"), Knowledge, regarded by itself; wisdom, exhibited in action. Lightfoot, Knowledge is simply intuitive, wisdom is ratiocinative also. Knowledge
applies chiefly to the apprehension of truths. Wisdom superadds the power of reasoning about them.

61. "Doctrine of Sin."

62. Cheyne, on Isaiah 6:9, 10 which should be compared with this passage, says that the phrase "hardening of the heart" is only twice applied to individuals in books of
the Old Testament; namely, to Pharaoh, and to Sihon, King of Heshbon (Deuteronomy 2:30). Jews never have this phrase applied to them, but only the Jewish nation,
or sections of it, as Isaiah 6:9, 10; 29:10. "The Prophecies of Isaiah" Compare Isaiah 63:17.

63. Godet compares the parable of the man finding treasure hid in the field.

64. Compare John 6:44.

65. There are strong authorities for both the masculine and the neuter sense. For the neuter are Fritzsche, Meyer, De Wette, Philippi, Calvin, Shedd, Rev. For the
masculine, Alford, Riddle, Moule, Farrar, Godet. The main argument in favor of the masculine is that tapeinov is never used as neuter in the New Testament; but the
word occurs only eight times in all, and only three times in Paul, and in classical Greek is often used of things, as places, rivers, clothing, etc.; and similar instances occur
in the Septuagint. See Ecclesiastes 10:6; Ezekiel 17:24. Alford's argument is too fine-spun, though ingenious. I incline to the neuter, mostly on the ground of the natural
antithesis between high things (uJyhla) and low things. On the verb, T. K. Cheyne ("Expositor," second series, 6, 469), argues for the meaning accustom yourselves to
or familiarize yourselves with, on the basis of Hebrew Usage. He cites Delitzsch's two Hebrew translations of the Epistle, in the earlier of which he renders familiarize
yourselves, and in the later, make friends with, in both cases evidently regarding the adjective as masculine.

66. Godet's explanation, preoccupation with good, as an antidote to evil thoughts and projects, is fanciful.

67. The Essenes were one of the three religious parties which divided Judaism at the time of Christ's coming, the Pharisees and Sadducees being the two others. They
formed a separate community, having all things in common. They were celibate and ascetic, living chiefly on vegetables, and supplying all their wants by their own labor.
They were the strictest Sabbatarians, even restraining the necessities of the body on the Sabbath-day. They had a tendency to sun-worship, and addressed prayers to
the sun at daybreak. They denied the resurrection of the body, but believed in the immortality of the soul. See Bishop Lightfoot's essay in his "Commentary on
Colossians and Philemon.

68. See the whole question admirably summed up in Dwight's note on the passage in the Amerioau Meyer.

69. See Professor E. A. Freeman's "Historical Geography of Europe."

70. A collection of ecclesiastical prescripts in eight books, containing doctrinal, liturgical, and moral instructions, and dating from the third, or possibly from the close of
the second, century.

71. See Schaff's "Apostolic Church," and Bingham's "Christian Antiquities."

72. See Northcote and Brownlow: "Roma Sotterranea."

73. See Farrar, "Expositor," first series, 9. 212.

74. The student should read Bishop Lightfoot's note on Caesar's household in his "Commentary on Philippians," p. 169. He claims that the Philippian epistle is the
earliest of the Epistles of the Captivity, that the members of Caesar's household who sent greetings to the Philippian Church (Philippians 4:22) were converts before
Paul's arrival in Rome, and were known to the Philippian Christians, and that therefore these persons are to be looked for in the list at the close of the Roman Epistle. In
the Inscriptions in the columbaria, or dove cot tombs, one of which, exhumed in 1764 was especially devoted to freedmen or slaves of the imperial household and
which is assigned to about the time of Nero, are found most of the names recorded in this list. The names, indeed, do not, in any case perhaps, represent the actual
persons alluded to in the epistle, but they establish the presumption that members of the imperial household are included in these salutations, and go to show that the
names and allusions in the Roman epistle are in keeping with the circumstances of the metropolis in Paul's day. Thus they furnish an answer to the attacks on the
genuineness of the last two chapters, and to the view which detaches the salutations from the main epistle.

75. See the discussion in Meyer's textual note at the beginning of ch. 16, and Farrar's "Paul," 2, 170. Also Lightfoot's article "Romans," in Smith's "Dictionary of the
Bible," and supplement by Professor Ezra Abbot.

76. Every classical student will recall the magnificent description of the transmission of the fire-signal announcing the fall of Troy, in the "Agamemnon of Aeschylus, 272
sqq.

77. On this very complicated and difficult subject the student may profitably consult Weiss, "Introduction to the New Testament;" Schaff, "History of the Apostolic
Church;" Meyer's Introduction and note on this passage; and Godet's note on the same.

78. So Meyer, Stanley, Westcott and Hort. The interrogative is maintained by De Wette, Alford Ellicott, Edwards Godet. As to the interrogative particle, these latter
refer to 1 Corinthians 10:22. and 2 Corinthians 3:2 as parallel, and urge that the mh introduces a new form of interrogation respecting a new individual - Paul.

79. Others regard the four as separate predicates of Christ.

80. There is a pleasant discussion of the word in Vaughan's "Hours with the Mystics," ch. 3.

81. So Ellicott, Brown, Meyer, Thayer, De Wette Alford, and American Rev. Edwards holds by the A.V. Godet, "adapting spiritual teachings to spiritual men."

82. See the able article by John Massie, "A New Testament Antithesis," "Expositor." first series, vol. 12.

83. See Treuch,
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84. Dean Howson's statement, in his "Metaphors of St Paul," p. 24, is careless and open to misapprehension.
81. So Ellicott, Brown, Meyer, Thayer, De Wette Alford, and American Rev. Edwards holds by the A.V. Godet, "adapting spiritual teachings to spiritual men."

82. See the able article by John Massie, "A New Testament Antithesis," "Expositor." first series, vol. 12.

83. See Treuch, "Synonyms," p. 262.

84. Dean Howson's statement, in his "Metaphors of St Paul," p. 24, is careless and open to misapprehension.

85. Others follow the A.V., and refer to temple; but, as Ellicott remarks, such a connection would simply be a reiteration of ver. 16, and would hint at a plurality of
temples. Rev. puts and such are ye in margin, and this is the explanation of Ellicott, Meyer, Brown, Alford, De Wette. Godot refers to both words, holy temple.
Edwards follows A.V.

86. See an article on "The Irony of St. Paul," by John Massie, "Expositor," second series, 8, 92.

87. See a lively description in Plautus'"Bacchides," Act 3, Sc. 3.

88. A very sensible discussion of this passage is given by Dr. Samuel Cox, in his article, "That Wicked Person," "Expositor," first series, 3, 355.

89. So Westcott and Hort, and Tischendorf

90. So Ellicott, Edwards, Brown, Alford, Godet, Rev., in margin.

91. In James 5:4 the reading is ajfusterhme>nov kept back for ajpesterhme>nov robbed or despoiled.

92. See Wetstein and Kypke.

93. On the whole question, see Schaff, "History of the Apostolic Church," p. 448 sqq, "History of the Christian Church," 2, 363 sqq. On marriage in Greek and Roman
society, Dollinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," 2, 234, 253 sqq., 315 sqq., 339. Lecky, "History of European Morals," 1, 245, 278.

94. See also Schaff, "History of the Christian Church," 1, 293.

95. So Edwards, Ellicott, Meyer, De Wette, Bengel, Alford. Godet, on the contrary, explains, "if thou mayest be made free, make use of the possibility." His argument
is certainly forcible. Both Stanley and Alford present excellent summaries of the discussion, and Edwards has some good remarks on ver 22.

96. So Rev, Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, Brown, Meyer, Ellicott, Stanley Godet prefers the other.

97. The student should read here the opening chapter of the seventh book of Plato's "Republic".

98. Rev. follows the A.V So Meyer, Alford, De Wette, Ellicott, Tischendorf; and it is true, as Ellicott observes, that this gives a clearer and sharper antithesis than the
other; but MS. authority is clearly in favor of the other reading So Edwards, following the text of Westcott and Hort, and Tregelles.

99. On the subject of Paul's view of celibacy, see Stanley's "Commentary of Corinthians," p. 117 sqq.

100. The student should carefully study Cremer's article ginw>skw in the "Biblico Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek."

101. A capital description of this process may be found in a lively book by henry P. Leland, "Americans in Rome".

102. Hence Mr. Lecky is mistaken in saying "St. Paul turned aside the precept 'Thou shalt not muzzle,' etc., with the contemptuous question, 'Doth God take care,"'
etc. ("History of European Morals," 2, 178, note).

103. See Stanley's note on ch. 13:7.

104. A most excellent discussion of this passage may be found in Godet.

105. See the description of the stadium at Ephesus in Wood's "Ephesus."

106. See a fine description of the Olympic games, on which the others were modeled, in J. Addington Symonds "Studies of the Greek Poets," 1. ch. 11.

107. See the question discussed by Conybeare and Howson, ch. 20.

108. Edwards, Meyer, Alford, Stanley, adopt the reference to the tradition. Ellicott is very doubtful: and Godet thinks it incredible that "the most spiritual of the apostles
should hold and teach the Church such puerilities."

109. See Farrar's "Paul," i., 557 sq., and Gibbon's description of the Grove of Daphne at Antioch, ch. 23.

110. Edwards misunderstands this passage.

111. Acts 17:18 is uttered by Greeks in their own sense of the word.

112. On the subject of Satan and Demoniac Powers, the student may consult Dorner's "Christliche Glaubenslehre," 85, 86.

113. See an account of such a festival in Livy, v., 13.

114. Compare Virgil, "Aeneid," ii., 764; viii., 279.

115. See a very interesting article on "The Table of Demons," by Edwin Johnson: "Expositor," second series, viii., 241.

116. A full discussion
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summary may be found in Stanley's Commentary, and an interesting article, maintaining Stanley's explanation of "the angels" in the "Expositor's Note-Book," by Rev.
Samuel Cox., D.D., p. 402. See, also, Meyer and Godet.
114. Compare Virgil, "Aeneid," ii., 764; viii., 279.

115. See a very interesting article on "The Table of Demons," by Edwin Johnson: "Expositor," second series, viii., 241.

116. A full discussion of this difficult passage is impossible here. The varieties of interpretation are innumerable and wearisome, and many of them fanciful. A good
summary may be found in Stanley's Commentary, and an interesting article, maintaining Stanley's explanation of "the angels" in the "Expositor's Note-Book," by Rev.
Samuel Cox., D.D., p. 402. See, also, Meyer and Godet.

117. I prefer this objective sense to the subjective meaning, the inborn sense and perception of what is seemly. Of course, such subjective sense is assumed; but, as
Edwards remarks, "No sentiment of men would be adduced by the apostle unless it were grounded on an objective difference in the constitution of things."

118. See Stanley's "Christian Institutions," ch. 3.

119. See the whole admirably summed up by Godet.

120. See Lightfoot, "On a Fresh Revision of the New Testament."

121. The literature of the subject is voluminous. Good summaries may be found in Stanley, "Commentary on Corinthians," p. 244 sqq.; Schaff, "History of the Christian
Church," i., ch. 4. See, also, E. H. Plumptre, article "Gift of Tongues," in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible;" Farrar, "Life and Work of St. Paul," i., 96 sqq. Tyerman's
"Life of Wesley;" Mrs. Oliphant's "Life of Edward Irving;" Schaff, "History of the Apostolic Church;" Gloag, "Commentary on Acts." A list of the principal German
authorities is given by Schaff, "History of the Christian Church," i., ch. 4. See Peyrat, "Histoire des Pasteurs;" Gibelin, "Troubles de Cevennes;" Cocquerel, "Eglises de
Desert;" Fisher "Beginnings of Christianity;" Hippolyte Blanc "De l'Inspiration des Camisards," article "Camisards," Encyclopaedia Britannica; article "Zungenreden."
Herzog's "Theologische Real-Encyklopadie." See also Godet and Edwards on first Corinthians.

122. A number of parallels may be found in Wetstein.

123. Edwards, very strangely, explains "two or three at a time." As Godet pertinently says. "Certainly Paul would never have approved of the simultaneous utterance of
several discourses, the one hindering the effect of the other."

124. There is force in Edwards' remark that in the new arrangement it is difficult to account for the implied permission to women in ch. 11:5.

125. Edwards' distinction between the word and the Gospel itself is overstrained, lo>gov being constantly used specifically for the gospel doctrine.

126. See two thorough articles, "St. Paul an Ectroma," by E. Huxtable, "Expositor," second series, iii., 268, 364.

127. Aesculapius.

128. Meyer, Alford, Ellicott, Edwards, Heinrici, De Wette, Neander, Stanley, Schaff.

129. So Godet, whose defense, however, is very feeble.

130. I am indebted to Wendt for the substance of this note.

131. The view of Calvin, followed by Heinrici and Edwards, that the apostle is contrasting the present state from birth to death with the post-resurrection state, cannot
be maintained.

132. Dante believes in the resurrection of the fleshly body which is buried.

133. See Newman Smyth, "Old Faiths in New Light." p. 358; and a beautiful article by the Rev. J. Oswald Dykes, "The Identity of the Lord Jesus after His
Resurrection," "Expositor," first series, iii., 161.

134. See the admirable discussion of the passage by Godet.

135. Edwards and Godet explain the present tense as indicating the daily victory of the resurrection-life in believers, which destroys the power of sin and of the law.
This is true as a fact; for the believer is morally risen with Christ, walks in newness of life, and hath everlasting life (Romans 6:4-14; Ephesians 2:5-7; Colossians 3:1-5.
But the whole drift of Paul's thought is toward the final victory over death.

136. One of the best popular expositions of this chapter is the Reverend Samuel Cox's little book, "The Resurrection." R. D. Dickinson, London.

137. See an article by Dean Plumptre, "St. Paul as a Man of Business," "Expositor," first series, i., 259.

138. Field, "Otium Norvicense," renders, the Lord is come.

139. See Farrar's "Paul," ii., ch. xxxiii., and Stanley's Introduction to the Epistle.

140. See, further, on Colossians 2:15. G. C. Finlay, in an article on "St. Paul's Use of qriambeu>w" ("Expositor," first series, x., 403), tries to show that the expression
is cast in the figure of the Bacchic festival, and not of the Roman triumph. He thinks that the military reference is not borne out by the use of the verb in Plutarch,
Appian, and Herodian, and seems to imply that Paul was ignorant of the Roman triumph. At least he says: "When Paul wrote to the Corinthians he had not yet seen
Rome."

141. See Cicero, "Verres," ii., 5, 30; Plutarch, "Marius," 12; Livy, xxvi., 13.

142. Meyer's remark, that Paul is fond of varying the prepositions in designating the same relation, must not be pressed too far. A study of the passages which he cites
in illustration, Romans 3:30; 5:10, 15:2, Galatians 2:16; Philemon 1:5 will, I think, show a difference in the force of the prepositions. That the nicer distinctions between
the prepositions were measurably obliterated in later Greek, is, of course, true (see Winer, N.T. Grammar, sec. xlvii., Moulton's eighth edition); but Ellicott's remark
(note on Galatians 1:1) nevertheless remains true, that "there are few points more characteristic of the apostle's style than his varied but accurate use of prepositions,
especially of two or more in the same or in immediately contiguous clauses." See Romans 11:36Ephesians 4:6; Colossians 3:16. And Winer: "It is an especial peculiarity
of Paul's style
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inclined, therefore, to hold the distinction between the prepositions here as implying the transient nature of the glory which attached to the law, and its permanency as
attached to the Gospel. The law which passes away was through glory as a temporary medium; the Gospel which remains abides in glory.
in illustration, Romans 3:30; 5:10, 15:2, Galatians 2:16; Philemon 1:5 will, I think, show a difference in the force of the prepositions. That the nicer distinctions between
the prepositions were measurably obliterated in later Greek, is, of course, true (see Winer, N.T. Grammar, sec. xlvii., Moulton's eighth edition); but Ellicott's remark
(note on Galatians 1:1) nevertheless remains true, that "there are few points more characteristic of the apostle's style than his varied but accurate use of prepositions,
especially of two or more in the same or in immediately contiguous clauses." See Romans 11:36Ephesians 4:6; Colossians 3:16. And Winer: "It is an especial peculiarity
of Paul's style to use different prepositions in reference to one noun, that by means of these prepositions collectively the idea may be defined on every side." I am
inclined, therefore, to hold the distinction between the prepositions here as implying the transient nature of the glory which attached to the law, and its permanency as
attached to the Gospel. The law which passes away was through glory as a temporary medium; the Gospel which remains abides in glory.

143. See the exegesis of Exodus 34:29-35 by Professor Charles A. Briggs, "Presbyterian Review," i., p. 565.

144. The student will be interested in Stanley's Summary of the images of the preceding section. "Commentary," p. 405.

145. Why has the Rev. rendered "the earthly house of our tabernacle?" It is true that the article is often properly rendered by the possessive pronoun, so that tou~
skh>nouv might be translated our tabernacle; but hJmw~n our clearly belongs with house, and the article may therefore very properly bear its ordinary sense of the.
This of A.V. is unnecessary.

146. It should be noted that the Septuagint often renders the Hebrew tent by oi+kov dwelling. Similarly the Hebrew to dwell is frequently translated by kaataskhnou~n.

147. Tablet, a philosophical explanation of a table on which human life with its dangers and temptations is symbolically represented.

148. Meyer insists on connecting not to be repented of with salvation, arguing that, if it belonged to repentance, it would immediately follow it. It is a sufficient answer
to this to say that repentance unto salvation may be taken as a single conception. Heinrici justly observes that this explanation gives to ajmetame>lhton only a rhetorical
force, and destroys the parallelism of the antithesis of salvation and death. Meyer is followed by Beet, Plumptre, and Alford. Stanley does not commit himself; but his
citation of Romans 11:29 in support of Meyer's view, is quite beside the mark.

149. See an article by James E. Denison, "Expositor," second series, iii., 154.

150. See Dean Plumptre's article, "St. Paul as a Man of Business," "Expositor," first series, i., 265.

151. Some read ajnoroth~ta manly vigor.

152. See Bishop Lightfoot's essay, "Paul and Seneca," in his "Commentary on Philippians," where he has collected a number of similar instances.

153. Mr. Hatch ("Essays in Biblical Greek") thinks that this special meaning underlies the use of the words in the Sermon on the Mount.

154. See Mrs. Jameson's "Sacred and Legendary Art," vol. 1.; and Northcote and Brownlow's "Roma Sotteranea." A summary is given by Farrar.

155. Perhaps no portion of the New Testament furnishes a better illustration of the need of revision than the A.V. of this and the succeeding chapters. It is not too much
to say that in that version, much of the matter is unintelligible to the average English reader. With the best version it requires the commentator's aid.

156. Stanley is entirely wrong in saying that the word is used exclusively for seal or affection, and that the idea of jealousy does not enter into it. See Numbers 5:14;
Genesis 37:11; Acts 7:9.

157. See Edersheim's "Life and Times of Jesus," ii., Appendix 13.

158. See Lewin's note, vol. ii., 29, where a table of Paul's voyages up to the time of writing this epistle is given.

159. Stauro>v cross is originally an upright stake or pale. Herodotus uses it of the piles of a foundation, and Thucydides of the stakes or palisades of a dock. Sko>loy
for stauro>v occurs in Celsus.

160. See Farrar's "Paul," i., excursus 10.; Stanley's "Commentary," p. 547 sqq.: Lightfoot, "Commentary on Galatians," additional note on ch. 4:14. Dr. John Brown, in
"Horae Sabsecivae," presents the ophthalmic theory very attractively.

161. See the interesting note of Ginsburg, "Coheleth," on this passage.

162. Farrar and Lewin, with Stanley and Plumptre, are exceptions. See Lewin's elaborate note on ch. 12:14; Meyer, "Introduction to Second Corinthians;" Godet,
"Introduction to First Corinthians."

163. Lightfoot on Philippians 3:1 renders farewell, but says that the word contains an exhortation to rejoice. On Philippians 4:4 he again combines the two meanings,
and says, "it is neither farewell alone nor rejoice alone." Thayer, in his lexicon, ignores farewell.

164. A collection of ecclesiastical prescripts in eight books, in which three independent works are combined. They contain doctrinal. liturgical, and moral instructions.
The first six books belong to the second century. The seventh is an enlargement of the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," adapted to the Eastern Church in the first half
of the fourth century (see Schaff's "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," Doc. 7.). The Constitutions were never recognized by the Western Church, and opinion in the
Eastern Church was divided as to their worth and dignity.

165. See the discussion in Westcott and Hort's Greek Testament, part 2.

166. See Farrar's "Paul," ii., 491.

167. See Meyer on this passage.

168. Mr. Huxtable, in his article on "Paul an Ectroma," "Expositor," second series, 3:273, calls it "an unparalleled barbarism of grammatical inflexion."

169. Paul's use in this epistle of different words for power and its working is an interesting study. He uses all the terms employed in the New Testament, except
bi>a violence.du>namiv, 1:19, 21; 3:7, 16, 20.
du>namai, 3:20; 6:11, 13, 16.ejne>rgeia, 1:19; 3:7; 4:16.
ejnerge>w,  1:11,
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ijscu>v, 1:19; 6:10.kra>tov, 1:19; 6:10.
krataio>w, 3:16.
169. Paul's use in this epistle of different words for power and its working is an interesting study. He uses all the terms employed in the New Testament, except
bi>a violence.du>namiv, 1:19, 21; 3:7, 16, 20.
du>namai, 3:20; 6:11, 13, 16.ejne>rgeia, 1:19; 3:7; 4:16.
ejnerge>w, 1:11, 20; 2:2; 3:20.ejxousi>a, 1:21; 2:2; 3:10; 6:12.
ijscu>v, 1:19; 6:10.kra>tov, 1:19; 6:10.
krataio>w, 3:16.

170. Though some take it as middle, corrupteth himself.

171. When a bounty was given to soldiers, only one-half was paid at a time, the rest being placed in a savings-bank and managed by a special officer. This, with prize-
money, etc, voluntarily deposited, was paid over to the soldier at his discharge. Deserters or discharged soldiers forfeited their accumulations.

172. See Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," vol. i., ch. 2.; and W T. Arnold's "Roman Provincial Administration."

173. See Lightfoot's "Introduction to the Epistle," and Acts 16.

174. The whole subject is elaborately discussed in Lightfoot's note. He shows that there is no satisfactory authority for applying the term to either the palace, the
barracks, or the praetorian camp, and cites numerous instances of its application to a body of men, for instance, to a council of war, and especially to the imperial
guard. The reference to the palace is defended by Merivale, "History of the Romans under the Empire," vi., 263.

175. This connection is advocated by Meyer, Eadie, Ellicott, Lightfoot, Winer. It is ably disputed by Dwight (notes on Meyer), who advocates the rendering of A.V.
and Rev. With him agree Alford and Lumby.

176. Tacitus declares that the figure of an ass was consecrated in the Jewish temple, because the Jews in their wanderings in the desert were guided to springs of water
by a herd of wild asses ("History," v, 3). The charge of worshipping an ass was applied by pagans indiscriminately to Jews and Christians. The gruffito may now be
seen in the Kirchnerian Museum at Rome.

177. So Lightfoot.

178. I use form for the sake of the English reader, not as adequately expressing the original.

179. "The diversity of opinion prevailing among interpreters in regard to the meaning of this passage is enough to fill the student with despair, and to afflict him with
intellectual paralysis" (Bruce, "The Humiliation of Christ," p. 11).

180. There is no objection to adding the idea with thanksgiving, as Lightfoot; but his statement that the word has this secondary sense in Isaiah 45:23 which Paul here
adapts, and which is quoted Romans 14:10, 11 needs qualifying, as the Septuagint texts vary, and the word is found only in the Alexandrian, "which is open to the
suspicion of having been conformed to the New Testament" (Toy). The Hebrew is swear. In the Vatican Septuagint, swear by God.

181. See a lively description in Kingsley's "Hypatia," ch 5.

182. On the absurdities of interpretation which certain German critics have drawn from these two names, see Bishop Lightfoot's "Essays on Supernatural Religion," p.
24.

183. See Farrar,. in "The Expositor," first series, x., 24; and "Life of Paul," 2, 435.

184. Targum means translation, and was the name given to a Chaldee version or paraphrase of the Old Testament. After the exile it became customary to read the law
in public with the addition of an oral paraphrase in the Chaldee dialect. Nehemiah 8:8. These were afterward committed to writing. The two oldest are the Targnm of
Onkelos on the law, and that of Jonathan ben Uzziel on the prophets.

185. Lightfoot's explanation of ejxousi>a arbitrary power or tyranny, as contrasted with basilei>a kingdom a well-ordered sovereignty, is not borne out by New-
Testament usage, and is contradicted by Septuagint usage, where basilei>a and ejxousi>a appear, used coordinately of God's dominion. See Daniel 4:31; 7:14. The
word never occurs in the New Testament in the sense of arbitrary authority. It is used collectively of the empire of Satan, Ephesians 2:2; of lawful human magistracy,
Romans 13:1; of heavenly powers, Ephesians 3:10.

186. Followers Of Marcos, in the second half of the second century. A disciple of Valentinus, the author of the most influential of the Gnostic systems. Marcos taught
probably in Asia Minor, and perhaps in Gaul. The characteristics of his teaching were a numerical symbolism, and an elaborate ritual. He sought to attract beautiful and
wealthy women by magical arts. See Schaff, "History of the Christian Church," ii., 480.

187. On the Jewish and Judaeo-Christian speculations concerning the grades of the celestial hierarchy, see Lightfoot's note on this passage.

188. See, however, Meyer's note on the variation of the Septuagint from the Hebrew in this rendering.

189. The explanation which makes all the fullness the subject, all the fullness was pleased to dwell in Him (so Ellicott) is against New-Testament usage.

190. See Lightfoot's note on this passage. p. 323: Ellicott on Galatians 4:4; Ephesians 1:23. Macpherson, "Expositor," second series, iv., 462.

191. The range of discussion opened by these words is too wide to be entered upon here. Paul's declarations elsewhere as to the ultimate fate of evil men and angels,
must certainly be allowed their full weight; yet such passages as this and Ephesians 1:10 seem to point to a larger purpose of God in redemption than is commonly
conceived.

192. Bishop Lightfoot, however, unduly presses unblemished as a sacrificial term, going to show that the figure of a sacrifice undenies the whole passage.

193. Bishop Lightfoot is influenced in his preference for the other sense by his sacrificial figure.

194. Esoteric, inner; that which is profounder and more abstruse, and which is reserved only for the cultivated few who can receive it. Exoteric, outer: that which is
more rudimentary and simple, and adapted to the popular comprehension.
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195. In the middle voice when the human agent, the mind, or a faculty of the mind is represented as working (Romans 7:5; Ephesians 3:20; Galatians 5:6 etc.). In the
active voice when God or some evil power works on the man (1 Corinthians 12;6, 11; Galatians 2:8; Ephesians 1:20 etc.).
193. Bishop Lightfoot is influenced in his preference for the other sense by his sacrificial figure.

194. Esoteric, inner; that which is profounder and more abstruse, and which is reserved only for the cultivated few who can receive it. Exoteric, outer: that which is
more rudimentary and simple, and adapted to the popular comprehension.

195. In the middle voice when the human agent, the mind, or a faculty of the mind is represented as working (Romans 7:5; Ephesians 3:20; Galatians 5:6 etc.). In the
active voice when God or some evil power works on the man (1 Corinthians 12;6, 11; Galatians 2:8; Ephesians 1:20 etc.).

196. I take this opportunity to correct my own note on James 1:17cometh down.

197. See Henry Drummond, "Natural Law in the Spiritual World," p. 276 sqq.

198. I adopt this explanation of this most difficult passage, which is Ritsch and Sabatier's, followed by Alford, as, on the whole, satisfying most of the conditions of the
exegesis. The great body of modern exegetes interpret principalities and powers as meaning the Satanic hosts. Some explain that Christ, in His final victory on the
cross, forever put away from Himself the Satanic powers which assailed His humanity, and which clung to Him like a robe (so Lightfoot and Ellicott). Others, that
Christ stripped off the armor from these vanquished enemies (so Meyer, Eadie. Maclaren). But on either of these explanations it may fairly be asked what point of
connection with the context is furnished by the ideas of despoiling or of putting away the powers of darkness. How is the fact that Christ triumphed over the infernal
hosts relevant to His abrogating the legal bond in His crucifixion? Our explanation links itself with the fact of Christ's headship of the ranks of angels (ver. 10), and is
appropriate in view of the heresy of angel-worship, against which a direct warning follows in ver. 18. It also enables us to retain the proper middle sense of
ajpekdusa>menov, and does not compel us to read it here in one way, and in another way in ch. 3:9; and it also enables us to avoid the very awkward change of
subject from God to Christ, which Bishop Lightfoot's explanation necessitates. I find my own view confirmed by Mr. G. C. Findlay's article in the "Expositor," first
series, 10, 403. The case is put by him in a singularly lucid manner. Without admitting his conclusion that Paul's metaphor in 2 Corinthians 2:14 was distinctly shaped by
the Bacchic festival, I think he has shown sufficient reason for allowing a wider interpretation of qriambeu>w, as indicated in my note.

199. Which is excluded by Meyer and Dwight.

200. The argument that it is not borne out by New Testament usage is somewhat weakened in the case of an epistle which bristles with novel expressions. There are
seventeen words in this Chapter which occur nowhere else in the New Testament.

201. The passage is beset with difficulties. Bishop Lightfoot gives up the words a{ eJw>raken ejmbateu>wn assuming a corruption of the text, and substituting an
ingenious conjectural reading. His note is deeply interesting. See also Mr. Findlay's article alluded to in note on ver. 15, and Meyer.

202. See the very interesting illustrations from Aristotle in Lightfoot.

203. See Book iv., and Rawlinson's interesting notes.

204. In the Jordan valley, about twelve miles south of the Sea of Galilee, and four miles west of the Jordan. See 1 Chronicles 7:29; Judges 1:27; 1 Samuel 31:10, 12.

205. See Rawlinson's "Herodotus," vol. iv., Essay 3.

206. And too many of which are embodied in modern Hymnals.

207. The Phrygian mother of the gods, known elsewhere as Rhea Her worship in Phrygia was so general that there is scarcely a town on the coins of which she does
not appear. She was known also as the great Mother, Cybebe, Agdistis, Berecyntia, Brimo, the Great Ideaen Mother of the gods. and Dindymene. Her worship was
orgiastic, celebrated with drums, cymbals, horns. and wild dances in the forests and on the mountains, The lion was sacred to her and she was generally represented,
either seated on a throne flanked by lions, or riding in a chariot drawn by lions. See on revellings, 1 Peter 4:3. See Dollinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," i., 102, 176,
374.

208. Bishop Lightfoot discusses the subject, especially the evidence for the Epistle to the Laodicaeans, in an elaborate note. He gives a table containing over a dozen
different attempts to identify the epistle referred to here. He thinks it was the epistle to the Ephesians.

209. The rhetorical figure called chiasmus or cross-reference.

210. Lightfoot thinks the reading may be presbeuth>v though he deems the change unnecessary, since, in the common dialect, the two may have been written
indifferently He cites passages from the Apocrypha in illustration of this interchange to which Thayer ("Lexicon") adds some inscriptions from the theater at Ephesus.

211. See Lecky, "History of European Morals," i., 277, 302; ii., 36, 65, 71. Brace, "Gesta Christi," ch. 5, Dollinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," ii., 259 sqq. Becker,
"Gallus," excursas 3. Farrar's "Paul," 2, 468 sqq.

212. The student should read Archdeacon Farrar's chapter on the use of proper names by Jews, Greeks, and Romans, "Language and Languages," ch. 22.

213. Dean Plumptre thinks that there may be an allusion to business relations between Paul and Philemon: possibly that Philemon or Archippus took the place of Aquila
and Priscilla in the tent-making firm. "St. Paul as a Man of Business," "Expositor," first series, 1 262. This, however, is mere conjecture.

214. Other testimonies may be found collected by Lightfoot, "Commentary on Philemon," Introduction, and Farrar, "Paul," 2, chs. i., 51. See also Dr. Hackett's article
on the epistle in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible." The letter of Pliny the Younger to Sabinianus, which is often compared with Paul's, is given in full by Farrar, vol. ii.,
excursus 5. Also by Lightfoot, Introduction.

THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
CHAPTER 1

1. The former (to). Lit., the first. Luke refers to his Gospel.

Treatise (lo>gon). Or narrative.

Began (h]rxato). This is interpreted in two ways. Either,
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(1),as a simple historical statement equivalent to "all that Jesus did and taught." In favor of this is the fact that the synoptists often record that which is done or said
according to its moment of commencement, thus giving vividness to the account. See Matthew 11:20; 26:22, 37; Mark 6:7; 14:19; Luke 8:38 etc. According to this
Treatise (lo>gon). Or narrative.

Began (h]rxato). This is interpreted in two ways. Either,

(1),as a simple historical statement equivalent to "all that Jesus did and taught." In favor of this is the fact that the synoptists often record that which is done or said
according to its moment of commencement, thus giving vividness to the account. See Matthew 11:20; 26:22, 37; Mark 6:7; 14:19; Luke 8:38 etc. According to this
explanation the word serves "to recall to the recollection from the Gospel all the several incidents and events, up to the ascension, in which Jesus had appeared as doer
and teacher" (Meyer). Or,

(2),as indicating that the Gospel contains the beginning, and the Acts of the Apostles the continuation, of the doings and teachings of Jesus. "The earthly life of Jesus,
concluded with the ascension, has its fruit and continued efficacy; and his heavenly life, commencing with the ascension, has its manifestation and proof in the acts and
experiences of the apostles and first churches. The history of the Church was under the immediate control of the exalted Redeemer, and may justly be considered as the
continuation in heaven of the work which he had begun on earth" (Baumgarten and Gloag).

While the truth and importance of this statement are admitted, it is objected that such an intention on Luke's part would have been more clearly intimated, and not left to
be inferred from a single doubtful phrase. As regards Luke's intention, I think the first explanation is more likely to be correct. The second, however, states a truth, the
value and importance of which cannot be overestimated, and which should be kept in mind constantly in the study of the book of Acts. This is well put by Bernard
("Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament," Lect. IV.): "Thus the history which follows is linked to, or (may I not rather say) welded with, the past; and the founding
of the Church in the earth is presented as one continuous work, begun by the Lord in person, and perfected by the same Lord through the ministry of men.... 'The
former treatise' delivered to us, not all that Jesus did and taught, but 'all that Jesus began to do and teach until the day when he was taken up.' The following writings
appear intended to give us, and do, in fact, profess to give us, that which Jesus continued to do and teach after the day in which he was taken up."

2. Had given commandment (ejnteila>menov). Special injunctions or charges. Compare Matthew 4:6; Mark 13:34; Hebrews 11:22.

Through the Holy Ghost. Construe with had given commandment: by means of the Holy Spirit, which inspired him. Not, as some interpreters, with whom he had
chosen.

3. Shewed himself (pare>sthsen). This verb is rendered in a variety of ways in the New Testament, as give or furnish, present, provide, assist, commend. The original
meaning is to place beside, and so commend to the attention. Hence, to set before the mind; present, shew.

Infallible proofs (tekmhri>oiv). The word is akin to te>kmar a fixed boundary, goal, end; and hence a fixed or sure sign or token. The Rev. omits infallible, probably,
assuming that a proof implies certainty.

Being seen (ojptano>menov). Only here in New Testament. Rev., appearing.

Forty days (dij hJmerw~n tessera>konta). Lit., "through forty days." Rev., by the space of. The only passage where the interval between the resurrection and the
ascension is given.

4. Being assembled together (sunalizo>menov). From su>n, together, and aJlh>v thronged or crowded. Both the A.V. and Rev. give eating together in margin,
following the derivation from su>n, together, and a[lv salt: eating salt together, and hence generally of association at table.

Commanded (parh>ggeilen). Originally to pass on or transmit; hence, as a military term, of passing a watchword or command; and so generally to command

To wait for (perime>nein). Only here in New Testament.

The promise (ejpaggeli>an). Signifying a free promise, given without solicitation. This is the invariable sense of the word throughout the New Testament, and this and its
kindred and compound words are the only words for promise in the New Testament. 'Upiscne>omai, meaning to promise in response to a request, does not occur;
and oJmologe>w, Matthew 14:7 of Herod promising Salome, really means to acknowledge his obligation for her lascivious performance. See note there.

Not many days hence (ouj metatav hJme>rav). Lit., not after many of these days. Not after many, but after a few.

6. Asked (ejphrw>twn). The imperfect, denoting the repetition and urging of the question.

7. The times - the seasons (cro>nouv kairou). Rev. properly omits the article. The former of these words, time absolutely, without regard to circumstances; the latter,
definite periods, with the idea of fitness.

His own (th|~ ijdi>a|). Stronger than the simple possessive pronoun. The adjective means private, personal. Often used adverbially in the phrase kat' ijdi>an, apart,
privately. See Matthew 17:1; 24:3.

8. Unto me (moi). The best texts read mou, of me; or, as Rev., my witnesses.

Samaria. Formerly they had been commanded not to enter the cities of the Samaritans (Matthew 10:5).

10. Looked steadfastly (ajteni>zontev h=san). See on Luke 4:20.

12. A Sabbath-day's journey (sabba>tou e]con ojdo>n). Lit., having a Sabbath's way. The way conceived as belonging to the mountain; connected with it in reference
to the neighborhood of Jerusalem. A Sabbath-day's journey, according to Jewish tradition, was about three-quarters of a mile. It was the supposed distance between
the camp and the tabernacle in the wilderness (Joshua 3:4.)

13. An upper room (to). With the article, denoting some well-known place of resort. It was the name given to the room directly under the flat roof. Such rooms were
often set apart as halls for meetings. In such an apartment Paul delivered his farewell address at Troas (Acts 20:8), and the body of Dorcas was laid (Acts 9:37). Used
by Luke only.

Abode (h+san katame>nontev). The participle and finite verb, denoting continuance or habitual residence. Hence more correctly, as Rev., "where they were abiding."

14. Continued (h+san proskarterou~ntev). Participle and finite verb as above. The verb is from kartero, strong, stanch, and means originally to persist obstinately in. In
this sense here,
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            (c) 2005-2009,      12:12; Media
                             Infobase   13:6. Hence
                                               Corp.to adhere firmly to. So in Mark 3:9"that a small ship should wait on him;" i.e., keep near at hand. The idea of steady
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persistence is supplied by the Rev., steadfastly.

With one accord (oJmoqumado). See on agree, Matthew 18:19. 18:19.
Abode (h+san katame>nontev). The participle and finite verb, denoting continuance or habitual residence. Hence more correctly, as Rev., "where they were abiding."

14. Continued (h+san proskarterou~ntev). Participle and finite verb as above. The verb is from kartero, strong, stanch, and means originally to persist obstinately in. In
this sense here, and in Romans 12:12; 13:6. Hence to adhere firmly to. So in Mark 3:9"that a small ship should wait on him;" i.e., keep near at hand. The idea of steady
persistence is supplied by the Rev., steadfastly.

With one accord (oJmoqumado). See on agree, Matthew 18:19. 18:19.

In prayer. The best texts omit and supplication.

Mary. Mentioned here for the last time in the New Testament.

15. Of the disciples (tw~n maqhtw~n). The best texts read ajdelfw~n, brethren.

The number of the names together were about, etc. (h+n te o]clov ojnoma>twn ejpi). Much better as Rev., and there was a multitude of persons gathered together,
about, etc. &Oclov, multitude, would not be used of a number about to be stated.

16. Men and brethren (a]ndrev ajdelfoi). Lit., men, brothers. Brother-men. More dignified and solemn than the simple brethren.

This scripture. The best texts substitute the. See on Mark 12:10.

The Holy Ghost (to). Lit., The Spirit, the Holy.

Guide. See on lead, Luke 6:39.

17. Numbered (kathriqmhme>nov). Only here in New Testament.

With (su>n). The best texts read ejn, among. So Rev.

Obtained (e]lace). Strictly, "received by lot. " Rev., better, received. Compare Luke 1:9. In classical Greek, of receiving public magistracies.

Part (to). The A.V. does not give the force of the article, the lot which was his. So Rev., "his portion:" lit., lot..

Ministry. See on minister, Matthew 20:26. Compare bishopric, ver. 20.

18. Purchased (ejkth>sato). See on possess, Luke 18:12. Better, as Rev., obtained. Judas did not purchase the field, but the priests did with the money which he
returned to them (Matthew 27:7). The expression means merely that the field was purchased with the money of Judas.

Falling headlong (prhnhmenov). Lit., having become headlong.

He burst asunder (ejla>khse). Only here in New Testament. Lit., to crack, to burst with a noise. So Homer, of the bones cracking beneath a blow ("Iliad," xiii., 616).
Compare Aristophanes, "Clouds," 410.

19. Aceldama. Or, more properly, Akeldamach. The word is Aramaic, the language then spoken in Palestine.

20. Habitation (e]pauliv). Only here in New Testament. The word is used in classical Greek of a place for cattle. So Herodotus (i., 111): "The herdsman took the child
in his arms, and went back the way he had come, till he reached the fold" (e]paulin). Also of a farm-building, a country-house..

Bishopric (ejpiskoph). See on 1 Peter 2:12. Rev., better, office, with overseership in margin. Compare Luke 19:44.

Another (e[terov). And different person. See on Acts 2:4.

21. Went in and went out. An expression for constant intercourse. Compare Deuteronomy 18:19; Psalms 121:8; John 10:9; Acts 9:28.

Among us (ejf' hJma~v). The margin of Rev., over us, i.e., as our head, is a sound rendering, and supported by Matthew 25:21, 23; Luke 9:1. The rendering before, in
the presence of, occurs Matthew 10:18; Luke 21:12.

22. Witness (ma>rtura). One who shall bear testimony: not a spectator, a mistake often made on Hebrews 12:1. Compare Acts 2:32.

23. Barsabas. A patronymic, son of Saba: like Bar Jona, Matthew 16:17.

24. Which knowest the hearts (kardiognw~sta). Only here and Acts 15:8. Lit, heart-knower.

25. That he may take part (labei~n to). Lit., to take the lot. But the best texts read topon, the place. Rev., to take the place.

By transgression fell (pare>bh). See on trespasses, Matthew 6:14. The rendering of the A.V. is explanatory. Rev., better, fell away.

His own place. Compare "the place in this ministry." To, his own, is stronger than the simple possessive pronoun. It is the place which was peculiarly his, as befitting his
awful sin - Gehenna.

26. He was numbered (sugkateyhfi>sqh). Only here in New Testament. See on counteth, Luke 14:28.

CHAPTER 2

1. Was fully come (sumplhrou~sqai). Used by Luke only. See on Luke 9:51. Lit., as Rev., margin, was being fulfilled. The day, according to the Hebrew mode, is
conceived as a measure to be filled up. So long as the day had not yet arrived, the measure was not full. The words denote in process of fulfillment.

 CopyrightMeaning
Pentecost. (c) 2005-2009,
                    fiftieth; Infobase  Media Corp.
                              because occurring                                                                                                      Page
                                                on the fiftieth day, calculated from the second day of unleavened bread. In the Old Testament it is called the179
                                                                                                                                                               feast/of567
weeks, and the feast of harvest. Its primary object was to thank God for the blessings of harvest. See Deuteronomy 16:10, 11.
1. Was fully come (sumplhrou~sqai). Used by Luke only. See on Luke 9:51. Lit., as Rev., margin, was being fulfilled. The day, according to the Hebrew mode, is
conceived as a measure to be filled up. So long as the day had not yet arrived, the measure was not full. The words denote in process of fulfillment.

Pentecost. Meaning fiftieth; because occurring on the fiftieth day, calculated from the second day of unleavened bread. In the Old Testament it is called the feast of
weeks, and the feast of harvest. Its primary object was to thank God for the blessings of harvest. See Deuteronomy 16:10, 11.

With one accord (oJmoqumado). The best texts substitute oJmou~, together. So Rev.

2. A sound (h=cov). See on Luke 4:37.

Of a rushing mighty wind (ferome>nhv pnoh~v biai>av). Lit., of a mighty wind born along. Pno>h is a blowing, a blast. Only here and Acts 27:25. Rev., as of the
rushing of a mighty wind.

The house. Not merely the room. Compare Acts 1:13.

Were sitting. Awaiting the hour of prayer. See ver. 15.

3. There appeared. See on Luke 22:43.

Cloven tongues (diamerizo>menai glw~ssai). Many prefer to render tongues distributing themselves, or being distributed among the disciples, instead of referring it to
the cloven appearance of each tongue. Rev., tongues parting asunder.

Like as of fire. Not consisting of fire, but resembling (wJsei).

It sat. Note the singular. One of these luminous appearances sat upon each.

4. Began. Bringing into prominence the first impulse of the act. See on began, Acts 1:1.

With other tongues (eJte>raiv glw>ssaiv). Strictly different, from their native tongues, and also different tongues spoken by the different apostles. See on Matthew 6:24.

Gave (ejdi>ou). A graphic imperfect; kept giving them the language and the appropriate words as the case required from time to time. It would seem that each apostle
was speaking to a group, or to individuals. The general address to the multitude followed from the lips of Peter.

Utterance (ajpofqe>ggesqai). Used only by Luke and in the Acts. Lit., to utter. A peculiar word, and purposely chosen to denote the clear, loud utterance under the
miraculous impulse. It is used by later Greek writers of the utterances of oracles or seers. So in the Septuagint, of prophesying. See 1 Chronicles 25:1; Deuteronomy
32:2; Zechariah 10:2; Ezekiel 13:19.

5. Dwelling (katoikou~ntev). Denoting an abiding; but here it must be taken in a wide sense, since among these are mentioned those whose permanent residence was in
Mesopotamia, etc. See ver. 9.

Devout. See on Luke 2:25.

6. When this was noised abroad (genome>nhv dethv). Wrong. Lit., And this sound having taken place. Rev., correctly, when this sound was heard. The sound of the
rushing wind.

Were confounded (sunecu>qh). Lit., was poured together; so that confound (Latin, confundere) is the most literal rendering possible. Used only by Luke and in the
Acts. Compare Acts 19:32; 21:31.

Heard (h]kouon). Imperfect, were hearing.

Language (diale>ktw|). Rather, dialect; since the foreigners present spoke, not only different languages, but different dialects of the same language. The Phrygians and
Pamphylians, for instance, both spoke Greek, but in different idioms; the Parthians, Medes, and Elamites all spoke Persian, but in different provincial forms.

7. Amazed and marvelled (ejxi>stanto kaimazon). The former word denotes the first overwhelming surprise. The verb is literally to put out of place; hence, out of one's
senses. Compare Mark 3:21: "He is beside himself." The latter word, marvelled, denotes the continuing wonder; meaning to regard with amazement, and with a
suggestion of beginning to speculate on the matter.

Galilaeans. Not regarded as a sect, for the name was not given to Christians until afterward; but with reference to their nationality. They used a peculiar dialect, which
distinguished them from the inhabitants of Judaea. Compare Mark 14:70. They were blamed for neglecting the study of their language, and charged with errors in
grammar and ridiculous mispronunciations.

9. Parthians, Medes, and Elamites. Representing portions of the Persian empire.

Judaea. The dialect of Galilee being different from that of Judaea.

Asia. Not the Asiatic continent nor Asia Minor. In the time of the apostles the term was commonly understood of the proconsular province of Asia, principally of the
kingdom of Pergamus left by Attalus III. to the Romans, and including Lydia, Mysia, Caria, and at times parts of Phrygia. The name Asia Minor did not come into use
until the fourth century of our era.

10. Egypt. Where the Jews were numerous. Two-fifths of the population of Alexandria were said to have been Jews.

Cyrene. In Libya, west of Egypt.

Strangers (ejpidhmou~ntev). See on 1 Peter 1:1. Rev., rightly, sojourners.

11. Arabians. Whose country bordered on Judaea, and must have contained many Jews.
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Speak (lalou>ntwn). Rev., rightly, gives the force of the participle, speaking.

Wonderful works (megalei~a). See on majesty, 2 Peter 1:16. From me>gav, great. Rev., mighty works. Used by Luke only.
Strangers (ejpidhmou~ntev). See on 1 Peter 1:1. Rev., rightly, sojourners.

11. Arabians. Whose country bordered on Judaea, and must have contained many Jews.

Speak (lalou>ntwn). Rev., rightly, gives the force of the participle, speaking.

Wonderful works (megalei~a). See on majesty, 2 Peter 1:16. From me>gav, great. Rev., mighty works. Used by Luke only.

12. Were in doubt (dihpo>roun). Used by Luke only. See on Luke 9:7. Better, as Rev., perplexed.

13. Others (e[teroi). Of a different class. The first who commented on the wonder did so curiously, but with no prejudice. Those who now spoke did so in a hostile
spirit. See on ver. 4.

Mocking (diacleua>zontev; so the best texts). From cleu>h, a joke. Only here in New Testament.

New wine (gleu>kouv). Lit., "sweet wine." Of course intoxicating.

14. Standing up (staqei). See on Luke 18:11; 19:9.

Said (ajpefqe>gxato). See on ver. 4 Better, rev., spake forth. "This most solemn, earnest, yet sober speech" (Bengel).

Hearken (ejnwti>sasqe). Only here in New Testament. From ejn, in; and ou+v, the ear. Rev., give ear.

Words (rJh>mata). See on Luke 1:37.

15. Third hour. Nine in the morning: the hour of morning prayer. Compare 1 Thessalonians 5:7.

17. All flesh. Without distinction of age, sex, or condition.

Visions (oJra>seiv). Waking visions.

Dream dreams (ejnu>pnia ejnupniasqh>sontai). The best texts read ejnupni>oiv, with dreams. The verb occurs only here and Jude 1:8. The reference is to visions in
sleep.

19. I will shew (dw>sw). Lit., I will give.

Wonders (te>rata). Or portents. See on Matthew 11:20.

Signs. See on Matthew 11:20.

20. That great and notable day of the Lord come. The Rev. heightens the emphasis by following the Greek order, the day of the Lord, that great and notable day.
Notable (ejpifanh~) only here in New Testament. The kindred noun ejpifa>neia, appearing (compare our word Epiphany), is often used of the second coming of the
Lord. See 1 Timothy 6:14; 2 Timothy 4:1; Titus 2:13.

22. Approved (ajpodedeigme>non). The verb means to point out or shew forth. Shewn to be that which he claimed to be.

Miracles (duna>mesi). Better, Rev., mighty works. Lit., powers. See on Matthew 11:20.

23. Being delivered (e]kdoton). An adjective: given forth, betrayed.

Ye have taken. The best texts omit.

Wicked hands. The best texts read by the hand of lawless men.

Crucified (prosph>zantev). Only here in New Testament. The verb simply means to affix to or on anything. The idea of the cross is left to be supplied.

Have slain (ajnei>lete). See on Luke 23:32. Rev., rendering the aorist more closely, did slay.

24. Pains (wjdi~nav). The meaning is disputed. Some claim that Peter followed the Septuagint mistranslation of Psalms 18:5 where the Hebrew word for snares is
rendered by the word used here, pains; and that, therefore, it should be rendered snares of death; the figure being that of escape from the snare of a huntsman. Others
suppose that death is represented in travail, the birth-pangs ceasing with the delivery; i.e., the resurrection. This seems to be far-fetched, though it is true that in classical
Greek the word is used commonly of birth-throes. It is better, perhaps, on the whole, to take the expression in the sense of the A.V., and to make the pains of death
stand for death generally.

25. I foresaw (prowrw>mhn). Not to see beforehand, but to see before one's self, as in Psalms 16:8.

I should not be moved (mh). Or be shaken. Generally so rendered in the New Testament. See Matthew 11:7; 24:29; Hebrews 12:26 etc.

26. Rejoiced (hJgallia>sato). Rev., was glad. See on 1 Peter 1:6.

Shall rest (kataskhnw>sei). See on nests, Matthew 8:20. Better, as Rev., dwell. Lit., dwell in a tent or tabernacle. Rendered lodge, Matthew 8:32; Mark 4:32; Luke
8:19. It is a beautiful metaphor. My flesh shall encamp on hope; pitch its tent there to rest through the night of death, until the morning of resurrection.

In hope (ejp' ejlpi>si). Lit., on hope: resting on the hope of resurrection; his body being poetically conceived as hoping.

27. Leave (ejgkatalei>yeiv). Lit., leave behind.
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29. Let me speak (ejxo). Lit., it is permitted me. Rev., I may. It is allowable for him to speak, because the facts are notorious.
In hope (ejp' ejlpi>si). Lit., on hope: resting on the hope of resurrection; his body being poetically conceived as hoping.

27. Leave (ejgkatalei>yeiv). Lit., leave behind.

Suffer (dw>seiv). Lit., give.

29. Let me speak (ejxo). Lit., it is permitted me. Rev., I may. It is allowable for him to speak, because the facts are notorious.

Freely (metaav). Lit., with freedom. The latter word from pa~n, all, and rJh~siv, speech; speaking everything, and therefore without reserve.

The patriarch (patria>rcou). From a]rcw, to begin, and patria>, a pedigree. Applied to David as the father of the royal family from which the Messiah sprang. It is used
in the New Testament of Abraham (Hebrews 7:4), and of the sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8).

He is dead and buried (ejteleu>thse kaifh). Aorists, denoting what occurred at a definite past time. Rev., rightly, he both died and was buried.

His sepulchre is with us. Or among us (ejn hJmi~n). On Mount Zion, where most of the Jewish kings were interred in the same tomb.

30. According to the flesh, he would raise up Christ. The best texts omit. Render as Rev., he would set one upon his throne.

34. Is not ascended (ouj ajne>bh). Aorist, did not ascend.

35. Thy footstool. A.V. omits of thy feet.

36. Assuredly (ajsfalw~v). From aj, not, and sfa>llw, to cause to fall. Hence, firmly, steadfastly.

37. They were pricked (katenu>ghsan). Only here in New Testament. The word does not occur in profane Greek. It is found in the Septuagint, as Genesis 34:7 of the
grief of the sons of Jacob at the dishonor of Dinah. See, also, Psalms 109. (Sept. 108) 16: "broken in heart." The kindred noun kata>nuxiv occurs Romans 11:8 in the
sense of slumber (Rev., stupor). Compare Isaiah 29:10. See, also, Psalms 60 (Sept. 59) 3: oi+non katanu>xewv, the wine of astonishment (Rev., wine of staggering).
The radical idea of the word is given in the simple verb nu>ssw, to prick with a sharp point. So Homer, of the puncture of a spear; of horses dinting the earth with their
hoofs, etc. Here, therefore, of the sharp, painful emotion, the sting produced by Peter's words. Cicero, speaking of the oratory of Pericles, says that his speech left
stings in the minds of his hearers ("De Oratore," iii., 34.

38. Repent. See on Matthew 3:2.

In the name (ejpimati). Lit., upon the name. See on Matthew 28:19.

Remission. See on Luke 3:3; James 5:15.

39. Afar off (eijv makra). Lit., unto a long way. Referring probably to the Gentiles, who are described by this phrase both in the Old and New Testaments. See
Zechariah 6:15; Ephesians 2:11-13. Peter knew the fact that the Gentiles were to be received into the Church, but not the mode. He expected they would become
Christians through the medium of the Jewish religion. It was already revealed in the Old Testament that they should be received, and Christ himself had commanded the
apostles to preach to all nations.

Shall call (proskale>shtai). Rev. gives the force of pro>v, to: "shall call unto him."

40. Other (eJte>roiv). And various.

Did he testify (diemartu>reto). The preposition dia> gives the force of solemnly, earnestly.

Save yourselves (sw>qhte). More strictly, be ye saved.

Untoward (skolia~v). Lit., crooked. Toward in earlier English meant docile, apt. The opposite is froward (fromward). So Shakespeare:

"'Tis a good hearing when children are toward,

But a harsh hearing when women are froward."

Taming of the Shrew, v., 2.

"Spoken like a toward prince."

3 Henry VI., ii., 2.

Untoward, therefore, meant intractable, perverse. So Shakespeare:

"What means this scorn, thou most untoward knave?"

K. John, i., 1.

"And if she be froward,

Then hast thou taught Horensio to be untoward."

Taming of the Shrew, iv., 5.

Compare Deuteronomy 32:5.

42. Continued
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Doctrine (didach|~). Better, teaching.
Taming of the Shrew, iv., 5.

Compare Deuteronomy 32:5.

42. Continued steadfastly. See on Acts 1:14.

Doctrine (didach|~). Better, teaching.

Fellowship (koinwni>a|). From koino>v, common. A relation between individuals which involves a common interest and a mutual, active participation in that interest
and in each other. The word answers to the Latin communio, from communis, common. Hence, sometimes rendered communion, as 1 Corinthians 10:16; 9 Corinthians
13:14. Fellowship is the most common rendering. Thus Philippians 1:5: "your fellowship in the gospel," signifying co-operation in the widest sense; participation in
sympathy, suffering, and labor. Compare 1 John 1:3, 6, 7. Occasionally it is used to express the particular form which the spirit of fellowship assumes; as in Romans
15:26; Hebrews 13:16 where it signifies the giving of alms, but always with an emphasis upon the principle of Christian fellowship which underlies the gift.

Breaking (kla>sei). Used by Luke only, and only in the phrase breaking of bread. The kindred verb kla>zw or kla>w, to break, occurs often, but, like the noun, only of
breaking bread. Hence used to designate the celebration of the Lord's Supper.

Prayers (proseucai~v). Always of prayer to God. Compare on deh>seiv, prayers, Luke 5:33; and besought, Luke 8:38.

43. Fear (fo>bov). Not terror, but reverential awe: as Mark 4:41; Luke 7:16; 1 Peter 1:17 etc.

44. Common (koina). Compare fellowship, ver. 42.

45. Possessions (kth>mata). Landed property.

Goods (uJpa>rxeiv). Possessions in general; movables.

46. With one accord (oJmoqumado). See on Matthew 18:19.

From house to house (kat' oi+kon). Better, as Rev., at home, contrasted with in the temple. Compare Philemon 1:2; Colossians 4:15; 1 Corinthians 16:19.

Did eat their meat (metela>mbanon trofh~v). Rev., take their food. Partake would be better, giving the force of meta>, with. Note the imperfect: "continued to
partake."

Singleness (ajfelo>thti). Only here in New Testament. Derived from aj, not, and felleu>v, stony ground. Hence of something simple or plain.

47. Added (proseti>qei). Imperfect: kept adding.

Such as should be saved (tounouv). Lit., as Rev., those that were being saved. The rendering of the A.V. would require the verb to be in the future, whereas it is the
present participle. Compare 1 Corinthians 1:18. Salvation is a thing of the present, as well as of the past and future. The verb is used in all these senses in the New
Testament. Thus, we were saved (not are, as A.V.), Romans 8:24; shall or shalt be saved, Romans 10:9, 13; ye are being saved, 1 Corinthians 15:2. "Godliness,
righteousness, is life, is salvation. And it is hardly necessary to say that the divorce of morality and religion must be fostered and encouraged by failing to note this, and
so laying the whole stress either on the past or on the future - on the first call, or on the final change. It is, therefore, important that the idea of salvation as a rescue from
sin, through the knowledge of God in Christ, and therefore a progressive condition, a present state, should not be obscured, and we can but regret such a translation as
Acts 2:47'The Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved,' where the Greek implies a different idea" (Lightfoot, "on a Fresh Revision of the New
Testament").

To the church. See on Matthew 16:18.

CHAPTER 3

1. Went up (ajne>bainon). The imperfect: were going up. So Rev., ascending the terraces, on the highest of which the temple stood.

Ninth hour. The time of the evening sacrifice; or, as the words of prayer indicate, half an hour later, for the prayer which accompanied the offering of incense.

2. That was (uJpa>rcwn). Lit., being. See on James 2:15.

Was carried (ejbasta>zeto). Imperfect: "was being carried as they were going up (ver. 1)

They laid (ejti>qoun). Imperfect: "they were wont to lay."

4. Fastening his eyes (ajteni>sav). See on Luke 4:20; and compare Acts 1:10.

Look (ble>yon). Attentively. See on Matthew 7:3.

6. Silver and gold (ajrgu>rion kaion). Properly, silver and gold money. See on 1 Peter 1:18.

7. He took (pia>sav). The verb means originally to press or squeeze; and hence implies taking hold with a firm grasp.

Feet (ba>seiv). A peculiar, technical word, used by Luke only, and described by Galen as the part of the foot lying beneath the leg, upon which the leg directly rests, as
distinguished from the tarso, the flat of the foot between the toes and heel, and pedi>on, the part next the toes.

Ankle-bones (sfura>). Only here in New Testament. Also technical. Some of the best texts read sfudra>, but the meaning is the same.

Received strength (ejsterew>qhsan). Used by Luke only. Compare "the churches were established (Acts 16:5), and the kindred noun stere>wma, steadfastness
(Colossians 2:5). In medical language applied to the bones in particular.

8.Copyright (c)(ejxallo>menov).
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                                                    forth. Only here in New Testament. Used in medical language of the sudden starting of a bone from      183 /of567
                                                                                                                                                      the socket,
starting from sleep, or of the sudden bound of the pulse.
Received strength (ejsterew>qhsan). Used by Luke only. Compare "the churches were established (Acts 16:5), and the kindred noun stere>wma, steadfastness
(Colossians 2:5). In medical language applied to the bones in particular.

8. Leaping up (ejxallo>menov). Strictly, leaping forth. Only here in New Testament. Used in medical language of the sudden starting of a bone from the socket, of
starting from sleep, or of the sudden bound of the pulse.

Walked (periepa>tei). The imperfect. Correctly, as Rev., began to walk; or, perhaps, continued walking about, testing his newly acquired power.

The medical notes of the case are, that the disease was congenital, had lasted over forty years (Acts 4:22), and the progressive steps of the recovery - leaped up,
stood, walked.

10. They knew (ejpegi`>nwskon). Or recognized. Rev., took knowledge.

Wonder (qa>mbouv). Used by Luke only. See on Luke 4:36.

Amazement (ejksta>sewv). See on Mark 5:42; and compare Luke 5:26.

11. The lame man which was healed. The best texts omit. Render as he held.

Held (kratou~ntov). Held them firmly, took fast hold. The verb from kra>tov, strength.

Greatly wondering (e]kqamboi). Wondering out of measure (ejk). Compare wonder. (ver. 10).

12. He answered. The question expressed in the people's explanations of surprise.

Men of Israel. Lit., men, Israelites. An honorable and conciliatory form of address. The term Israelite gradually gave place to that of Jew; but Israel was the sacred
name for the Jews, as the nation of the theocracy, the people under God's covenant, and hence was for the Jew his especial badge and title of honor. "To be
descendants of Abraham, this honor they must share with the Ishmaelites; of Abraham and Isaac, with the Edomites; but none except themselves were the seed of
Jacob, such as in this name of Israelite they were declared to be. Nor was this all, but more gloriously still, their descent was herein traced up to him, not as he was
Jacob, but as he was Israel, who, as a prince, had power with God and with men, and had prevailed" (Trench, "Synonyms"). So Paul, in enumerating to the Philippians
his claims to have confidence in the flesh, says he was "of the stock of Israel." It is said that the modern Jews in the East still delight in this title.

Our own (ijdi>a|). See on Acts 1:7.

13. His son (pai~da). Rightly, servant, as Rev. See on Luke 1:54. The A.V. renders, in Matthew 12:18servant, quoting from Isaiah 42:1; but elsewhere, where applied
to Jesus, son or child, which Rev. in every case has changed to servant. The word is continually used, like the Latin puer, in the sense of servant, and in the Septuagint
as the servant of God. See 2 Samuel 7:5, 8, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26. Compare Luke 1:69. The term servant of Jehovah, or servant of the Lord, is applied in the Old
Testament

(1)to a worshipper of God, Nehemiah 1:10; Daniel 6:21; so to Abraham, Psalms 105:6, 42; to Joshua, Joshua 24:29; to Job, Job 1:8.

(2)To a minister or ambassador of God called to any service, Isaiah 49:6; of Nebuchadnezzar, Jeremiah 27:6; of the prophets, Amos 3:7; of Moses, Deuteronomy
34:5.

(3)Peculiarly of the Messiah, Isaiah 42:1; 52:13; as God's chosen servant for accomplishing the work of redemption. "Unless we render servant in the passages where
the phrase pai~v Qeou~occurs in the New Testament, there will be no allusion throughout it all to that group of prophecies which designate the Messiah as the servant
of Jehovah, who learned obedience by the things which he suffered" (Trench, "On the Authorized Version of the New Testament").

When he. He is ejkei>vou the pronoun of more definite and emphatic reference, the latter, Pilate, "in order to make the contrast felt between what Pilate judged and
what they did." This is further emphasized in the next verse.

14. Desired (h|jth>sasqe). Or demanded. See on Luke 11:9.

A murderer (a]ndra fone>a). Lit., a man who was a murderer.

To be granted (carisqh~nai) By way of favor (ca>riv).

15. The Prince of life (ajrchgo). The Greek brings out by the position of these words what Bengel calls "the magnificent antithesis " between a murderer and the Prince
of life. "Ye demanded a murderer, but the Prince of life ye killed." This is the only place where the phrase occurs. 'Archgo>v, though sometimes rendered prince,
means, primarily, beginning, and thence originator, author. Better here as Rev., in margin, author, and so by Rev. at Hebrews 2:10; 12:2.

16. Through faith (ejpistei) Note the article: the faith which we had; not the cripple's faith, which was not demanded as a condition of his cure. Through faith (ejpi>) is
rather on account of, or on the basis of. Rev., by. Compare Acts 2:38; and see on Matthew 28:19.

Made strong (ejstere>wse). See on ver. 7.

Ye see (qewrei~te). See on Luke 10:18.

Perfect soundness (oJloklhri>an). Only here in New Testament. From o[lov, entire, and klh~rov, a lot. Denoting, therefore, the condition of one who has his entire
allotment.

19. Be converted (ejpistre>yate). Not a good rendering, because the verb is in the active voice. Better as Rev., turn again. See on Luke 22:32.

Blotted out (ejxaleifqh~nai) Forgiveness of sins under the figure of the erasure of hand-writing. The word is used thus in Psalms 51 (Sept. 1.), 1; Isaiah 43:25. Also at
Colossians 2:14. In classical Greek the verb is opposed to ejggra>fein, to enter a name. So Aristophanes: "They do things not to be born, entering (ejggra>fontev)
some of us, and others, erasing (ejxalei>fontev) up and down, twice or thrice" ("Peace," 1180). More especially with reference to an item in an account.
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When (o[pwv a]n). Wrong. Render in order that, or that (so there may come), as Rev.

Times (kairoi). Better, seasons. See on Acts 1:7.
Blotted out (ejxaleifqh~nai) Forgiveness of sins under the figure of the erasure of hand-writing. The word is used thus in Psalms 51 (Sept. 1.), 1; Isaiah 43:25. Also at
Colossians 2:14. In classical Greek the verb is opposed to ejggra>fein, to enter a name. So Aristophanes: "They do things not to be born, entering (ejggra>fontev)
some of us, and others, erasing (ejxalei>fontev) up and down, twice or thrice" ("Peace," 1180). More especially with reference to an item in an account.

When (o[pwv a]n). Wrong. Render in order that, or that (so there may come), as Rev.

Times (kairoi). Better, seasons. See on Acts 1:7.

Of refreshing (ajnayu>xewv). Only here in New Testament. The word means cooling, or reviving with fresh air. Compare the kindred verb, to wax cold, Matthew
24:12 and see note.

Presence (prosw>pou). Lit., the face.

20. Which before was preached (tonon). But the best texts read prokeceirisme>non, appointed. Compare Acts 22:14. Used by Luke only, Acts 22:14; 26:16. The
verb originally means to take in hand.

21. Of restitution (ajpokatasta>sewv). Only here in New Testament. The kindred verb, to restore, occurs Matthew 17:11; Acts 1:6 etc. As a technical medical term, it
denotes complete restoration of health; the restoring to its place of a dislocated joint, etc.

Since the world began (ajp' aijw~nov). The American Revisers insist on from of old.

23. Shall be destroyed (ejxoloqreuqh>setai). Only here in New Testament. Rev., "utterly destroyed," giving the force of ejx out.

25. Covenant (diaqh>khv). See on Matthew 26:28.

Made (die>qeto). The Rev. gives covenanted in margin. The noun covenant is derived from the verb diati>qnmi, originally to distribute or arrange. Hence to arrange or
settle mutually; to make a covenant with.

26. His Son Jesus. The best texts omit Jesus. Render servant for son, and see on ver. 13.

CHAPTER 4

1. Captain of the temple. It was the duty of the Levites to keep guard at the gates of the temple, in order to prevent the unclean from entering. To them the duties of the
temple police were entrusted, under the command of an official known in the New Testament as "the captain of the temple," but in Jewish writings chiefly as "the man of
the temple mount." Josephus speaks of him as a person of such consequence as to be sent, along with the high-priest, prisoner to Rome.

Came upon (ejpe>sthsan). Or stood by them, suddenly. Compare Luke 24:4; Acts 22:20; 23:11. Of dreams or visions, to appear to.

2. Being grieved (diaponou>menoi). Only here and Acts 16:18. The Rev. renders the force of dia> by "sore troubled;" vexed through and through.

The resurrection. The Sadducees denied both the resurrection and a future state. "In the Gospels the Pharisees are represented as the great opponents of Christ; in the
Acts it is the Sadducees who are the most violent opponents of the apostles. The reason of this seems to be, that in the Gospels Jesus Christ came in direct collision
with the Pharisees, by unmasking their hypocrisies and endangering their influence among the people; whereas the apostles, in testifying to the resurrection of Christ,
opposed the creed of the Sadducees. Perhaps, also, in attacking the apostles, who taught the resurrection of that Jesus whom the Pharisees had persecuted and
crucified, the Sadducees aimed an indirect blow at the favorite dogma of their rival sect" (Gloag, "Commentary on Acts").

3. In hold (eijv th>rhsin). A somewhat antiquated rendering. Better, as Rev., in ward. See on 1 Peter 1:4.

4. The number was about five thousand. Translate ejgenh>qh as Rev., came to be; indicating the addition to the original number of the many that believed.

7. What power - what name. Lit., what sort of power; what kind of name.

Have ye done. The ye closes the sentence in the Greek with a contemptuous emphasis: you people.

12. Salvation (hJ swthri>a). Note the article: the salvation; the Messianic deliverance.

13. Boldness. See on freely, Acts 2:29.

Perceived (katalabo>menoi). The word, meaning originally to seize upon or lay hold of, occurs frequently in the New Testament in different phases of this original
sense. Thus, to apprehend or grasp, Ephesians 3:18; Philippians 3:12, 13; Romans 9:30: of seizure by a demon, Mark 9:18: of something coming upon or overtaking,
John 12:35; 1 Thessalonians 5:4: of comprehending, grasping mentally, as here, Acts 10:34; 25:25.

Unlearned (ajgra>mmatoi). Or, very literally, unlettered. With special reference to Rabbinic culture, the absence of which was conspicuous in Peter's address.

Ignorant (ijdiw~tai). Originally, one in a private station, as opposed to one in office or in public affairs. Therefore one without professional knowledge, a layman;
thence, generally, ignorant, ill-informed; sometimes plebeian, common. In the absence of certainty it is as well to retain the meaning given by the A.V., perhaps with a
slight emphasis on the want of professional knowledge. Compare 1 Corinthians 14:16, 23, 24; 2 Corinthians 11:6.

Took knowledge (ejpegi>nwskon). Or recognized. See on Acts 3:10.

15. Conferred (sune>balon). See on pondered, Luke 2:19.

17. It spread (dianemhqh|~). Only here in New Testament. Lit., be distributed. In 2 Timothy 2:17"their word will eat as canker," is, literally, will have distribution or
spreading (nomh). Bengel, however, goes too far when he represents the members of the council as speaking in the figure of a canker. "They regard the whole as a
canker."

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21. Punish (kola>swntai). Originally, to curtail or dock; to prune as trees: thence to check, keep in bounds, punish.
17. It spread (dianemhqh|~). Only here in New Testament. Lit., be distributed. In 2 Timothy 2:17"their word will eat as canker," is, literally, will have distribution or
spreading (nomh). Bengel, however, goes too far when he represents the members of the council as speaking in the figure of a canker. "They regard the whole as a
canker."

18. To speak (fqe>ggesqai). See on 2 Peter 2:16.

21. Punish (kola>swntai). Originally, to curtail or dock; to prune as trees: thence to check, keep in bounds, punish.

24. Lord (de>spota). See on 2 Peter 2:1.

25. Servant (paido>v). See on Acts 3:13.

Rage (ejfru>axan). Only here in New Testament. Originally, to neigh or snort like a horse. Of men, to give one's self haughty airs, and to act and speak insolently. Philo
describes a proud man as "walking on tiptoe, and bridling (fruatto>menov), with neck erect like a horse."

27. Didst anoint (e]crisav). See on Christ, Matthew 1:1.

28. Thy hand. Thy disposing power.

32. Heart and soul. See on Mark 12:30.

33. Gave (ajpedi>doun). Lit., gave back (ajpo>); as something which they were in duty bound to give.

37. The money (to). The sum of money.

CHAPTER 5

2. Kept back (ejnosfi>sato). Only here, ver. 3, and Titus 2:10 where it is rendered purloining. From no>sfi, aloof, apart. The verb means to set apart for one's self;
hence to appropriate wrongfully.

3. To lie to (yeu>sasqai). Rather, to deceive. The design of Satan was to deceive the Holy Ghost. To lie to would require a different case in the noun, which occurs in
ver. 4, where the same verb is properly rendered lie (unto God). Satan fills the heart to deceive. The result of the attempt is merely to lie.

4. Whiles it remained, was it not thine own (oujcinon soi). A play on the words. Lit., remaining, did it not remain to thee? Rev., very happily, whiles it remained, did it
not remain thine own?

Conceived (e]qou). Lit., put or fixed. Wherefore didst thou fix this deed in thy heart? - i.e, resolve upon it.

5. Gave up the ghost (ejxe>yuxe). Used by Luke only. A rare word, occurring in the Septuagint, and in medical writers. See Ezekiel 21:7"Every spirit shall faint." See,
also, on failing, Luke 21:26.

6. Wound him up (sune>steilan). Better, as Rev., wrapped him round. The verb means to draw together, or draw in; hence used for shortening sail, reducing expenses,
lowering or humbling a person. In 1 Corinthians 7:29 it occurs in the phrase, "the time is short (sunestalme>nov Rev., properly, shortened);" i.e., drawn together,
contracted. In the sense of wrapping up it is found in Aristophanes, of wrapping cloaks or garments about one; also of tucking up the garments about the loins, as a
preparation for service. In the sense of shrouding for burial, it occurs in Euripides ("Troades," 382): "They were not shrouded (sunepesta>lhsan) by the hands of a
wife." In medical language, of bandaging a limb; of the contraction of tumors, and of organs of the body, etc. Some, however, as Meyer, refer the word here to the
pressing together of the dead man's limbs.

8. Answered. "The woman, whose entrance into the assembly of the saints was like a speech" (Bengel).

For so much (tosou>tou). Perhaps pointing to the money still lying at his feet.

9. Ye have agreed together (sunefwnh>qh ujmi~n). The verb is passive. Lit., was it agreed by you. The figure in the word is that of concord of sounds. Your souls
were attuned to each other respecting this deceit. See on music, Luke 15:25.

To tempt (peira>sai). To put it to the proof whether the Holy Spirit, ruling in the apostles, could be deceived. See on ver. 3.

The feet. Graphic. The steps of the young men returning from the burial are heard at the door.

12. Were wrought (ejge>neto). The best texts read ejgi>neto, the imperfect, were being wrought from time to time.

All. The whole body of believers.

13. The rest. Unbelievers, deterred by the fate of Ananias from uniting themselves to the church under false pretenses.

Join himself (kolla~sqai). See on Luke 15:15; 10:11. In all but two instances (Romans 12:9; 1 Corinthians 6:17), the word implies a forced, unnatural, or unexpected
union. Thus Philip would not, without a special command, have "joined himself" to the chariot of the Ethiopian prince (Acts 8:29). Saul's attempt to join himself to the
apostles was regarded by them with suspicion (Acts 9:26); and the fact that certain persons "clave to" Paul in Athens is expressly contrasted with the attitude of the
citizens at large. The sense of an unnatural union comes out clearly in 1 Corinthians 6:16.

14. Were added (proseti>qento). Imperfect: kept being added.

15. Couches (krabba>twn). See on Mark 2:4.

The shadow of Peter passing by. But the proper rendering is, as Peter passed by, his shadow might, etc. 13

18. In the common prison (ejn thrh>sei dhmosi>a|). Incorrect. Th>rhsiv is not used in the sense of prison, but is an abstract term meaning ward or keeping, as in Acts
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4:3. There is(c)
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                                                                                                                                                                  ward.

19. By night (dia). More correctly, during this night: dia> in the course of. Compare Acts 16:9.
The shadow of Peter passing by. But the proper rendering is, as Peter passed by, his shadow might, etc. 13

18. In the common prison (ejn thrh>sei dhmosi>a|). Incorrect. Th>rhsiv is not used in the sense of prison, but is an abstract term meaning ward or keeping, as in Acts
4:3. There is no article, moreover. Note, too, that another word is used for the prison in the next verse (th~v fulakh~v). Rev., therefore, correctly, in public ward.

19. By night (dia). More correctly, during this night: dia> in the course of. Compare Acts 16:9.

20. Stand. Compare Acts 2:14; and see on Luke 18:11; 19:8.

Of this life. The eternal life which Christ revealed. It is a peculiar use of the phrase, which is commonly employed in contrast with the life to come, as 1 Corinthians
15:19. Compare John 6:63, 68. Not equivalent to these words of life.

21. Early in the morning (uJpo). 'Upo>, beneath, is often used in the sense of just about, or near. &Orqron is from o]rnumi, to cause to arise: the dawn. See on Luke
24:1. Render as Rev., about daybreak.

Taught (ejdi>daskon). Imperfect: began teaching.

The council (sune>drion). The Sanhedrim.

The senate (gerousi>an). From ge>rwn, an old man, like the Latin senatus, from senex, old. Taking on very early an official sense, the notion of age being merged in
that of dignity. Thus in Homer ge>rontev are the chiefs who form the king's council. Compare the Latin patres, fathers, the title used in addressing the Roman senate.
The word in this passage is the name of the Spartan assembly, Gerousia, the assembly of elders, consisting of thirty members, with the two kings. "The well-known
term," as Meyer remarks, "is fittingly transferred from the college of the Greek gerontes to that of the Jewish presbyters." They summoned, not only those elders of the
people who were likewise members of the Sanhedrim, but the whole council (all the senate) of the representatives of the people.

Prison (desmwth>rion). Still another word for prison. Compare vv. 18, 19. Rev., prison-house. The different words emphasize different aspects of confinement.
Th>rhsiv is keeping, as the result of guarding. See on ver. 18. Fulakh> emphasizes the being put under guard, and desmwth>rion the being put in bonds.

22. Officers (uJphre>tai) See on Matthew 5:25.

24. They doubted (dihpo>roun). See on Luke 9:5. Rev., were much perplexed, giving the force of dia>, thoroughly at a loss. Compare Luke 24:4. 14

28. Did not. The best texts omit ouj, not, and the question.

We straitly charged. So Rev. (paraggeli>a| pathggei>lamen). Lit., we charged you with a charge. See on Luke 22:15with desire I have desired.

Intend (bou>lesqe). Or ye want. See on willing, Matthew 1:19.

This man's. The phrase is remarkable as furnishing the first instance of that avoidance of the name of Christ which makes the Talmud, in the very same terms, refer to
him most frequently as Peloni, "so and so."

29. We ought (dei~). Stronger, we must.

To obey (peiqarcei~n). Not often used in the New Testament to express obedience, the most common word being uJpakou>w. Sometimes pei>qw is used. But this
word, in itself, is the only one of the several in use which expresses the conception of obedience exclusively. 'Upakou>ein is to obey as the result of listening to another:
pei>qesqai is to obey as the result of persuasion. This is the special term for the obedience which one owes to authority (ajrch>). It occurs four times in the New
Testament: Acts 5:29, 32; 27:21; Titus 3:1; and in every case, of obedience to established authority, either of God or of magistrates. In Acts 27:21 where it is used of
the ship's officers hearkening to Paul's admonition not to loose from Crete, Paul speaks of his admonition as divinely inspired; compare Acts27:10. In Acts 4:19 Peter
and John say hearken (ajkou>ein). That is a mere listening to or considering the proposition made to them. This is a deliberate course of action.

30. Ye slew (dieceiri>sasqe). Only here and Acts 26:21. To slay with one's own hands.

Tree. See on Luke 23:31.

31. Prince. See on Acts 3:15.

Repentance - remission. See on Matthew 3:2; James 5:15; Luke 3:3.

32. Witnesses. See on Acts 1:22.

Obey. See on ver. 29.

33. They were cut to the heart (diepri>onto). Only here and Acts 7:54. The verb means, originally, to saw asunder. A strong figure for exasperation.

To slay. See on Luke 23:32.

34. The apostles. The best texts substitute toupouv, the men.

A little space (bracu>). Better as Rev., a little while.

36. Joined themselves (prosekollh>qh). The best texts read prosekli>qh, were inclined; i.e., leaned to, or took sides with.

37. Obeyed. Note the word for obeyed (ejpei>qonto), implying the persuasive power of Theudas' boasting. See on ver. 29.

Taxing (ajpografh~v). See on Luke 2:1, 2.

Much people. The best texts omit much.
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Were dispersed (dieskorpi>sqhsan). See on Matthew 25:24.
Taxing (ajpografh~v). See on Luke 2:1, 2.

Much people. The best texts omit much.

Were dispersed (dieskorpi>sqhsan). See on Matthew 25:24.

38. Refrain (ajpo>sthte). Lit., stand off.

Of men (ejx ajnqrw>pwn). Out of men, proceeding out of their devices.

It will come to naught (kataluqh>setai). Lit., be loosened down. Used of the dilapidation of the temple (Luke 21:6), and of the dissolution of the body under the figure
of striking a tent (2 Corinthians 5:1). See on Mark 13:2.

39. To fight against God (qeoma>coi). Lit., to be God-fighters.

41. They were counted worthy to suffer shame (kathxiw>qhsan ajtimasqh~nai). This is an instance of what rhetoricians style an oxymoron, from ojxu>v, sharp, and
mwro>v, foolish; a pointedly foolish saying, which is witty or impressive through sheer contradiction or paradox, as laborious idleness, sublime indifference. In this case
the apostles are described as dignified by indignity.

Chapter 6

1. And (de>). Better but, as a contrast is now introduced with the prosperous condition of the Church indicated at the close of the last chapter.

Was multiplied (plhquno>ntwn). Lit., "when the disciples were multiplying;" the present participle indicating something in progress.

A murmuring (goggusmo). See on the kindred word murmerers, Jude 1:16.

Grecians ('Ellhnistw~n). Rev., much better, Grecian Jews, with Hellenists in margin. "Grecians" might easily be understood of Greeks in general. The word Hellenists
denotes Jews, not Greeks, but Jews who spoke Greek. The contact of Jews with Greeks was first effected by the conquests of Alexander. He settled eight thousand
Jews in the Thebais, and the Jews formed a third of the population of his new city of Alexandria. From Egypt they gradually spread along the whole Mediterranean
coast of Africa. They were removed by Seleucus Nicator from Babylonia, by thousands, to Antioch and Seleucia, and under the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes
scattered themselves through Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and the Aegean islands. The vast majority of them adopted the Greek language, and forgot the Aramaic
dialect which had been their language since the Captivity. The word is used but twice in the New Testament - here and Acts 9:29 - and, in both cases, of Jews who
had embraced Christianity, but who spoke Greek and used the Septuagint version of the Bible instead of the original Hebrew or the Chaldaic targum or paraphrase.
The word %Ellhn, which is very common in the New Testament, is used in antithesis, either to "Barbarians" or to "Jews." In the former case it means all nations which
spoke the Greek language (see Acts 18:17; Romans 1:14; 1 Corinthians 1:22, 23). In the latter it is equivalent to Gentiles (see Romans 1:16; 2:9; 1 Corinthians 10:32;
Galatians 2:3). Hence, in either case, it is wholly different from Hellenist.

Hebrews. Hebrew is the proper antithesis to Hellenist. A man was 'Ioudai~ov, a Jew, who traced his descent from Jacob, and conformed to the religion of his fathers.
He might speak Greek and be a Hellenist. He was 'Ebrai~ov, a Hebrew, only as he spoke Hebrew and retained Hebrew customs. The distinction between Hebrew
and Hellenist was a distinction within the Jewish nation, and not between it and other nations. Thus Paul calls himself a Hebrew of Hebrews; i.e., a Hebrew and of
Hebrew parents (Philippians 3:5; compare 2 Corinthians 11:22).

Were neglected (pareqewrou~nto). Only here in New Testament. Lit., were overlooked. The imperfect denoting something habitual.

Daily (kaqhmerinh|~). Only here in New Testament.

Ministration (diakoni>a|). Or service. See on minister, Matthew 20:26. The reference is to the distribution of provision.

2. Reason (ajresto>n). Lit., pleasing or agreeable.

Leave (katalei>yantav). Rather forsake or abandon: leave in the lurch.

Serve tables. Superintend the distribution of food.

3. Of good report (marturoume>nouv). Lit., attested, having witness born them.

4. We will give ourselves continually (proskarterh>somen). See on Acts 1:14. Rev., continue steadfastly.

5. Stephen, etc. The names are all Greek. There is no reason to infer from this that they were all Hellenists. It was customary among the Jews to have two names, the
one Hebrew and the other Greek. They were probably partly Hebrews and partly Hellenists.

7. To the faith (th|~ pi>stei). Opinions differ greatly as to whether this is to be taken as meaning faith in Jesus Christ, or faith considered as Christian doctrine - the
Gospel; the faith in the ecclesiastical sense. This passage and Galatians 1:23 are the strong passages in favor of the latter view; but the general usage of the New
Testament, added to the fact that in both these passages the former meaning gives a good, intelligible, and perfectly consistent sense, go to confirm the former
interpretation.

1. In the great majority of New Testament passages faith is clearly used in the sense of faith in Jesus Christ: "the conviction and confidence regarding Jesus Christ as the
only and perfect mediator of the divine grace and of eternal life, through his work of atonement" (Meyer).

2. This interpretation is according to the analogy of such expressions as obedience of Christ (2 Corinthians 10:5), where the meaning is, clearly, obedience to Christ:
obedience of the truth (1 Peter 1:22). Accordingly, faith, though it becomes in man the subjective moral power of the new life, regenerated through the power of the
Spirit, is regarded objectively as a power - the authority which commands submission.

3. This interpretation is according to the analogy of the expression hearing of faith (Galatians 3:2), which is to be rendered, not as equivalent to the reception of the
Gospel, but as the report or message of faith; i.e., which treats of faith, ajkoh, hearing being always used in the New Testament in a passive sense, and often rendered
fame,  rumor,
 Copyright    (c)report (see Matthew
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                                          Media   Mark 1:28; John 12:38; Romans 10:16). Compare, also, obedience of faith (Romans 1:5; 16:26), where    Pagefaith
                                                                                                                                                                188is to be
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taken as the object, and not as the source, of the obedience; and hence is not to be explained as the obedience which springs from faith, but as the obedience rendered
to faith as the authoritative impulse of the new life in Christ.
Spirit, is regarded objectively as a power - the authority which commands submission.

3. This interpretation is according to the analogy of the expression hearing of faith (Galatians 3:2), which is to be rendered, not as equivalent to the reception of the
Gospel, but as the report or message of faith; i.e., which treats of faith, ajkoh, hearing being always used in the New Testament in a passive sense, and often rendered
fame, rumor, report (see Matthew 4:24; 14:1; Mark 1:28; John 12:38; Romans 10:16). Compare, also, obedience of faith (Romans 1:5; 16:26), where faith is to be
taken as the object, and not as the source, of the obedience; and hence is not to be explained as the obedience which springs from faith, but as the obedience rendered
to faith as the authoritative impulse of the new life in Christ.

The great majority of the best modern commentators hold that faith is to be taken as the subjective principle of Christian life (though often regarded objectively as a
spiritual power), and not as Christian doctrine.

8. Did (ejpoi>ei). Imperfect: was working wonders during the progress of the events described in the previous verse.

9. Synagogue. See on Church, Matthew 16:18.

Of the libertines. In Jerusalem, and probably in other large cities, the several synagogues were arranged according to nationalities, and even crafts. Thus we have in this
verse mention of the synagogues of the Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and Asiatics. Libertines is a Latin word (libertini, freedmen), and means here Jews or their
descendants who had been taken as slaves to Rome, and had there received their liberty; and who, in consequence of the decree of Tiberius, about 19 A.D., expelling
them from Rome, had returned in great numbers to Jerusalem. They were likely to be the chief opponents of Stephen, because they supposed that by his preaching,
their religion, for which they had suffered at Rome, was endangered in Jerusalem.

10. They were not able (oujk i]scuon). See on Luke 14:30; 16:3.

11. Suborned (uJpe>balon). Only here in New Testament. The verb originally means to put under, as carpets under one's feet; hence, to put one person in place of
another; to substitute, as another's child for one's own; to employ a secret agent in one's place, and to instigate or secretly instruct him.

12. They stirred up the people (suneki>nhsan to). The verb occurs only here in the New Testament. It implies to stir up as a mass, to move them together (su>n). This
is the first record of the hostility of the people toward the disciples. See Acts 2:47.

Caught (sunh>rpasan). Used by Luke only. Better as Rev., seized. See on Luke 8:29.

14. This Jesus of Nazareth. Contemptuous.

Chapter 7

1. Then said the high-priest. "The glorified countenance of Stephen has caused a pause of surprise and admiration, which the high-priest interrupts by calling upon the
accused for his defense" (Gloag).

2. Brethren. Addressing the audience generally.

Fathers. Addressing the members of the Sanhedrim.

Of glory. Outward, visible glory, as in the shekinah and the pillar of fire.

Appeared (w]fqh). See on Luke 22:43.

5. Inheritance (klhronomi>an). See on 1 Peter 1:4.

Not so much as to set his foot on (oujdev). Lit., not even the stepping of a foot. From the original meaning, a pace or step, which occurs only here in the New
Testament, comes the sense of a step considered as a raised place or seat, and hence a tribune or judgment-seat, which is its meaning in every other passage of the
New Testament.

Possession (kata>scesin). Only here and ver. 45. See on keep, Luke 8:15. It denotes a permanent possession.

8. The covenant of circumcision. There is no article, and it is better omitted in rendering. He gave him a covenant, the peculiar character of which is defined by the next
word - of circumcision; i.e., of which circumcision was the completion and seal.

9. Moved with envy (zhlw>santev). Compare James 4:1; and see on envying, James 3:14.

10. Afflictions (qli>yewn) See on Matthew 13:21.

11. Sustenance (corta>smata). For their cattle: fodder. See on shall be filled, Matthew 5:6.

12. In Egypt (ejn Aijgu>ptw|). But the best texts read eijv Ai]gupton, into Egypt, and construe with sent forth: "he sent forth our fathers into Egypt."

13. Joseph's race. Note the repetition of the name. "A certain sense of patriotic pride is implied in it."

14. Threescore and fifteen. Lit., "in (ejn) threescore and fifteen;" the idiom expressing the sum in which all the individuals were included.

17. When (kaqw). Rev., more correctly, as; the word being not a particle of time, but meaning in proportion as.

18. Another (e[terov). Not merely a successor, but a monarch of a different character.

Knew not. As sixty years had elapsed since Joseph's death, and a new dynasty was coming to the throne, this may be taken literally: did not know his history and
services. Some explain, did not recognize his merits.

19. Dealt subtilely (katasofisa>menov). Only here in New Testament. Lit., to employ cunning against. See on sofo, wise, James 3:13.
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So that they cast out (tou~ poiei~n e]kqeta). Lit., make exposed. The verb ejkti>qhmi, to set out, or place outside, is not uncommon in classical Greek for the
exposure of a new-born child. Thus Herodotus, of Cyrus, exposed in infancy: "The herdsman's wife entreated him not to expose (ejkqei~nai) the babe" (1, 112). The
services. Some explain, did not recognize his merits.

19. Dealt subtilely (katasofisa>menov). Only here in New Testament. Lit., to employ cunning against. See on sofo, wise, James 3:13.

So that they cast out (tou~ poiei~n e]kqeta). Lit., make exposed. The verb ejkti>qhmi, to set out, or place outside, is not uncommon in classical Greek for the
exposure of a new-born child. Thus Herodotus, of Cyrus, exposed in infancy: "The herdsman's wife entreated him not to expose (ejkqei~nai) the babe" (1, 112). The
rendering of the A.V., "so that they cast out," is correct, expressing the result, and not Pharaoh's design.

Young children (bre>fh). Incorrect. See on 1 Peter 2:2. Rev., rightly babes.

Live (zwogonei~sqai) Or, be preserved alive. See on Luke 17:33.

20. Time (kairw|~). Better, season or juncture. "Sad, seasonable" (Bengel). See on Acts 1:7.

Exceeding air (ajstei~ov tw|~ qew|~). Lit., fair unto God: a Hebrew superlative. Compare Jonah 3:3: great unto God; A.V., exceeding great. Genesis 10:9 of Nimrod:
a mighty hunter before the Lord. 2 Corinthians 10:4: mighty unto God; i.e., in God's sight. 'Astei~ov, fair (only here and Hebrews 11:23), is from a]stu, a town, and
means originally town-bred; hence refined, elegant, comely. The word is used in the Septuagint of Moses (Exodus 2:2), and rendered goodly. The Jewish traditions
extol Moses' beauty. Josephus says that those who met him, as he was carried along the streets, forgot their business and stood still to gaze at him.

21. Took up (ajnei>leto). Used among Greek writers of taking up exposed children; also of owning new-born children. So Aristophanes: "I exposed (the child) and
some other woman, having taken it, adopted (anei>leto) it" ("Clouds," 531). There is no reason why the meaning should be limited to took him up from the water (as
Gloag).

23. It came into his heart (ajne>bh ejpian). Lit., "it arose into his heart." "There may be something in the depth of the soul which afterward emerges and ascends from
that sea into the heart as into an island" (Bengel). The expression is imitated from the Hebrew, and occurs in the Septuagint: "The ark shall not come to mind;" lit., go up
into the heart (Jeremiah 3:16). See, also, Jeremiah 32:35; Isaiah 65:17.

24. Defended (hjmu>nato). Only here in New Testament. The word means originally to ward off from one's self, with a collateral notion of requital or revenge.

25. Understood (sunie>nai) See on understanding, Mark 12:33.

26. Appeared (w]fqh). With the suggestion of a sudden appearance as in a vision; possibly with the underlying notion of a messenger of God. See on Luke 22:43.

Would have set them at one (sunh>lasen aujtounhn). Lit., drove them together to peace; urged them.

31. The sight (to). Always in the New Testament of a vision. See on Matthew 17:9.

To behold (katanoh~sai). See on Matthew 7:3. Compare Luke 12:24, 27.

32. Trembled (e]ntromov geno>menov). Lit., having become trembling; having fallen into a tremor.

34. I have seen, I have seen (ijdw). Lit., having seen I saw. A Hebraism. See Exodus 3:7 (Sept.). Compare Judges 1:28: utterly drive them out; lit., removing did not
utterly remove. Judges 4:9: going I will go; i.e., I will surely go. Genesis 37:8: reigning shalt thou reign; i.e., shalt thou indeed reign. So Rev. here, "I have surely seen."

35. Deliverer (lutrwth,n). Strictly, a ransomer or redeemer. Only here in New Testament, See on ransom, Matthew 20:28; and redeemed, 1 Peter 1:18.

By the hand (ejn ceiri) The best texts read su>n ceiri, "with the hand;" i.e., in association with the protecting and helping power of the angel.

38. Lively. Better, living, as Rev. Compare 1 Peter 2:4, 5.

39. Turned back in their hearts. Not desiring to go back, but longing for the idolatries of Egypt.

40. Shall go before us. As symbols to be born before them on the march. Compare Nehemiah 9:18.

41. They made a calf (ejmoscopoi>hsan). Only here in New Testament, and not in Septuagint. Bengel says, "A very notorious crime is denoted by an extraordinary
and newly-coined word." This was in imitation of the Egyptian bull-worship. Several of these animals were worshipped at different places in Egypt. Apis was
worshipped at Memphis. Herodotus says: "Now this Apis, or Epaphus, is the calf of a cow which is never afterward able to bear young. The Egyptians say that fire
comes down from heaven upon the cow, which thereupon conceives Apis. The calf which is so called has the following marks: He is black, with a square spot of white
upon his forehead, and on his back the figure of an eagle. The hairs in his tail are double, and there is a beetle upon his tongue" (3, 28). He was regarded by the
Egyptians, not merely as an emblem, but as a God. He was lodged in a magnificent court, ornamented with figures twelve cubits high, which he never quitted except on
fixed days, when he was led in procession through the streets. His festival lasted seven days, and all came forward from their houses to welcome him as he passed. He
was not allowed to reach the natural term of his life. If a natural death did not remove him earlier, he was drowned when he reached the age of twenty-five, and was
then embalmed and entombed in one of the sepulchral chambers of the Serapeum, a temple devoted expressly to the burial of these animals.

Another sacred bull was maintained at Heliopolis, in the great Temple of the Sun, under the name of Mnevis, and was honored with a reverence next to Apis.
Wilkinson thinks that it was from this, and not from Apis, that the Israelites borrowed their notions of the golden calf. "The offerings, dancing, and rejoicings practiced
on the occasion, were doubtless in imitation of a ceremony they had witnessed in honor of Mnevis during their sojourn in Egypt" ("Ancient Egyptians," 2 ser., vol. ii., p.
197). A third sacred bull, called Bacis, was maintained at Hermonthis, near Thebes. It was a huge, black animal, and its hairs were said to grow the wrong way. Other
bulls and cows did not hold the rank of gods, but were only sacred.

Offered (agnh>gagon). Lit., led up. See on James 2:21.

42. To worship (latreu>ein). Rev., more correctly, serve. See on Luke 1:74.

The host of heaven. Star-worship, or Sabaeanism, the remnant of the ancient heathenism of Western Asia, which consisted in the worship of the stars, and spread into
Syria, though the Chaldaean religion was far from being the simple worship of the host of heaven; the heavenly bodies being regarded as real persons, and not mere
metaphorical representations of astronomical phenomena. It is to the Sabaean worship that Job alludes when, in asserting the purity of his life (31:26, 27), he says: "If I
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beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hands: this Page
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                                                                                                                                                                an iniquity
to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the God that is above." Though not a part of the religion of the Egyptians, Rawlinson thinks it may have been
connected with their earlier belief, since prayer is represented in hieroglyphics by a man holding up his hands, accompanied by a star (Herodotus, vol. ii., p. 291).
The host of heaven. Star-worship, or Sabaeanism, the remnant of the ancient heathenism of Western Asia, which consisted in the worship of the stars, and spread into
Syria, though the Chaldaean religion was far from being the simple worship of the host of heaven; the heavenly bodies being regarded as real persons, and not mere
metaphorical representations of astronomical phenomena. It is to the Sabaean worship that Job alludes when, in asserting the purity of his life (31:26, 27), he says: "If I
beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hands: this also were an iniquity
to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the God that is above." Though not a part of the religion of the Egyptians, Rawlinson thinks it may have been
connected with their earlier belief, since prayer is represented in hieroglyphics by a man holding up his hands, accompanied by a star (Herodotus, vol. ii., p. 291).

43. Tabernacle of Moloch. The portable tent-temple of the God, to be carried in procession. Moloch was an Ammonite idol to whom children were sacrificed.
According to Rabbinical tradition, his image was hollow, heated from below, with the head of an ox and outstretched arms, into which children were laid, their cries
being stifled by the beating of drums.

Remphan. The texts vary between Remphan, Rephan, and Romphan. It is supposed to be the Coptic name for Saturn, to which the Arabs, Egyptians, and Phoenicians
paid divineMarvin R. Vincent, Word Studies in the New Testament, Volume 1 honors.

45. That came after (diadexa>menoi). Only here in New Testament. The verb originally means to receive from one another, in succession; and that appears to be the
more simple and natural rendering here: having received it (from Moses). Rev., very neatly, in their turn.

Jesus. Joshua. The names are the same, both signifying Savior. See on Matthew 1:21.

Into the possession (ejn th|~ katasce>sei). Rev., when they entered on the possession. 15

Before the face (ajpopou). More strictly, "away from the face." The same expression occurs in the Septuagint, Deuteronomy 11:23.

46. Desired (h|jth>sato). More correctly, asked: through Nathan. See 2 Samuel 7:2.

Tabernacle (skh>nwma). It was not a tabernacle or tent which David proposed to build, but a house. See 2 Samuel 7:2. Rev., rightly, habitation. Compare oi+kon, a
house, ver. 47 and 2 Chronicles 6:18.

48. The Most High. In contrast with heathen gods, who were confined to their temples.

Temples made with hands (ceiropoih>toiv naoi~v). The best texts omit naoi~v, temples. The meaning is more general: in things made with hands. The expression is,
however, used of a sanctuary in Isaiah 16:12: "Moab shall come to his sanctuary (tahta)." The phrase work, or works of men's hands, is common in the Old Testament
of idols. See Deuteronomy 4:28; 2 Kings 19:18; 2 Chronicles 32:19; Psalms 115:4. Compare Mark 14:58; Ephesians 2:11; Hebrews 9:11, 24; 2 Corinthians 5:1.

49. What house. Rev., more correctly, "what manner of house" (poi~on).

51. Stiff-necked and uncircumcised (sklhrotra>chloi kaitmhtoi). Both only here in New Testament.

Resist (ajntipi>ptete). It is a very strong expression, implying active resistance. Lit., to fall against or upon. Used of falling upon an enemy. Only here in New Testament.

Ye have been (gege>nhsqe). More correctly, as Rev., ye have become.

53. Who (oi[tinev). Stronger than the simple relative who, and emphasizing their sin by contrast with their privileges: inasmuch as ye were those who received, etc.

By the disposition of angels (eijv diatagalwn). Lit., unto ordinances of angels. Eijv means with reference to. Disposition (diatagh>) is used by A.V. in the sense of
arrangement, as we say a general disposed his troops. The word occurs only here and Romans 13:2 where it is rendered ordinance. The kindred verb diata>ssw
occurs often, mostly in the sense of command or appoint. See Matthew 11:1; Luke 3:13. In 1 Corinthians 11:34 it is translated set in order. The reference is most
probably to the Jewish tradition that the law was given through the agency of angels. See Deuteronomy 32:2. Compare Psalms 68:17. Paul expressly says that the law
was administered by the medium of angels (Galatians 3:19). Compare the word spoken by angels (Hebrews 2:2). Render, therefore, as Rev., as it was ordained by
angels.

54. They were cut. See on Acts 5:33. In both instances, of anger. A different word is used to express remorse, Acts 2:37.

Gnashed (e]brucon). Originally to eat greedily, with a noise, as wild beasts: hence to gnash or grind the teeth.

55. Being (uJpa>rcwn). See on James 2:15.

Looked up steadfastly. Compare Acts 1:10; 3:4,12; 6:15; and see on Luke 4:20.

Standing. Rising from the throne to protect and receive his servant. Usually Jesus is represented in the New Testament as seated at the Father's right hand. See
Ephesians 1:20; Colossians 3:1; Hebrews 1:3.

56. I see (qewrw~). See on Luke 10:18.

The Son of man. A title never applied to Christ by any of the apostles or evangelists, except here by Stephen. See on Luke 6:22.

57. Stopped (sune>scon). Lit., held together.

58. Stoned. According to the Rabbis, the scaffold to which the criminal was to be led, with his hands bound, was to be twice the size of a man. One of the witnesses
was to smite him with a stone upon the breast, so as to throw him down. If he were not killed, the second witness was to throw another stone at him. Then, if he were
yet alive, all the people were to stone him until he was dead. The body was then to be suspended till sunset.

A young man (neani>ou). Which, however, gives no indication of his age, since it is applied up to the age of forty-five. Thirty years after Stephen's martyrdom, Paul
speaks of himself as the aged (Philemon 1:9).

Saul. The first mention of the apostle to the Gentiles.
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59. Calling upon God. God is not in the Greek. From the vision just described, and from the prayer which follows, it is evident that Jesus is meant. So Rev., the Lord.

Jesus. An unquestionable prayer to Christ.
speaks of himself as the aged (Philemon 1:9).

Saul. The first mention of the apostle to the Gentiles.

59. Calling upon God. God is not in the Greek. From the vision just described, and from the prayer which follows, it is evident that Jesus is meant. So Rev., the Lord.

Jesus. An unquestionable prayer to Christ.

60. Lay not this sin to their charge (mhsh|v aujtoi~v than tau>thn). Lit., fix not this sin upon them.

He fell asleep (ejkoimh>qh). Marking his calm and peaceful death. Though the pagan authors sometimes used sleep to signify death, it was only as a poetic figure.
When Christ, on the other hand, said, "Our friend Lazarus sleepeth (kekoi>mhtai)," he used the word, not as a figure, but as the expression of a fact. In that mystery of
death, in which the pagan saw only nothingness, Jesus saw continued life, rest, waking - the elements which enter into sleep. And thus, in Christian speech and thought,
as the doctrine of the resurrection struck its roots deeper, the word dead, with its hopeless finality, gave place to the more gracious and hopeful word sleep. The pagan
burying place carried in its name no suggestion of hope or comfort. It was a burying-place, a hiding-place, a monumentum, a mere memorial of something gone; a
columbarium, or dove-cot, with its little pigeon-holes for cinerary urns; but the Christian thought of death as sleep, brought with it into Christian speech the kindred
thought of a chamber of rest, and embodied it in the word cemetery (koimhth>rion) - the place to lie down to sleep.

ChaptER 8

1. Death (ajnaire>sei). Lit., taking off. See on Luke 23:32.

2. Devout. See on Luke 2:25.

Carried to his burial (suneko>misan). Only here in New Testament. Lit., to carry together; hence, either to assist in burying or, better, to bring the dead to the company
(su>n) of the other dead. The word is used of bringing in harvest.

Stephen (Ste>fanon). Meaning crown. He was the first who received the martyr's crown.

Lamentation (kopeto). Lit., beating (of the breast). Only here in New Testament.

3. Made havoc (ejlumai>neto). Only here in New Testament. In Septuagint, Psalms 79:13 it is used of the laying waste of a vineyard by the wild boar. Compare Acts
9:21 where the A.V. has destroyed, but where the Greek is porqh>sav, devastated. Canon Farrar observes: "The part which he played at this time in the horrid work
of persecution has, I fear, been always underrated. It is only when we collect the separate passages - they are no less than eight in number - in which allusion is made to
this sad period, 16 it is only when we weigh the terrible significance of the expressions used that we feel the load of remorse which must have lain upon him, and the
taunts to which he was liable from malignant enemies" ("Life and Work of St. Paul"). Note the imperfect, of continued action.

5. Philip. The deacon (Acts 6:5). Not the apostle. On the name, see on Mark 3:18.

Christ (ton). Note the article, "the Christ," and see on Matthew 1:1.

He did (ejpoi>ei). Imperfect. Kept doing from time to time, as is described in the next verse.

7. Taken with palsies (paralelume>noi). Rev., more neatly, palsied. See on Luke 5:18.

Were healed. See on Luke 5:15.

9. Used sorcery (mageu>wn). Only here in New Testament. One of the wizards so numerous throughout the East at that time, and multiplied by the general expectation
of a great deliverer and the spread of the Messianic notions of the Jews, who practiced upon the credulity of the people by conjuring and juggling and soothsaying.

Bewitched (ejxistw~n). Better as Rev., amazed. See on Acts 2:7.

10. The great power of God. The best texts add hJ kaloume>nh, which is called, and render that power of God which ms called great. They believed that Simon was
an impersonated power of God, which, as the highest of powers, they designated as the great.

11. Bewitched. Amazed, as ver. 9

13. Continued with. See on Acts 1:14.

Miracles and signs (shmei~a kaimeiv). Lit., signs and powers. See on Matthew 11:20; Acts 2:22.

Which were done (ginome>av). The present participle. Lit., are coming to pass.

He was amazed. After having amazed the people by his tricks. See ver. 9. The same word is employed.

14. Samaria. The country, not the city. See vv. 5, 9.

16. They were (uJph~rcon). See on James 2:15. Rev., more literally, had been.

In the name (eijv to). Lit., "into the name." See on Matthew 28:19.

20. Perish with thee (suleian). Lit., be along with thee unto destruction. Destruction overtake thy money and thyself.

21. Part nor lot. Lot expresses the same idea as part, but figuratively.

Matter (lo>gw|). The matter of which we are talking: the subject of discourse, as Luke 1:4; Acts 15:6.
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Right (eujqei~a). Lit., straight.

22. If perhaps. The doubt suggested by the heinousness of the offense.
21. Part nor lot. Lot expresses the same idea as part, but figuratively.

Matter (lo>gw|). The matter of which we are talking: the subject of discourse, as Luke 1:4; Acts 15:6.

Right (eujqei~a). Lit., straight.

22. If perhaps. The doubt suggested by the heinousness of the offense.

Thought (ejpi>noia). Only here in New Testament. Lit., a thinking on or contriving; and hence implying a plan or design.

23. In the gall (eijv colh). Lit., into. Thou hast fallen into and continuest in. Gall, only here and Matthew 27:34. Gall of bitterness is bitter enmity against the Gospel.

Bond of iniquity (su>ndesmon ajdiki>av). Thou hast fallen into iniquity as into fetters. The word su>ndesmon denotes a close, firm bond (su>n, together). It is used of
the bond of Christian peace (Ephesians 4:3); of the close compacting of the church represented as a body (Colossians 2:19); and of love as the bond of perfectness
(Colossians 3:14). See Isaiah 58:6.

26. The south (meshmbri). A contracted form of meshmeri>a, midday, noon, which is the rendering at Acts 22:6 the only other passage where it occurs. Rev. gives at
noon in margin.

Desert. Referring to the route. On desert, see on Luke 15:4. There were several roads from Jerusalem to Gaza. One is mentioned by the way of Bethlehem to Hebron,
and thence through a region actually called a desert.

27. Of Ethiopia. The name for the lands lying south of Egypt, including the modern Nubia, Cordofan, and Northern Abyssinia. Rawlinson speaks of subjects of the
Ethiopian queens living in an island near Meroe, in the northern part of this district. He further remarks: "The monuments prove beyond all question that the Ethiopians
borrowed from Egypt their religion and their habits of civilization. They even adopted the Egyptian as the language of religion and of the court, which it continued to be
till the power of the Pharaohs had fallen, and their dominion was again confined to the frontier of Ethiopia. It was through Egypt, too, that Christianity passed into
Ethiopia, even in the age of the apostles, as is shown by the eunuch of Queen Candace."

Of great authority (duna>sthv). A general term for a potentate.

Candace. The common name of the queens of Meroe: a titular distinction, like Pharaoh in Egypt, or Caesar at Rome.

Treasure (ga>zhv). Only here in New Testament. A Persian word.

29. Join thyself (kollh>qhti). See on Luke 15:15; 10:11; Acts 5:12.

30. Understandest thou what thou readest (a+ra> ge ginw>skeiv a{ ajnaginw>skeiv); The play upon the words cannot be translated. The interrogative particles which
begin the question indicate a doubt on Philip's part.

31. How can I (pw~v gamhn)? Lit., for how should I be able? the for connecting the question with an implied negative: "No; for how could I understand except," etc.

32. The place of the scripture (hJ perioch). Strictly, the contents of the passage. See on Mark 12:10; 1 Peter 2:6.

He read. Rev., correctly, was reading; imperfect.

33. Humiliation. See on Matthew 11:29.

Generation. His contemporaries. Who shall declare their wickedness?

35. Opened his mouth. Indicating a solemn announcement. Compare Matthew 5:2.

37. The best texts omit this verse.

39. Caught away. Suddenly and miraculously.

And he went, etc. (ejporeu>eto ga). A mistranslation. Rev., rightly, "for he went." A reason is given for the eunuch's seeing Philip no more. He did not stop nor take
another road to seek him, but went on his way.

Chapter 9

1. Breathing out (ejmpne>wn). Lit., breathing upon or at, and so corresponding to against the disciples.

Threatenings and slaughter (ajpeilh~v kainou). Lit., threatening; so Rev. In the Greek construction, the case in which these words are marks them as the cause or
source of the "breathing;" breathing hard out of threatening, and murderous desire.

2. Of this way (th~v oJdou~). Rev., more correctly, "the way." A common expression in the Acts for the Christian religion: "the characteristic direction of life as
determined by faith on Jesus Christ" (Meyer). See Acts 19:9; 22:4; 24:22. For the fuller expression of the idea, see Acts 16:17; 18:25.

Women. Paul three times alludes to his persecution of women as an aggravation of his cruelty (Acts 8:3; 9:2; 22:4).

3. There shined round about (perih>strayen). Only here and Acts 22:6. Flashed. See on Luke 11:36; 24:4.

A light. Compare Acts 22:6; 26:13.

4. Saying. In Paul's own account he says that the words were spoken in Hebrew (Acts 26:14).

5. It is hard for thee, etc. Transferred from Acts 26:14, and omitted by the best texts.
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6. Trembling and astonished. The best texts omit.
4. Saying. In Paul's own account he says that the words were spoken in Hebrew (Acts 26:14).

5. It is hard for thee, etc. Transferred from Acts 26:14, and omitted by the best texts.

6. Trembling and astonished. The best texts omit.

7. Speechless (ejneoi>). Only here in New Testament.

11. Street (rJu>mhn). See on Luke 14:21. A narrow street or lane.

Straight. So called from its running in a direct line from the eastern to the western gate of the city.

15. Chosen vessel (skeu~ov ejklogh~v). Lit., an instrument of choice. On vessel, see on Matthew 12:29; and on the figure, compare 2 Corinthians 4:7.

16. How great things (o[sa). Rev., more correctly, how many.

17. Brother. In Christ.

18. There fell - scales (ajpe>peson lepi>dev). Both words occur only here in the New Testament. In Paul's own account of his conversion in Acts 26. he does not
mention his blindness: in Acts 22. he mentions both the blindness and the recovery of sight, but not the particular circumstances which Luke records. The mention of the
scales, or incrustations, such as are incidental to ophthalmia, is characteristic of the physician, and ajpopi>ptein, to fall off, was used technically by medical writers of
the falling of scales from the skin, and of particles from diseased parts of the body. "We may suppose that Luke had often heard Paul relate how he felt at that
moment" (Hackett).

20. Christ. The correct reading is Jesus, the individual or personal name of the Lord. Christ was not yet current as his personal name. Paul's object was to establish the
identity of Jesus the Nazarene with the Messiah.

21. Destroyed (porqh>sav). Rather, laid waste, made havoc of, as Rev. Compare Acts 8:3. Paul uses the same word in Galatians 1:13.

22. Confounded. See on Acts 2:6.

Proving (sumbiba>zwn). The verb means to bring or put together: hence to compare and examine, as evidence, and so to prove. Used in the literal and physical sense
in Ephesians 4:16. In Colossians 2:2 of being knit together in love. In 1 Corinthians 2:16 of instructing, building up, by putting together. In this sense the word occurs in
the Septuagint. See Leviticus 10:11; Judges 8:8.

The Christ. Note the article. Not a proper name, but an appellative. See on ver. 20.

23. To kill. See on Luke 23:32.

24. Laying await (ejpiboulh). So rendered by A.V. wherever it occurs, viz., Acts 20:3, 19; 23:30; but properly changed by Rev., in every case, to plot. "Laying await"
refers rather to the execution of the plot than to the plot itself.

Watched. See on Mark 3:2. Imperfect: they were or kept watching, day and night.

25. By the wall (diacouv). Rev., more accurately, through the wall, as is explained by 2 Corinthians 11:33. Either through the window of a house overhanging the wall,
or through a window in the wall itself opening to houses on its inner side. Hackett says that he observed such windows in the wall at Damascus. On the mode of
escape, compare Joshua 2:15; 1 Samuel 19:12.

Basket (spuri>di). See on Matthew 14:20. In Paul's account of this adventure he uses sarga>nh, a plaited or braided basket of wicker-work; or, as some think, of
ropes.

26. Join himself. See on Acts 5:13; Luke 15:15; 10:11.

27. Declared (dihgh>sato). Related throughout. See on Luke 8:39; and compare on declaration, Luke 1:1.

Had preached boldly (ejparjrJhsia>sato). See on freely, Acts 2:29.

29. Grecians. Rev., correctly, Grecian Jews. See on Acts 6:1.

Went about (ejpecei>roun). Better, attempted: lit., took in hand.

31. The churches. The best texts read the church; embracing all the different churches throughout the three provinces of Palestine.

Edified. Or build up.

Comfort (paraklh>sei). From parakale>w, to call toward or to one's side for help. The word is rendered in the New Testament both exhortation and consolation.
Compare Acts 13:15; Romans 12:8; 2 Corinthians 8:17; Hebrews 12:5; and Luke 2:25 (see note); 2 Thessalonians 2:16; Matthew 5:4. In some passages the meaning
is disputed, as Philippians 2:1 where, as in 1 Corinthians 14:3 it is joined with paramu>qion or paramuqi>a, the meaning of which also varies between incentive and
consolation or assuagement. Here exhortation is the rendering approved by the best authorities, to be construed with was multiplied: was multiplied by the exhortation
of the Holy Ghost; i.e., by the Holy Spirit inspiring the preachers, and moving the hearts of the hearers.

32. Lydda. The Lod of the Old Testament (Ezra 2:33); about a day's journey from Jerusalem.

33. Eight years. The duration of the malady, and the fact of his having been bedridden for the whole time, are characteristic of the physician's narrative.

Bed. See on Mark 2:14.
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Sick of the palsy. Better, as Rev., palsied. See on Luke 5:18.

34. Jesus Christ. But note the article: Jesus the Christ; the Anointed; Messiah.
33. Eight years. The duration of the malady, and the fact of his having been bedridden for the whole time, are characteristic of the physician's narrative.

Bed. See on Mark 2:14.

Sick of the palsy. Better, as Rev., palsied. See on Luke 5:18.

34. Jesus Christ. But note the article: Jesus the Christ; the Anointed; Messiah.

Maketh thee whole (ija~tai> se). Rev., healeth thee. See on Luke 6:19.

Make thy bed (strw~son seautw|~) Lit., strew for thyself. Not, henceforth, but on the spot, as an evidence of restoration.

35. Saron. Rev., properly, Sharon. Always with the definite article: the plain; extending thirty miles along the sea from Joppa to Caesarea.

36. Disciple (maqh>tria). A feminine form, only here in New Testament.

Tabitha - Dorcas. The latter word being the Greek equivalent of the former, which is Aramaic, and meaning gazelle, which in the East was a favorite type of beauty.
See Song of Solomon 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3. It was customary at this time for the Jews to have two names, one Hebrew and the other Greek or Latin; and this would
especially be the case in a seaport like Joppa, which was both a Gentile and a Jewish town. She may have been known by both names.

37. Upper chamber. See on Acts 1:13.

38. That he would not delay (mh). The best texts read ojknh>sh|v, putting the request in the form of a direct address, Delay not.

To come (dielqei~n). Lit., to come through. Rev., come on.

39. Coats and garments. See on Matthew 5:40.

Which (o[sa). Lit., as many as.

Made (ejpoi>ei). The imperfect: was accustomed to make.

CHAPTER 10

1. Centurion. See on Luke 7:2.

Band (spei>rhv). See on Mark 15:16.

Italian. Probably because consisting of Roman soldiers, and not of natives of the country.

2. Devout (eujsebh). See on godliness, 2 Peter 1:3.

Prayed (deo>menov). See on prayers, Luke 5:33.

" Unheard by all but angel ears

The good Cornelius knelt alone,

Nor dream'd his prayers and tears

Would help a world undone.

" The while upon his terrac'd roof

The lov'd apostle to his Lord,

In silent thought aloof

For heavenly vision soared."

Keble, Christian Year.

3. A vision. See on Acts 8:31.

Evidently (fanerw~v). Better, clearly or distinctly, as opposed to a fancy.

4. When he looked (ajteni>sav). Rev., more accurately, fastening his eyes. Compare Acts 8:55; and see on Luke 4:20.

6. A tanner. Showing that the strictness of the Jewish law was losing its hold on Peter; since the tanner's occupation was regarded as unclean by strict Jews, and the
tanners were commanded to dwell apart. "If a tanner married without mentioning his trade, his wife was permitted to get a divorce. The law of levirate marriage might
be set aside if the brother-in-law of the childless widow was a tanner. A tanner's yard must be at least fifty cubits from any town" (Farrar, "Life and Work of St. Paul").

By the seaside. Outside the walls, both for proximity to the business, and because of the ceremonial requirement referred to above. Mr. William C. Prime, describing a
visit to Joppa, says: "I was walking along the sea-beach, looking for shells, and at about a fourth of a mile from the city, to the southward, I found two tanneries directly
on the seaside. I observed that the rocks in front of them were covered with the water a few inches deep, and that they soaked their hides on these rocks and also
submitted them to some process in the water which I did not stop to understand" ("Tent-life in the Holy Land").

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                                        (proskarterou>ntwn aujtw|~). See on Acts 1:14.                                                                Page 195 / 567

8. Declared (ejxhghsa>menov). Better, as Rev., rehearsed. See on Luke 24:35.
visit to Joppa, says: "I was walking along the sea-beach, looking for shells, and at about a fourth of a mile from the city, to the southward, I found two tanneries directly
on the seaside. I observed that the rocks in front of them were covered with the water a few inches deep, and that they soaked their hides on these rocks and also
submitted them to some process in the water which I did not stop to understand" ("Tent-life in the Holy Land").

Of them that waited on him continually (proskarterou>ntwn aujtw|~). See on Acts 1:14.

8. Declared (ejxhghsa>menov). Better, as Rev., rehearsed. See on Luke 24:35.

9. They (ejkei>nwn). Those messengers, the servants and the soldier. The pronoun has a more specific reference than the English they.

10. Very hungry (pro>speinov). Only here in New Testament.

Would have eaten (h]qele geu>sasqai). Rev., correctly, desired to eat. Geue>sqai is rendered both to eat and to taste, more frequently the latter. See Matthew 27:34;
John 2:9; 1 Peter 2:3; and compare Acts 20:11.

He fell into a trance (ejpe>pesen ejp' aujto). Lit., an ecstasy fell upon him. The best texts, however, read ejge>neto, came upon him, or happened to him. See on
astonishment, Mark 5:42. Luke alone employs the word in this sense of ecstasy or trance.

11. Saw (qewrei~). Rev., better, and more literally, beholdeth. See on Luke 10:18. The present tense is graphically introduced into the narrative.

Unto him. The best texts omit.

Sheet (ojqo>nhn). Only here and Acts 11:5. Originally fine linen; later, sail-cloth or a sail. Dr. J. Rawson Lumby suggests that the word, "applied to loose, bellying sails
of ships," may indicate that the form of vessel which appeared to Peter "recalled an image most familiar to his previous life - the wind-stretched canvas of the craft on
the Lake of Galilee" ("Expositor," iii, 272).

Knit (dedeme>non). If this is retained, we must render bound, or attached; but the best texts omit, together with the following and. Render, as Rev., let down by four
corners. Compare Acts 11:5.

Corners (ajrcai~v). Lit., beginnings; the extremity or corner, marking a beginning of the sheet. "We are to imagine the vessel, looking like a colossal four-cornered linen
cloth, letting itself down, while the corners attached to heaven to support the whole." The word is used in this sense by Herodotus, describing the sacrifices of the
Scythians. The victim's forefeet are bound with a cord, "and the person who is about to offer, taking his station behind the victim, pulls the end (ajrch) of the rope, and
thereby throws the animal down" (4, 60). The suggestion of ropes holding the corners of the sheet (Alford, and, cautiously, Farrar) is unwarranted by the usage of the
word. It was the technical expression in medical language for the ends of bandages. The word for sheet in this passage was also the technical term for a bandage, as
was the kindred word ojqo>nion, used of the linen bandages in which the Lord's body was swathed. See Luke 2412; John 19:40; 20:5, 6, 7. Mr. Hobart says: "We
have thus in this passage a technical medical phrase - the ends of a bandage - used for the ends of a sheet, which hardly any one except a medical man would think of
employing" ("Medical Language of St. Luke").

12. All manner of four-footed beasts (pa>nta tapoda). Lit., all the four-footed beasts. Without exception, clean and unclean. Not, of very many kinds.

Wild beasts. The best texts omit.

14. Not so (mhdamw~v). Stronger: by no means. "With that simple and audacious self-confidence which in his (Peter's) character was so singularly mingled with fits of
timidity and depression, he boldly corrects the voice which orders him, and reminds the divine Interlocutor that he must, so to speak, have made an oversight" (Farrar,
"Life and Works of Paul"). Compare Matthew 16:22.

Common (koino). Unholy.

15. Call not thou common (sunou). The thought goes deeper than merely styling "common." Lit., do not thou defile. Do not profane it by regarding and calling it
common. Rev., "make not thou common."

17. Doubted (dihpo>rei). See on Luke 9:7.

In himself. On reflection, as compared with his ecstatic state.

Had made inquiry (dierwth>santev). "Having inquired out;" having asked their way through (dia>) streets and houses, until they found the dwelling of the tanner, who
was an obscure man, and not easily found.

18. Called. A general summons to anyone within, in order to make inquiries.

19. Thought on (dienqumoume>nou). Was earnestly (dia>) pondering.

22. Was warned (ejcrhmati>sqh). See on Matthew 2:12.

24. Near (ajnagkai>ouv). The word originally means necessary; hence of those who are bound by necessary or natural ties; blood-relations. But as relatives or kinsmen
is expressed by suggenei~v, this must be taken in the sense of intimate friends a meaning which it has in later Greek writers.

25. Worshipped (proseku>nhsen). An unfortunate translation, according to modern English usage, but justified by the usage of earlier English, according to which to
worship meant simply to honor. Worship is worthship, or honor paid to dignity or worth. This usage survives in the expressions worshipful and your worship. In the
marriage-service of the English Church occurs the phrase, "With my body I thee worship." So Wycliffe renders Matthew 19:19"Worship thy father and thy mother;"
and John 12:26"If any man serve me, my Father shall worship him." Here the meaning is that Cornelius paid reverence by prostrating himself after the usual oriental
manner.

28. An unlawful thing (ajqe>miton). The word is peculiar to Peter, being used only here and 1 Peter 4:3. See note there. It emphasizes the violation of established
order, being from the same root as ti>qhmi, to lay down or establish. The Jews professed to ground this prohibition on the law of Moses; but there is no direct
command in the Mosaic law forbidding Jews to associate with those of other nations. But Peter's statement is general, referring to the general practice of the Jews to
separate themselves in common life from uncircumcised persons. Juvenal says that the Jews were taught by Moses "not to show the way except to one who practices
the same rites,
 Copyright   (c) and  to guide the
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                               Infobase  Mediaalone
                                                 Corp.to the well which they seek " (Sat., xiv., 104, 105). Tacitus also says of the Jews that "among themselves
                                                                                                                                                         Page 196they/ are
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inflexibly faithful, and ready with charitable aid, but hate all others as enemies. They keep separate from all strangers in eating, sleeping, and matrimonial
connections" ("Histories," v., 5).
28. An unlawful thing (ajqe>miton). The word is peculiar to Peter, being used only here and 1 Peter 4:3. See note there. It emphasizes the violation of established
order, being from the same root as ti>qhmi, to lay down or establish. The Jews professed to ground this prohibition on the law of Moses; but there is no direct
command in the Mosaic law forbidding Jews to associate with those of other nations. But Peter's statement is general, referring to the general practice of the Jews to
separate themselves in common life from uncircumcised persons. Juvenal says that the Jews were taught by Moses "not to show the way except to one who practices
the same rites, and to guide the circumcised alone to the well which they seek " (Sat., xiv., 104, 105). Tacitus also says of the Jews that "among themselves they are
inflexibly faithful, and ready with charitable aid, but hate all others as enemies. They keep separate from all strangers in eating, sleeping, and matrimonial
connections" ("Histories," v., 5).

Of another nation (ajllofu>lw|) Only here in New Testament. Used of the Philistines, 1 Samuel 13:3-5 (Sept.).

Me. Emphatic, by contrast with ye. "Ye know," etc., "but God hath showed me."

29. With what intent (ti>ni lo>gw). More strictly, for what reason.

30. Four days ago (ajporthv hJme>rav) Lit., from the fourth day; reckoning backward from the day on which he was speaking.

I was fasting, and. The best texts omit.

At the ninth hour I prayed (ththn proseuco>menov). Lit., praying during the ninth hour. With the omission of I was fasting, and, the rendering is as Rev., Four days ago,
until this hour, I was keeping the ninth hour of prayer. 17

31. Said (fhsi). Rev., saith. The historical present, giving vividness to the narrative.

33. Well (kalw~v). You have done a courteous and handsome thing in coming. Compare 3 John 1:5, 6.

34. I perceive. See on Acts 4:13.

Respecter of persons (proswpolh>mpthv). See on respect of persons, James 2:1. Only here in New Testament.

36. The word (togon). The message.

37. That word (rJh~ma). The contents of the message: the report or history which it proclaimed.

38. Anointed (e]crisen). See on Christ, Matthew 1:1.

Went about (dih~lqen). Lit., went through (the country). Compare Acts 8:4.

And healing. The and (kai) has a particularizing force: doing good, and in particular, healing.

Oppressed (katadunasteuome>nouv). Only here and James 2:6 on which see note.

39. They slew. The best texts insert kai, also: "whom also they slew;" also having an incressive force. They added this crowning atrocity to other persecutions.

Tree. See on Luke 23:31.

40. Shewed him openly (e]dwken aujtosqai). Lit., gave him to become manifest. Compare, for the construction, Acts 2:27.

41. Chosen before (prokeceirotonhme>noiv). Only here in New Testament. The simple verb ceirotone>w, to appoint, occurs Acts 14:23; 2 Corinthians 8:19; and
originally means to stretch out the hand for the purpose of giving a vote. Hence to elect by show of hands, and generally to appoint. Plato uses the word of the election
of leaders of choruses ("Laws," 765). In later ecclesiastical usage it signified ordain, as bishops or deacons.

Who (oi[tinev). The compound pronoun marks them more strongly as belonging to the class of eye-witnesses.

42. Testify (diamartu>rasqai). See on Acts 2:40.

Remission. See on Luke 3:3; James 5:15.

43. His name. As in the Lord's prayer: not simply the title, but all that is embraced and expressed by the name: Christ's "entire perfection, as the object revealed to the
believer for his apprehension, confession, and worship" (Meyer).

44. The Holy Ghost fell. The only example of the bestowment of the Spirit before baptism.

45. They of the circumcision. From this point Luke distinguishes Christians into two classes - those of the circumcision and those of the uncircumcision; calling the
former Jews, and the latter Gentiles or Greeks.

Were amazed. See on Acts 2:7.

47. Water (to). Note the article: the water; co-ordinating the water with the Spirit (see 1 John 5:8), and designating water as the recognized and customary element of
baptism.

CHAPTER 11

l. In Judaea (kata'Ioudai>an). More correctly, "throughout Judaea."

2. They of the circumcision. See on Acts 5:45.

3. Men uncircumcised (a]ndrav ajkrobusti>an e]contav). An indignant expression. See Ephesians 2:11.
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4. Began. Graphically indicating the solemn purport of the speech (compare Luke 12:1), perhaps, in connection with expounded, his beginning with the first
circumstances and going through the whole list of incidents.
2. They of the circumcision. See on Acts 5:45.

3. Men uncircumcised (a]ndrav ajkrobusti>an e]contav). An indignant expression. See Ephesians 2:11.

4. Began. Graphically indicating the solemn purport of the speech (compare Luke 12:1), perhaps, in connection with expounded, his beginning with the first
circumstances and going through the whole list of incidents.

6. I considered. See on Matthew 8:3; Luke 22:24, 27.

12. Nothing doubting (mhdemenon). The Rev. renders making no distinction, taking the verb in its original sense, which is to separate or distinguish. The rendering
seems rather strained, doubting being a common rendering in the New Testament and giving a perfectly good sense here. See Matthew 21:21; Mark 11:23 and note on
James 1:6. It was natural that Peter should hesitate.

The six brethren. The men of Joppa who had gone with Peter to Cornelius, and had accompanied him also to Jerusalem, either as witnesses for him or for their own
vindication, since they had committed the same offense.

13. An angel. It has the definite article: "the angel," mentioned in Acts 10.

17. Forasmuch as (eij). Better, as Rev., if.

The like (i]shn). Lit., equal; making them, equally with us, recipients of the Holy Spirit.

19. They which were scattered abroad (oiJ diaspare>ntev). On the technical expression, the dispersion, see on 1 Peter 1:1. Not so used here.

20. The Greeks (%Ellhnav). Some, however, read 'Ellhnista, the Grecian Jews. See on Acts 6:1. The express object of the narrative has been to describe the
admission of Gentiles into the church. There would have been nothing remarkable in these men preaching to Hellenists who had long before been received into the
church, and formed a large part of the church at Jerusalem. It is better to follow the rendering of A.V. and Rev., though the other reading has the stronger MS.
evidence. Note, also, the contrast with the statement in ver. 19, to the Jews only. There is no contrast between Jews and Hellenists, since Hellenists are included in the
general term Jews.

23. Purpose (proqe>sei). Originally, placing in public; setting before. Hence of the shew-bread, the loaves set forth before the Lord (see on Mark 2:26). Something set
before one as an object of attainment: a purpose.

24. Good (ajgaqo). More than strictly upright. Compare Romans 5:7 where it is distinguished from di>kaiov, just or righteous. "His benevolence effectually prevented
him censuring anything that might be new or strange in these preachers to the Gentiles, and caused him to rejoice in their success" (Gloag).

25. To seek (ajnazhth~sai). Strictly, like our "hunt up" (ajna>).

26. Were called Christians (crhmati>sai Cristianou>v). The former of these two words, rendered were called, meant, originally, to transact business, to have dealings
with; thence, in the course of business, to give audience to, to answer, from which comes its use to denote the responses of an oracle; a divine advice or warning. See
Acts 10:22; and compare Matthew 2:12; Hebrews 11:7. Later, it acquires the meaning to bear a name; to be called, with the implication of a name used in the ordinary
transactions and intercourse of men; the name under which one passes. 18 This process of transition appears in the practice of naming men according to their
occupations, as, in English, "John the Smith," "Philip the Armorer;" a practice which is the origin of many familiar family names, such as Butler, Carpenter, Smith,
Cooper. Compare in New Testament Alexander the coppersmith (2 Timothy 4:14); Matthew the publican (Matthew 10:3); Luke the physician (Colossians 4:14);
Erastus the chamberlain (Romans 16:23); Rahab the harlot (Hebrews 11:31). In the same line is the use of the word calling, to denote one's business. The meaning of
the word in this passage is illustrated by Romans 7:3.

The disciples were called. They did not assume the name themselves. It occurs in only three passages in the New Testament: here; Acts 26:28; and 1 Peter 4:16; and
only in the last-named passage is used by a Christian of a Christian. The name was evidently not given by the Jews of Antioch, to whom Christ was the interpretation of
Messiah, and who would not have bestowed that name on those whom they despised as apostates. The Jews designated the Christians as Nazarenes (Acts 24:5), a
term of contempt, because it was a proverb that nothing good could come out of Nazareth (John 1:47). The name was probably not assumed by the disciples
themselves; for they were in the habit of styling each other believers, disciples, saints, brethren, those of the way. It, doubtless, was bestowed by the Gentiles. Some
suppose that it was applied as a term of ridicule, and cite the witty and sarcastic character of the people of Antioch, and their notoriety for inventing names of derision;
but this is doubtful. The name may have been given simply as a distinctive title, naturally chosen from the recognized and avowed devotion of the disciples to Christ as
their leader. The Antiochenes mistook the nature of the name, not understanding its use among the disciples as an official title - the Anointed - but using it as a personal
name, which they converted into a party name.

27. Prophets. See on Luke 7:26.

28. The world. See on Luke 2:1.

29. According to his ability (kaqw tiv). Lit., according as any one of then was prospered. The verb is from eu]porov, easy to pass or travel through; and the idea of
prosperity is therefore conveyed under the figure of an easy and favorable journey. The same idea appears in our farewell; fare meaning original]y to travel. Hence, to
bid one farewell is to wish him a prosperous journey. Compare God-speed. So the idea here might be rendered, as each one fared well.

To send relief (eijv diakoni>an pe>myai). Lit., to send for ministry

CHAPTER 12

1. That time (ejkei~non to). More correctly, that juncture. See on Acts 1:7. The date is A.D. 44.

Herod the king. Called also Agrippa, and commonly known as Herod Agrippa I., the grandson of Herod the Great.

Stretched forth his hands (ejpe>balen ta). Lit. laid on his hands. The A.V. is wrong, and so is the Rev. Render, laid hands on certain of the church to afflict them.

Vex (kakw~sai). Vex is used in the older and stronger sense of torment or oppress. See Exodus 22:21; Numbers 25:17; Matthew 15:22. Its modern usage relates
rather to petty
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2. Killed - with the sword. While the martyrdom of Stephen is described at length, that of James, the first martyr among the apostles, is related in two words.
Stretched forth his hands (ejpe>balen ta). Lit. laid on his hands. The A.V. is wrong, and so is the Rev. Render, laid hands on certain of the church to afflict them.

Vex (kakw~sai). Vex is used in the older and stronger sense of torment or oppress. See Exodus 22:21; Numbers 25:17; Matthew 15:22. Its modern usage relates
rather to petty annoyances. Rev., better, afflict.

2. Killed - with the sword. While the martyrdom of Stephen is described at length, that of James, the first martyr among the apostles, is related in two words.

3. He proceeded to take (prose>qeto sullabei~n). Rev., seize. Lit., he added to take. A Hebrew form of expression. Compare Luke 19:11he added and spake; Luke
20:12again he sent a third; lit., he added to send.

4. Quaternions. A quaternion was a body of four soldiers; so that there were sixteen guards, four for each of the four night-watches.

The passover. The whole seven days of the feast.

Bring him forth (ajnagagagei~n aujto). Lit., lead him up; i.e., to the elevated place where the tribunal stood, to pronounce sentence of death before the people. See
John 19:13.

5. Without ceasing (ejktenh). Wrong. The word means earnest. See on fervently, 1 Peter 1:22; and compare instantly, Acts 26:7; more earnestly, Luke 22:44; fervent,
1 Peter 4:8. The idea of continuance is, however, expressed here by the finite verb with the participle. Very literally, prayer was arising earnest.

6. Would have brought. Rev., correctly, was about to bring.

Kept (ejth>roun). See on reserved, 1 Peter 1:4. The imperfect, were keeping.

7. Came upon (ejpe>sth). Better, as Rev., stood by. See on Acts 4:1; and compare Luke 2:9.

Prison (oijkh>mati). Not the prison, but the cell where Peter was confined. So, rightly, Rev.

8. Garment (iJma>tion). The outer garment, or mantle. See on Matthew 5:40.

10. Ward (fulakh). Better, watch: the soldiers on guard. Explanations of the first and second watch differ, some assuming that the first was the single soldier on guard at
the door of Peter's cell, and the second, another soldier at the gate leading into the street. Others, that two soldiers were at each of these posts, the two in Peter's cell
not being included in the four who made up the watch.

12. When he had considered (sunidw>n). The verb strictly means to see together, or at the same time. Hence, to see in one view, to take in at a glance. Peter's mental
condition is described by two expressions: First, he came to himself (ver. 12), or, lit., when he had become present in himself; denoting his awaking from the dazed
condition produced by his being suddenly roused from sleep and confronted with a supernatural appearance (see ver. 9). Secondly, when he had become aware
(sunisw>n); denoting his taking in the situation, according to the popular phrase. I do not think that any of the commentators have sufficiently emphasized the force of
su>n, together, as indicating his comprehensive perception of all the elements of the case. They all refer the word to his recognition of his deliverance from prison,
which, however, has already been noted in ver. 11. While it may include this, it refers also to all the circumstances of the case present at that moment. He had been
freed; he was there in the street alone; he must go somewhere; there was the house of Mary, where he was sure to find friends. Having taken in all this, perceived it all,
he went to the house of Mary. 19

13. Door of the gate. The small outside door, forming the entrance from the street, and opening into the pulw>n, or doorway, the passage from the street into the court.
Others explain it as the wicket, a small door in the larger one, which is less probable.

A damsel (paidi>skh). Or maid. The word was used of a young female slave, as well as of a young girl or maiden generally. The narrative implies that she was more
than a mere menial, if a servant at all. Her prompt recognition of Peter's voice, and her joyful haste, as well as the record of her name, indicate that she was one of the
disciples gathered for prayer.

Rhoda. Rose. The Jews frequently gave their female children the names of plants and flowers: as Susannah (lily); Esther (myrtle); Tamar (palm-tree). "God, who leaves
in oblivion names of mighty conquerors, treasures up that of a poor girl, for his church in all ages" (Quesnel).

14. She knew. Or recognized.

15. Constantly affirmed (dii`scuri>zeto). Better, confidently affirmed; constant is used in its older sense of consistent. The verb contains two ideas: strong assertion
(ijscu>v), and holding to the assertion through all contradiction (dia>); hence, she strongly and consistently asserted.

Angel. Guardian angel, according to the popular belief among the Jews that every individual has his guardian angel, who may, on occasion, assume a visible appearance
resembling that of the person whose destiny is committed to him.

17. Beckoning (katasei>sav). Lit., having shaken downward with his hand, in order to bespeak silence and attention. It was a familiar gesture of Paul. See Acts 21:40;
26:1.

19. Examined (ajnakri>nav). See on Luke 23:14; and compare Acts 4:9.

Put to death (ajpacqh~nai). Lit., led away; i.e., to execution. A technical phrase like the Latin ducere. Compare Matthew 27:31.

Abode (die>triben). Originally, to rub away, or consume; hence, of time, to spend.

20. Highly displeased (qumomacw~n). Originally, to fight desperately: but as there is no record of any war of Herod with the Tyrians and Sidonians, the word is to be
taken in the sense of the A.V. Only here in New Testament.

Chamberlain (to). Lit., the one over the bedchamber.

21. Set (takth|~). Appointed. Only here in New Testament. What the festival was, is uncertain. According to some, it was in honor of the emperor's safe return from
Britain. Others think it was to celebrate the birthday of Claudius; others that it was the festival of the Quinquennalia, observed in honor of Augustus, and dating from the
taking of Alexandria,
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Arrayed (ejndusa>menov). More literally, having arrayed himself.
Chamberlain (to). Lit., the one over the bedchamber.

21. Set (takth|~). Appointed. Only here in New Testament. What the festival was, is uncertain. According to some, it was in honor of the emperor's safe return from
Britain. Others think it was to celebrate the birthday of Claudius; others that it was the festival of the Quinquennalia, observed in honor of Augustus, and dating from the
taking of Alexandria, when the month Sextilis received the name of the Emperor - August.

Arrayed (ejndusa>menov). More literally, having arrayed himself.

Royal apparel. Josephus says he was clothed in a robe entirely made of silver.

Throne. See on Acts 7:5. The elevated seat or throne-like box in the theater, set apart for the king, from which he might look at the games or address the assembly.

Made an oration (ejdhmhgo>rei). Only here in New Testament. The word is used especially of a popular harangue (dh~mov, the commons). "At Jerusalem Agrippa
enacted the Jew, with solemn gait and tragic countenance, amidst general acclamation; but at Caesarea he allowed the more genial part of a Greek to be imposed on
him. It was at a festival in this Hellenic capital, after an harangue he had addressed to the populace, that they shouted, "It is the voice of a God and not of a
man" (Merivale, "History of the Romans under the Empire").

22. The people (dh~mov). The assembled people.

A God. As most of the assembly were heathen, the word does not refer to the Supreme Being, but is to be taken in the pagan sense - a God.

23. An angel of the Lord smote him. An interesting parallel is furnished by the story of Alp Arslan, a Turkish prince of the eleventh century. "The Turkish prince
bequeathed a dying admonition to the pride of kings. 'In my youth,' said Alp Arslan, 'I was advised by a sage to humble myself before God; to distrust my own
strength; and never to despise the most contemptible foe. I have neglected these lessons, and my neglect has been deservedly punished. Yesterday, as from an
eminence, I beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit of my armies; the earth seemed to tremble under my feet, and I said in my heart, surely thou art the king of
the world, the greatest and most invincible of warriors. These armies are no longer mine; and, in the confidence of my personal strength, I now fall by the hand of an
assassin'" (Gibbon, "Decline and Fall").

Eaten of worms (skwlhko>brwtov). Only here in New Testament. Of Pheretima, queen of Cyrene, distinguished for her cruelties, Herodotus says: "Nor did Pheretima
herself end her days happily. For on her return to Egypt from Libya, directly after taking vengeance on the people of Barca, she was overtaken by a most horrid death.
Her body swarmed with worms, which ate her flesh while she was still alive" (4, 205). The term, as applied to disease in the human body, does not occur in any of the
medical writers extant. Theophrastus, however, uses it of a disease in plants. The word skw>lhx is used by medical writers of intestinal worms. Compare the account of
the death of Antiochus Epiphanes, the great persecutor of the Jews. "So that the worms rose up out of the body of this wicked man, and whiles he lived in sorrow and
pain, his flesh fell away, and the filthiness of his smell was noisome to all his army" (2 Macc. ix. 9). Sylla, the Roman dictator, is also said to have suffered from a similar
disease.

Gave up the ghost. See on Acts 5:5.

CHAPTER 13

1. Prophets. See on Luke 7:26.

Lucius of Cyrene. Attempts have been made to identify him with Luke the evangelist; but the name Lucas is an abbreviation of Lucanus, and not of Lucius. It is worth
noting, however, that, according to Herodotus (iii., 131), the physicians of Cyrene had the reputation of being the second best in Greece, those of Crotona being the
best; and that Galen the physician says that Lucius was before him a distinguished physician in Tarsus of Cilicia. From this it has been conjectured that Luke was born
and instructed in medicine in Cyrene, and left that place for Tarsus, where he made Paul's acquaintance, and was, perhaps, converted by him (Dr. Howard Crosby,
"The New Testament, Old and New Version"). But, apart from the form of the name (see above), the mention of the evangelist's name here is not in accord with his
usual practice, since he nowhere mentions his own name, either in the Gospel or in the Acts; and if the present passage were an exception, we should have expected to
find his name last in the list of the worthies of Antioch. Of the five here named, four are known to be Jews; and therefore, probably, Lucius was also a Jew from
Cyrene, where Jews are known to have abounded. Luke the evangelist, on the contrary, was a Gentile. Nothing certain can be inferred from Romans 16:21 where
Lucius is enumerated by Paul among his kinsmen. If suggenei~v, kinsmen, means here, as is claimed by some, countrymen, it would prove Lucius to be a Jew; but the
word is commonly used of relatives in the New Testament. In Romans 9:3 Paul applies the term to his fellow-countrymen, "my brethren, my kinsmen according to the
flesh, who are Israelites."

Which had been brought up with (su>ntrofov). Some render foster-brother, as Rev.; others, comrade. The word has both meanings.

2. Ministered (leitourgou>ntwn). See on the kindred noun ministration, Luke 1:23. This noun has passed through the following meanings: 1. A civil service, especially in
the technical language of Athenian law. 2. A function or office of any kind, as of the bodily organs. 3. Sacerdotal ministration, both among the Jews and the heathen
(see Hebrews 8:6; 9:21). 4. The eucharistic services. 5. Set forms of divine worship (Lightfoot, "On Philippians," ii., 17). Here, of the performance of Christian
worship. Our word liturgy is derived from it.

Separate. The Greek adds dh>, now, which is not rendered by A.V. or Rev. It gives precision and emphasis to the command, implying that it is for a special purpose,
and to be obeyed at the time. Compare Luke 2:15; Acts 15:36; 1 Corinthians 6:20.

4. Sailed. On Luke's use of words for sailing, see Introduction.

5. Synagogues. The plural implies that the Jews were numerous in Salamis. Augustus, according to Josephus, made Herod the Great a present of half the revenue of the
copper mines of Cyprus, so that numerous Jewish families would be settled in the island. In the reign of Trajan, upon the breaking out of a Jewish insurrection, the
whole island fell into the hands of the Jews, and became a rallying-point for the revolt. It is said that two hundred and forty thousand of the native population were
sacrificed to the fury of the insurgents. When the rebellion was extinguished, the Jews were forbidden thenceforth, on pain of death, to set foot on the island.

Minister (uJphre>thn). Better, as Rev., attendant. See on Matthew 5:25.

6. Sorcerer (ma>gon). That the man was an impostor is told us in the next word, but not in this term. It is the word used of the wise men who came to the Savior's
cradle. See Matthew 2:1, 7, 16. Elymas was a magian; of what kind is shown by false prophet. See on Matthew 2:1.

Bar-Jesus. Son of Jesus or Joshua.
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7. The deputy (ajnqupa>tw|). Better, Rev., proconsul. See Introduction to Luke, on Luke's accuracy in designating public officers.
cradle. See Matthew 2:1, 7, 16. Elymas was a magian; of what kind is shown by false prophet. See on Matthew 2:1.

Bar-Jesus. Son of Jesus or Joshua.

7. The deputy (ajnqupa>tw|). Better, Rev., proconsul. See Introduction to Luke, on Luke's accuracy in designating public officers.

Sergius Paulus. Di Cesnola relates the discovery at Soli, which, next to Salamis, was the most important city in the island, of a slab with a Greek inscription containing
the name of Paulus, proconsul.

Prudent (sunetw|~). Better, as Rev., a man of understanding. See on Matthew 11:25.

8. Elymas. An Arabic word, meaning the wise, and equivalent to Magus. See on ver. 6.

Withstood. "The position of soothsayer to a Roman proconsul, even though it could only last a year, was too distinguished and too lucrative to abandon without a
struggle" (Farrar, "Life and Work of Paul").

9. Saul - Paul. The first occurrence of the name of Paul in the Acts. Hereafter he is constantly so called, except when there is a reference to the earlier period of his life.
Various explanations are given of the change of name. The most satisfactory seems to be that it was customary for Hellenistic Jews to have two names, the one Hebrew
and the other Grreek or Latin. Thus John was also called Marcus; Symeon, Niger; Barsabas, Justus. As Paul now comes prominently forward as the apostle to the
Gentiles, Luke now retains his Gentile name, as he did his Jewish name during his ministry among the Jews. The connection of the name Paul with that of the deputy
seems to me purely accidental. It was most unlike Paul to assume the name of another man, converted by his instrumentality, out of respect to him or as a memorial of
his conversion. Farrar justly observes that there would have been in this "an element of vulgarity impossible to St. Paul"

Set his eyes on him. See on Luke 4:20.

10. Mischief (rJa|diourgi>av). Only here in New Testament. Originally, ease or facility in doing; hence readiness in turning the hand to anything, bad or good; and so
recklessness, unscrupulousness, wickedness. A kindred word (rJa|diou>rghma, lewdness, Rev., villainy) occurs at Acts 18:14.

Right ways. Or straight, possibly with an allusion to Elymas' crooked ways.

11. Mist (ajclu). Only here in New Testament. The word is used by medical writers as a name for a disease of the eyes. The mention of the successive stages, first
dimness, then total darkness, are characteristic of the physician. "The first miracle which Paul performed was the infliction of a judgment; and that judgment the same
which befell himself when arrested on his way to Damascus" (Gloag).

12. Astonished (ejkplhsso>menov). See on Matthew 7:28.

13. Loosed (ajnacqe>ntev). See on Luke 8:22.

Paul and his company (oiJ peri). Lit., those around Paul. In later writers, used to denote the principal person alone, as John 11:19 came to Mary and Martha; where
the Greek literally reads, came to the women around Mary and Martha. Paul, and not Barnabas, now appears as the principal person.

15. Exhortation. See on Acts 9:31.

16. Beckoning. See on Acts 12:17.

Men of Israel. See on Acts 3:12.

17. People (laou~). Restricted in the Acts to the people of Israel.

18. Suffered he their manners (ejtropofo>rhsen). From pro>pov, fashion or manner, and fore>w, to bear or suffer. The preferable reading, however, is
ejtrofofo>rhsen; from trofo>v, a nurse; and the figure is explained by, and probably was drawn from, Deuteronomy 1:31. The American revisers properly insist on the
rendering, as a nursing-father bare he them.

19. Divided by lot (kateklhrono>mhsen). The A.V. gives the literal rendering. The Rev., gave them their land for an inheritance, is correct, so far as the meaning
inheritance is concerned (see on 1 Peter 1:4), but does not give the sense of distribution which is contained in the word.

24. Before his coming (propou th~v eijso>dou aujtou~). Lit., before the face of his entrance. A Hebrew form of expression.

25. Think ye (uJponoei~te). Originally, to think secretly: hence to suspect, conjecture.

26. To you. The best texts read to us.

33. Hath fulfilled (ejkpeplh>rwke). Completely fulfilled; force of ejk, out and out.

34. The sure mercies (ta). Lit., the holy things, the sure. Rev., the holy and sure blessings.

35. Suffer (dw>seiv). Lit., give.

36. Was laid unto (prosete>qh). Lit., was added unto. Compare Acts 2:47; 5:14.

41. Perish (ajfani>sqhte). Lit., vanish.

Declare (ejkdihgh~tai). Only here and Acts 15:3. See on shew, Luke 8:39. The word is a very strong expression for the fullest and clearest declaration: declare
throughout.

42. Next (metaxu). The word commonly means intermediate, and hence is explained by some as referring to the intermediate week. But the meaning is fixed by ver. 44;
and though the word does not occur in the New Testament elsewhere in the sense of next, it has that meaning sometimes in later Greek.
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43. Religious (sebome>nwn). Lit., worshipping. Compare ver. 50 and Acts 16:14.
throughout.

42. Next (metaxu). The word commonly means intermediate, and hence is explained by some as referring to the intermediate week. But the meaning is fixed by ver. 44;
and though the word does not occur in the New Testament elsewhere in the sense of next, it has that meaning sometimes in later Greek.

43. Religious (sebome>nwn). Lit., worshipping. Compare ver. 50 and Acts 16:14.

Proselytes (proshlu>twn). Originally, one who arrives at a place; a stranger; thence of one who comes over to another faith.

45. Envy (zh>lou). Rev., jealousy. See on James 3:14.

46. Put (ajpwqei~sqe). Not strong enough. Better, as Rev., thrust, denoting violent rejection.

Lo (ijdou). Marking a crisis.

50. Honorable (eujsch>monav). See on Mark 15:43. Women of rank, or, as Rev., of honorable state.

Coasts (oJri>wn). Not a good rendering, because it implies merely a sea-coast; whereas the word is a general one for boundaries.

51. Shook off. See on Matthew 10:14.

Dust. See on Luke 10:11.

CHAPTER 14

3. Long (iJkano). See on Luke 7:6.

Abode. See on Acts 12:19.

In the Lord. Lit., upon (ejpi>) the Lord: in reliance on him.

5. Assault (oJrmh). Too strong, as is also the Rev., onset. In case an actual assault had been made, it would have been absurd for Luke to tell us that "they were ware
of it." It is rather the purpose and intention of assault beginning to assume the character of a movement. See on James 3:4.

To stone. Paul says he was stoned once (2 Corinthians 11:25). This took place at Lystra (see ver. 19).

6. Were ware (sunido>ntev). Rev., became aware. See on considered, Acts 12:12.

7. They preached the gospel (h=san eujaggelizo>menoi). The finite verb with the participle, denoting continuance. They prolonged their preaching for some time.

8. Impotent (ajdu>natov). The almost universal meaning of the word in the New Testament is impossible (see Matthew 19:26; Hebrews 6:4 etc.). The sense of weak
or impotent occurs only here and Romans 15:1.

9. Heard (h]koue). The force of the imperfect should be given here. He was hearing while Paul preached.

10. Upright (ojrqo>v). Only here and Hebrews 12:13. Compare made straight, Luke 13:13 and see note there.

Leaped (h[lato). Better, as Rev., leaped up. Note the aorist tense, indicating a single act, while the imperfect, walked, denotes continuous action.

11. In the speech of Lycaonia. The apostles had been conversing with them in Greek. The fact that the people now spoke in their native tongue explains why Paul and
Barnabas did not interfere until they saw the preparations for sacrifice. They did not understand what was being said by the people about their divine character. It was
natural that the surprise of the Lystrans should express itself in their own language rather than in a foreign tongue.

In the likeness of men (oJmoiwqe>ntev ajnqrw>poiv). Lit., having become like to men. A remnant of the earlier pagan belief that the gods visited the earth in human
form. Homer, for example, is full of such incidents. Thus, when Ulysses lands upon his native shore, Pallas meets him

"in the shape

Of a young shepherd delicately formed,

As are the sons of kings. A mantle lay

Upon her shoulder in rich folds; her feet

Shone in their sandals; in her hands she bore

A javelin."

Odyssey, xiii., 485 sq.

Again, one rebukes a suitor for maltreating Ulysses:

"Madman! what if he

Came down from heaven and were a God! The gods

Put on the form of strangers from afar,
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And walk our towns in many different shapes,
Came down from heaven and were a God! The gods

Put on the form of strangers from afar,

And walk our towns in many different shapes,

To mark the good and evil deeds of men."

Odyssey, xvii., 485 sq.

12. Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury. The Greek names of these deities were Zeus and Hermes. As the herald of the gods, Mercury is the God of skill in the use of
speech and of eloquence in general, for the heralds are the public speakers in the assemblies and on other occasions. Hence he is sent on messages where persuasion
or argument are required, as to Calypso to secure the release of Ulysses from Ogygia ("Odyssey," i., 84); and to Priam to warn him of danger and to escort him to the
Grecian fleet ("Iliad," xxiv., 390). Horace addresses him as the "eloquent" grandson of Atlas, who artfully formed by oratory the savage manners of a primitive race
("Odes," i., 10). Hence the tongues of sacrificial animals were offered to him. As the God of ready and artful speech, his office naturally extended to business
negotiations. He was the God of prudence and skill in all the relations of social intercourse, and the patron of business and gain. A merchant-guild at Rome was
established under his protection. And as, from its nature, commerce is prone to degenerate into fraud, so he appears as the God of thievery, exhibiting cunning, fraud,
and perjury. 20 "He represents, so to speak, the utilitarian side of the human mind.... In the limitation of his faculties and powers, in the low standard of his moral habits,
in the abundant activity of his appetites, in his indifference, his ease, his good nature, in the full-blown exhibition of what Christian theology would call conformity to the
world, he is, as strictly as the nature of the case admits, a product of the invention of man. He is the God of intercourse on earth" (Gladstone, "Homer and the Homeric
Age").

The chief speaker (oJ hJgou>menov tou~ lo>gou). Lit., the leader in discourse. Barnabas was called Jupiter, possibly because his personal appearance was more
imposing than Paul's (see 2 Corinthians 10:1, 10), and also because Jupiter and Mercury were commonly represented as companions in their visits to earth. 21

13. Of Jupiter (tou~ Dio). Properly, the Jupiter, the tutelary deity of Lystra. It is unnecessary to supply temple, as Rev. The God himself was regarded as present in his
temple.

The gates (pulw~nav). What gates are intended is uncertain. Some say, the city gates; others, the temple gates; and others, the doors of the house in which Paul and
Barnabas were residing. See on Acts 12:13.

14. Ran in (eijseph>dhsan). A feeble translation, even if this reading is retained. The verb means to leap or spring. The best texts read ejxeph>dhsan, sprang forth,
probably from the gate of their house, or from the city gate, if the sacrifice was prepared in front of it.

Crying out (kra>zontev). Inarticulate shouts to attract attention.

15. Of like passions (oJmoiopaqei~v). Only here and James 5:17 on which see note. Better, of like nature.

Turn (ejpistre>fein). Compare 1 Thessalonians 1:9 where the same verb is used.

16. Times (geneai~v). More correctly, generations, as Rev.

17. Rains. Jupiter was Lord of the air. He dispensed the thunder and lightning, the rain and the hail, the rivers and tempests. "All signs and portents whatever, that
appear in the air, belong primarily to him, as does the genial sign of the rainbow" (Gladstone, "Homer and the Homeric Age"). The mention of rain is appropriate, as
there was a scarcity of water in Lycaonia.

Food. Mercury, as the God of merchandise, was also the dispenser of food.

"No one can read the speech without once more perceiving its subtle and inimitable coincidence with his (Paul's) thoughts and expressions. The rhythmic conclusion is
not unaccordant with the style of his most elevated moods; and besides the appropriate appeal to God's natural gifts in a town not in itself unhappily situated, but
surrounded by a waterless and treeless plain, we may naturally suppose that the 'filling our hearts with food and gladness' was suggested by the garlands and festive
pomp which accompanied the bulls on which the people would afterward have made their common banquet" (Farrar, "Life and Work of Paul"). For the coincidences
between this discourse and other utterances of Paul, compare ver. 15, and 1 Thessalonians 1:9; ver. 16, and Romans 3:25; Acts 17:30; ver. 17, and Romans 1:19, 20.

19. Stoned. See on ver. 5.

20. To Derbe. A journey of only a few hours.

21. Taught (maqhteu>santev). More correctly, made disciples of, as Rev. See on Matthew 13:52.

Many. See on Luke 7:6.

22. Confirming. See on stablish, 1 Peter 5:10.

23. Ordained (ceirotonh>santev). Only here and 2 Corinthians 8:19. Rev., more correctly, appointed. The meaning ordain is later. See on Acts 10:41.

Elders (presbute>pouv). For the general superintendence of the church. The word is synonymous with ejpi>skopoi, overseers or bishops (see on visitation, 1 Peter
2:12). Those who are called elders, in speaking of Jewish communities, are called bishops, in speaking of Gentile communities. Hence the latter term prevails in Paul's
epistles.

Commended (pare>qento). See on set before, Luke 9:16; and commit, 1 Peter 4:19.

27. With them (met' aujtw~n). In connection with them; assisting them.

And how (kai). Better, that. The and has an incressive and particularizing force: "and in particular, above all."

CHAPTER        15
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1. Taught. Rather the imperfect, were teaching. They had not merely broached the error, but were inculcating it.
And how (kai). Better, that. The and has an incressive and particularizing force: "and in particular, above all."

CHAPTER 15

1. Taught. Rather the imperfect, were teaching. They had not merely broached the error, but were inculcating it.

Manner (e]qei). Better, custom, as Rev.

2. Question (zhth>matov). Found only in the Acts, and alwaye of a question in dispute.

3. Being brought on their way (proprmfqe>ntev). Lit., having been sent forth; under escort as a mark of honor.

Declaring. See on Acts 13:41. In the various towns along their route.

4. Were received (propemfqe>ntev). The word implies a cordial welcome, which they were not altogether sure of receiving.

5. Arose. In the assembly.

Sect. See on heresies, 2 Peter 2:1.

7. The word of the gospel (togou tou~ eujaggeli>ou). This phrase occurs nowhere else; and eujagge>lion, gospel, is found only once more in Acts (Acts 20:24).

8. Which knoweth the heart (kardiognw>sthv). Only here and Acts 1:24.

10. Were able (ijscu>samen). See on Luke 14:30; 16:3.

12. Hearkened. The imperfect (h]kouon) denotes attention to a continued narrative.

Declaring (ejxhgoume>nwn). Better, as Rev., rehearsing. See on Luke 24:35.

What miracles, etc. Lit., how many (o[sa).

13. James. See Introduction to Catholic Epistles.

18. Known unto God, etc. The best texts join these words with the preceding verse, from which they omit all; rendering, The Lord, who maketh these things known
from the beginning of the world.

19. Trouble (parenoclei~n). Only here in New Testament. See on vexed, Luke 6:18.

20. Write (ejpistei~lai). Originally, to send to, as a message; hence, by letter. The kindred noun ejpistolh>, whence our epistle, means, originally, anything sent by a
messenger. Letter is a secondary meaning.

Pollutions (ajlisghma>twn). A word not found in classical Greek, and only here in the New Testament. The kindred verb ajlisgei~n, to pollute, occurs in the Septuagint,
Daniel 1:8; Malachi 1:7 and both times in the sense of defiling by food. Here the word is defined by things sacrificed to idols (ver. 29); the flesh of idol sacrifices, of
which whatever was not eaten by the worshippers at the feasts in the temples, or given to the priests, was sold in the markets and eaten at home. See 1 Corinthians
10:25-28; and Exodus 34:15.

Fornication. In its literal sense. "The association of fornication with three things in themselves indifferent is to be explained from the then moral corruption of heathenism,
by which fornication, regarded from of old with indulgence, and even with favor, nay, practiced without shame even by philosophers, and surrounded by poets with all
the tinsel of lasciviousness, had become in public opinion a thing really indifferent" (Meyer). See Dollinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," ii., 237 sq.

Strangled. The flesh of animals killed in snares, and whose blood was not poured forth, was forbidden to the Israelites.

23. Greeting (cai>rein). The usual Greek form of salutation. It occurs nowhere else in the salutation of a New Testament epistle save in the Epistle of James (1:1). See
note there. It appears in the letter of Claudius Lysias (Acts 23:26).

24. Subverting (ajnaskeua>zontev). Only here in New Testament, and not found either in the Septuagint or in the Apocrypha. Originally, it means to pack up baggage,
and so to carry away; hence, to dismantle or disfurnish. So Thucydides (4, 116) relates that Brasidas captured Lecythus, and then pulled it down and dismantled it
(ajnaskeua>sav). From this comes the more general meaning to lay waste, or ravage. The idea here is that of turning the minds of the Gentile converts upside down;
throwing them into confusion like a dismantled house.

We gave no commandment (ouj diesteila>meqa). The word originally means to put asunder; hence, to distinguish, and so of a commandment or injunction, to
distinguish and emphasize it. Therefore implying express orders, and so always in the New Testament, where it is almost uniformly rendered charge. The idea here is,
then, "we gave no express injunction on the points which these Judaizers have raised."

25. Barnabas and Paul. Here, as in ver. 12, Barnabas is named first, contrary to the practice of Luke since Acts 13:9. Barnabas was the elder and better known, and in
the church at Jerusalem his name would naturally precede Paul's. The use of the Greek salutation, and this order of the names, are two undesigned coincidences going
to attest the genuineness of this first document preserved to us from the Acts of the primitive church.

29. Blood. Because in the blood was the animal's life, and it was the blood that was consecrated to make atonement. See Genesis 9:6; Leviticus 17:10-14;
Deuteronomy 12:23, 24. The Gentiles had no scruples about eating blood; on the contrary, it was a special delicacy. Thus Homer:

"At the fire

Already lie the paunches of two goats,

Preparing
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Are filled with fat and blood. Whoever shows
"At the fire

Already lie the paunches of two goats,

Preparing for our evening meal, and both

Are filled with fat and blood. Whoever shows

himself the better man in this affray,

And conquers, he shall take the one of these

He chooses."

Odyssey, xviii., 44 sq.

The heathen were accustomed to drink blood mingled with wine at their sacrifices.

Farewell (e]rjrJwsqe). Lit., be strong, like the Latin valete. Compare the close of Claudius Lysias' letter to Festus (Acts 23:30).

31. Consolation. See on Acts 9:31.

32. Many words. Or, lit., much discourse; adding the spoken to the written consolation.

Exhorted. Or comforted. See on ver. 31. The latter agrees better with consolation there.

Confirmed. See on Acts 14:22.

36. Let us go again and visit (ejpistre>yantev dhmeqa). Lit., Having returned, let us now visit. The A.V. omits now. See on Acts 13:2.

In every city (katalin). Kata> has the force of city by city.

38. Him (tou~ton). Lit., that one. It marks him very strongly, and is an emphatic position at the end of the sentence.

Departed (ajposta>nta). Rev., withdrew. It furnishes the derivation of our word apostatize.

39. The contention was so sharp (ejge>neto paroxusmo). More correctly, there arose a sharp contention. Only here and Hebrews 10:24. Our word paroxysm is a
transcription of paroxusmo. An angry dispute is indicated.

Barnabas. The last mention of him in the Acts.

40. Recommended. Which was not the case with Barnabas, leading to the inference that the church at Antioch took Paul's side in the dispute.

CHAPTER 16

3. To go forth (ejxelqei~n). The word is used of going forth as a missionary in Luke 9:6; 3 John 1:7.

5. Were established (ejstereou~nto). Rather, were strengthened. Another word is used for established. See Acts 14:22; 15:32, 41; 18:23. There is a difference,
moreover, between being strengthened and established. See 1 Peter verse 10.

6. Asia. See on Acts 2:9.

8. Passing by Mysia. Not avoiding, since they could not reach Troas without traversing it; but omitting it as a preaching-place.

Came down. From the highlands to the coast.

10. We sought. Note the introduction, for the first time here, of the first person, intimating the presence of the author with Paul.

Assuredly gathering (sumbiba>zontev). See on proving, Acts 9:22.

11. Came with a straight course (eujqudromh>samen). Lit., we ran a straight course. A nautical term for sailing before the wind.

12. Chief (prw>th). Some explain, the first city to which they came in Macedonia.

A colony (kolwni>a). Roman towns were of two classes: municipia, or free towns, and colonies. The distinction, however, was not sharply maintained, so that, in some
cases, we find the same town bearing both names. The two names involved no difference of right or of privilege. The historical difference between a colony and a free
town is, that the free towns were taken into the state from without, while the colonies were offshoots from within. "The municipal cities insensibly equaled the rank and
splendor of the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian it was disputed which was the preferable condition, of those societies which had issued from, or those which had
been received into, the bosom of Rome" (Gibbon, "Decline and Fall").

The colony was used for three different purposes in the course of Roman history: as a fortified outpost in a conquered country; as a means of providing for the poor of
Rome; and as a settlement for veterans who had served their time. It is with the third class, established by Augustus, that we have to do here. The Romans divided
mankind into citizens and strangers. An inhabitant of Italy was a citizen; an inhabitant of any other part of the empire was a peregrinus, or stranger. The colonial policy
abolished this distinction so far as privileges were concerned. The idea of a colony was, that it was another Rome transferred to the soil of another country. In his
establishment of colonies, Augustus, in some instances, expelled the existing inhabitants and founded entirely new towns with his colonists; in others, he merely added
his settlers to the existing population of the town then receiving the rank and title of a colony. In some instances a place received these without receiving ally new citizens
at all. Both classes of citizens were in possession of the same privileges, the principal of which were, exemption from scourging, freedom from arrest, except in extreme
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                                                                                                                                                                    traveler
heard the Latin language and was amenable to the Roman law. The coinage of the city had Latin inscriptions. The affairs of the colony were regulated by their own
magistrates named Dumviri, who took pride in calling themselves by the Roman title of praetors (see on verse 20).
abolished this distinction so far as privileges were concerned. The idea of a colony was, that it was another Rome transferred to the soil of another country. In his
establishment of colonies, Augustus, in some instances, expelled the existing inhabitants and founded entirely new towns with his colonists; in others, he merely added
his settlers to the existing population of the town then receiving the rank and title of a colony. In some instances a place received these without receiving ally new citizens
at all. Both classes of citizens were in possession of the same privileges, the principal of which were, exemption from scourging, freedom from arrest, except in extreme
cases, and, in all cases, the right of appeal from the magistrate to the emperor. The names of the colonists were still enrolled in one of the Roman tribes. The traveler
heard the Latin language and was amenable to the Roman law. The coinage of the city had Latin inscriptions. The affairs of the colony were regulated by their own
magistrates named Dumviri, who took pride in calling themselves by the Roman title of praetors (see on verse 20).

13. Out of the city (e]xw th~v po>lewv). The best texts read pu>lhv, the gate.

River. Probably the Gangas or Gangites.

Where prayer was wont to be made (ou+ ejnoni>zeto proseuch). The best texts read ejnomi>zomen proseuch, where we supposed there was a place of prayer. The
number of Jews in Philippi was small, since it was a military and not a mercantile city; consequently there was no synagogue, but only a proseucha, or praying-place, a
slight structure, and often open to the sky. It was outside the gate, for the sake of retirement, and near a stream, because of the ablutions connected with the worship.

14. Lydia. An adjective: the Lydian; but as Lydia was a common name among the Greeks and Romans, it does not follow that she was named from her native country.

A seller of purple. On purple, see note on Luke 16:19.

Thyatira. The district of Lydia, and the city of Thyatira in particular, were famous for purple dyes. So Homer:

"As when some Carian or Maeonian 22 dame

Tinges with purple the white ivory,

To form a trapping for the cheeks of steeds"

Iliad, iv., 141.

An inscription found in the ruins of Thyatira relates to the guild of dyers.

Heard (h]kouen). Imperfect, was hearing while we preached.

15. Constrained (parebia>sato). Only here and Luke 24:29 on which see note. The constraint was from ardent gratitude.

16. Damsel. See on Acts 12:13.

Spirit of divination (pneu~ma Pu>qwna). Lit., a spirit, a Python. Python, in the Greek mythology, was the serpent which guarded Delphi. According to the legend, as
related in the Homeric hymn, Apollo descended from Olympus in order to select a site for his shrine and oracle. Having fixed upon a spot on the southern side of
Mount Parnassus, he found it guarded by a vast and terrific serpent, which he slew with an arrow, and suffered its body to rot (puqei~n) in the sun. Hence the name of
the serpent Python (rotting); Pytho, the name of the place, and the epithet Pythian, applied to Apollo. The name Python was subsequently used to denote a prophetic
demon, and was also used of soothsayers who practiced ventriloquism, or speaking from the belly. The word ejggastri>muqov, ventriloquist, occurs in the Septuagint,
and is rendered having a familiar spirit (see Leviticus 19:31; 20:6,27; 1 Samuel 28:7, 8). The heathen inhabitants of Philippi regarded the woman as inspired by Apollo;
and Luke, in recording this case, which came under his own observation, uses the term which would naturally suggest itself to a Greek physician, a Python-spirit,
presenting phenomena identical with the convulsive movements and wild cries of the Pythian priestess at Delphi.

Soothsaying (manteuome>nh). Akin to mai>nomai, to rave, in allusion to the temporary madness which possessed the priestess or sibyl while under the influence of the
God. Compare Virgil's description of the Cumaean Sibyl:

"And as the word she spake

Within the door, all suddenly her visage and her hue

Were changed, and all her sleeked hair and gasping breath she drew,

And with the rage her wild heart swelled, and greater was she grown,

Nor mortal-voiced; for breath of God upon her heart was blown

As he drew nigher."

Aeneid, vil, 45 sq.

18. Grieved (diapomhqei). Not strong enough. Rather, worn out. Both grieved at the sad condition of the woman, and thoroughly annoyed and indignant at the
continued demonstrations of the evil spirit which possessed her. Compare Acts 4:2.

19. Was gone (ejxh~lqen). Went out with the evil spirit.

20. Magistrates (strathgoi~v). Their usual name was duumviri answering to the consuls of Rome; but they took pride in calling themselves strathgoi>, or praetors, as
being a more honorable title. This is the only place in the Acts where Luke applies the term to the rulers of a city. See Introduction to Luke.

Jews. Who at this time were in special disgrace, having been lately banished from Rome by Claudius (see Acts 18:2). The Philippians do not appear to have recognized
the distinction between Christians and Jews.

21. Being Romans. The Romans granted absolute toleration to conquered nations to follow their own religious customs, and took the gods of these countries under
their protection. Otho, Domitian, Commodus, and Caracalla were zealous partisans of the worship of Isis; Serapis and Cybele were patronized at Rome; and in the
reign  of Nero
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patroness, and Seneca said, "the Jewish faith is now received on every hand. The conquered have given laws to the conquerors." On the other hand, there were laws
which forbade the introduction of strange deities among the Romans themselves. In 186 B.C., when stringent measures were taken by the government for the
repression of Bacchanalian orgies in Rome, one of the consuls, addressing an assembly of the people, said: "How often in the ages of our fathers was it given in charge
the distinction between Christians and Jews.

21. Being Romans. The Romans granted absolute toleration to conquered nations to follow their own religious customs, and took the gods of these countries under
their protection. Otho, Domitian, Commodus, and Caracalla were zealous partisans of the worship of Isis; Serapis and Cybele were patronized at Rome; and in the
reign of Nero the religious dilettante at Rome affected Judaism, and professed to honor the name of Moses and the sacred books. Poppaea, Nero's consort, was their
patroness, and Seneca said, "the Jewish faith is now received on every hand. The conquered have given laws to the conquerors." On the other hand, there were laws
which forbade the introduction of strange deities among the Romans themselves. In 186 B.C., when stringent measures were taken by the government for the
repression of Bacchanalian orgies in Rome, one of the consuls, addressing an assembly of the people, said: "How often in the ages of our fathers was it given in charge
to the magistrates to prohibit the performance of any foreign religious rites; to banish strolling sacrificers and soothsayers from the forum, the circus, and the city; to
search for and burn books of divination; and to abolish every mode of sacrificing that was not conformable to the Roman practice" (Livy, xxxix., 16) It was contrary to
strict Roman law for the Jews to propagate their opinions among the Romans, though they might make proselytes of other nations.

22. Rent off their clothes (perirjrJh>xantev). Only here in New Testament. By the usual formula of command to the lictors: Go, lictors; strip off their garments; let them
be scourged!

To beat (rJabdi>zein). From rJa>bdov, a rod. Rev. properly adds, with rods.

23. Prison. See on ch. verse 21.

24. The inner prison. Some have supposed this to be the lower prison, being misled by the remains of the Mamertine prison at Rome, on the declivity of the Capitoline,
and near the Arch of Septimius Severus. This consists of two chambers, one above the other, excavated in the solid rock. In the center of the vault of the lower
chamber is a circular opening, through which it is supposed that prisoners were let down into the dungeon. Modern excavations, however, have shown that these two
chambers were connected with a series of large chambers, now separated by an alley from the prison of St. Peter. The opening into the passage leading to these was
discovered in the lower dungeon. Under this passage ran a drain, which formed branch of the Cloaca Maxima, or main sewer. Six of these chambers have been
brought to light, evidently apartments of a large prison in the time of the Roman kings. Mr. John Henry Parker, from whose elaborate work on the primitive fortifications
of Rome these details are drawn, believes that the prison of St. Peter now shown to tourists formed the vestibule and guard-room of the great prison. It was customary
to have a vestibule, or house for the warder, at a short distance from the main prison. Thus he distinguished the inner prison from this vestibule. With this agrees the
description in the Rev. John Henry Newman's "Callista:" "The state prison was arranged on pretty much one and the same plan through the Roman empire, nay, we
may say throughout the ancient world. It was commonly attached to the government buildings, and consisted of two parts. The first was the vestibule, or outward
prison, approached from the praetorium, and surrounded by cells opening into it. The prisoners who were confined in these cells had the benefit of the air and light
which the hall admitted. From the vestibule there was a passage into the interior prison, called Robur or Lignum, from the beams of wood which were the instruments of
confinement, or from the character of its floor. It had no window or outlet except this door, which, when closed, absolutely shut out light and air. This apartment was
the place into which Paul and Silas were cast at Philippi. The utter darkness, the heat, and the stench of this miserable place, in which the inmates were confined day
and night, is often dwelt upon by the martyrs and their biographers."

Stocks (xu>lon). Lit., the timber. An instrument of torture having five holes, four for the wrists and ankles and one for the neck. The same word is used for the cross,
Acts 5:30; 10:39; Galatians 3:13; 1 Peter 2:24.

25. Prayed and sang praises (proseuco>menoi u[mnoun). Lit., praying, they sang hymns. The praying and the praise are not described as distinct acts. Their singing of
hymns was their prayer, probably Psalms.

27. Would have killed (e]mellen ajnairei~n). Rev., more correctly, was about to kill. Knowing that he must suffer death for the escape of his prisoners.

29. A light (fw~ta). Rev., more correctly, lights. Several lamps, in order to search everywhere.

Sprang in. See on ran in, Acts 14:14.

33. He took (paralabw). Strictly, "took them along with (para>) him:" to some other part of the prison.

Washed their stripes (e]lousen ajpo). Properly, "washed them from (ajpo>) their stripes." The verb lou>ein expresses the bathing of the entire body (Hebrews 10:23;
Acts 9:37; 2 Peter 2:22); while ni>ptein commonly means the washing of a part of the body (Matthew 6:17; Mark 8:3; John 13:5). The jailer bathed them; cleansing
them from the blood with which they were besprinkled from the stripes.

34. Brought (ajnagagw>n). Lit., "brought up (ajna>)." His house would seem to have been above the court of the prison where they were. See on took, verse 33.

Believing (pepisteukw). More correctly, having believed; assigning the reason for his joy: "in that he had believed."

35. Serjeants (rJabdou>couv). Lit., those who hold the rod. The Roman lictors. They were the attendants of the chief Roman magistrates.

"Ho, trumpets, sound a war-note!

Ho, lictors, clear the way!

The knights will ride, in all their pride,

Along the streets today."

MACAULAY, Lays of Ancient Rome.

They preceded the magistrates one by one in a line. They had to inflict punishment on the condemned, especially; on Roman citizens. They also commanded the people
to pay proper respect to a passing magistrate, by uncovering, dismounting from horseback, and standing out of the way. The badge of their office was the fasces, an ax
bound up in a bundle of rods; but in the colonies they carried staves.

Those men. Contemptuous

37. They have beaten us publicly, uncondemned, men that are Romans. Hackett remarks that "almost every word in this reply contains a distinct allegation. It would be
difficult to find or frame a sentence superior to it in point of energetic brevity." Cicero in his oration against Verres relates that there was a Roman citizen scourged at
Messina;
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Roman citizen; it is a crime to scourge him; it is almost parricide to put him to death."

40. They went out. Note that Luke here resumes the third person, implying that he did not accompany them.
Those men. Contemptuous

37. They have beaten us publicly, uncondemned, men that are Romans. Hackett remarks that "almost every word in this reply contains a distinct allegation. It would be
difficult to find or frame a sentence superior to it in point of energetic brevity." Cicero in his oration against Verres relates that there was a Roman citizen scourged at
Messina; and that in the midst of the noise of the rods, nothing was heard from him but the words, "I am a Roman citizen." He says: "It is a dreadful deed to bind a
Roman citizen; it is a crime to scourge him; it is almost parricide to put him to death."

40. They went out. Note that Luke here resumes the third person, implying that he did not accompany them.

CHAPTER 17

3. Opening and alleging. The latter word is rather propounding, or setting forth (paratiqe>menov). See on set before, Luke 9:16; and commit, 1 Peter 4:19. Bengel
remarks, "Two steps, as if one, having broken the rind, were to disclose and exhibit the kernel."

4. Consorted with (proseklhrw>qhsan). Only here in New Testament. More strictly, "were added or allotted to."

Chief women. The position of women in Macedonia seems to have been exceptional. Popular prejudice, and the verdict of Grecian wisdom in its best age, asserted her
natural inferiority. The Athenian law provided that everything which a man might do by the counsel or request of a woman should be null in law. She was little better
than a slave. To educate her was to advertise her as a harlot. Her companions were principally children and slaves. In Macedonia, however, monuments were erected
to women by public bodies; and records of male proper names are found, in Macedonian inscriptions, formed on the mother's name instead of on the father's.
Macedonian women were permitted to hold property, and were treated as mistresses of the house. These facts are born out by the account of Paul's labors in
Macedonia. In Thessalonica, Beroea, and Philippi we note additions of women of rank to the church; and their prominence in church affairs is indicated by Paul's
special appeal to two ladies in the church at Philippi to reconcile their differences, which had caused disturbance in the church, and by his commending them to his
colleagues as women who had labored with him in the Lord (Philippians 4:2, 3).

5. Of the baser sort (ajgorai>wn). From ajgora>, the market-place; hence loungers in the market-place; the rabble. Cicero calls them subrastrani, those who hung
round the rostra, or platform for speakers in the forum; and Plautus, subbasilicani, the loungers round the court-house or exchange. The word occurs only here and
Acts 19:38, on which see note.

Gathered a company (ojclopoih>santev). Rev., better, a crowd.. Only here in New Testament.

6. Rulers of the city (polita>rcav). Another illustration of Luke's accuracy. Note that the magistrates are called by a different name from those at Philippi. Thessalonica
was not a colony, but a free city (see on colony, Acts 16:12), and was governed by its own rulers, whose titles accordingly did not follow those of Roman magistrates.
The word occurs only here and verse 8, and has been found in an inscription on an arch at Thessalonica, where the names of the seven politarchs are mentioned. The
arch is thought by antiquarians to have been standing in Paul's time.

7. Contrary to the decrees of Caesar. The charge at Philippi was that of introducing new customs; but as Thessalonica was not a colony, that charge could have no
force there. The accusation substituted is that of treason against the emperor; that of which Jesus was accused before Pilate. "The law of treason, by which the ancient
legislators of the republic had sought to protect popular liberty from the encroachments of tyranny,... was gradually concentrated upon the emperor alone, the sole
impersonation of the sovereign people. The definition of the crime itself was loose and elastic, such as equally became the jealousy of a licentious republic or of a
despotic usurper" (Merivale, "History of the Romans under the Empire").

9. Security (to). See on Luke 7:6. Bail, either personal or by a deposit of money. A law term. They engaged that the public peace should not be violated, and that the
authors of the disturbance should leave the city.

11. Searched. Or examined. See on Luke 23:14.

12. Honorable women. See on verse 4, and Mark 15:43.

13. They that conducted (kaqistw~ntev). Lit., brought to the spot. Note the different word employed, Acts 15:3 (see note there).

16. Was stirred (parwxu>neto). Better, as Rev., provoked. See on the kindred word contention (paroxusmo), Acts 15:39.

Saw (qewrou~nti). Better, beheld. See on Luke 10:18.

Wholly given to idolatry (katei>dwlon). Incorrect. The word, which occurs only here in the New Testament, and nowhere in classical Greek, means full of idols. It
applies to the city, not to the inhabitants. "We learn from Pliny that at the time of Nero, Athens contained over three thousand public statues, besides a countless
number of lesser images within the walls of private houses. Of this number the great majority were statues of gods, demi-gods, or heroes. In one street there stood
before every house a square pillar carrying upon it a bust of the God Hermes. Another street, named the Street of the Tripods, was lined with tripods, dedicated by
winners in the Greek national games, and carrying each one an inscription to a deity. Every gateway and porch carried its protecting God. Every street, every square,
nay, every purlieu, had its sanctuaries, and a Roman poet bitterly remarked that it was easier in Athens to find gods than men" (G. S. Davies, "St. Paul in Greece").

18. Epicureans. Disciples of Epicurus, and atheists. They acknowledged God in words, but denied his providence and superintendence over the world. According to
them, the soul was material and annihilated at death. Pleasure was their chief good; and whatever higher sense their founder might have attached to this doctrine, his
followers, in the apostle's day, were given to gross sensualism.

Stoics. Pantheists. God was the soul of the world, or the world was God. Everything was governed by fate, to which God himself was subject. They denied the
universal and perpetual immortality of the soul; some supposing that it was swallowed up in deity; others, that it survived only till the final conflagration; others, that
immortality was restricted to the wise and good. Virtue was its own reward, and vice its own punishment. Pleasure was no good, and pain no evil. The name Stoic was
derived from stoa, a porch. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic sect, held his school in the Stoa Paecile, or painted portico, so called because adorned with pictures by the
best masters.

Babbler (spermolo>gov). Lit., seed-picker: a bird which picks up seeds in the streets and markets; hence one who picks up and retails scraps of news. Trench
("Authorized Version of the New Testament") cites a parallel from Shakespeare:

"This fellow picks up wit as pigeons peas,

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                    when Jove         Media Corp.
                              doth please.                                                                                                            Page 208 / 567

He is wit's peddler, and retails his wares
("Authorized Version of the New Testament") cites a parallel from Shakespeare:

"This fellow picks up wit as pigeons peas,

And utters it again when Jove doth please.

He is wit's peddler, and retails his wares

At wakes, and wassails, meetings, markets, fairs"

Love's Labor's Lost, v., 2

Setter-forth (kataggeleu). See on declare, verse 23. Compare 1 Peter 4:4,12.

Strange. Foreign.

19. Areopagus. The Hill of Mars: the seat of the ancient and venerable Athenian court which decided the most solemn questions connected with religion. Socrates was
arraigned and condemned here on the charge of innovating on the state religion. It received its name from the legend of the trial of Mars for the murder of the son of
Neptune. The judges sat in the open air upon seats hewn out in the rock, on a platform ascended by a flight of stone steps immediately from the market-place. A
temple of Mars was on the brow of the edifice, and the sanctuary of the Furies was in a broken cleft of the rock immediately below the judges' seats. The Acropolis
rose above it, with the Parthenon and the colossal statue of Athene. "It was a scene with which the dread recollections of centuries were associated. Those who
withdrew to the Areopagus from the Agora, came, as it were, into the presence of a higher power. No place in Athens was so suitable for a discourse upon the
mysteries of religion" (Conybeare and Howson). 23

20. Strange (xeni>zonta). A participle: surprising. Compare 1 Peter 4:4,12.

21. All the Athenians. No article. Lit., "Athenians, all of them." The Athenian people collectively.

Strangers which were there (oiJ ejpidhmou~ntev xe>noi). Rev., more correctly, the strangers sojourning there. See on 1 Peter 1:1.

Spent their time (eujkai>roun). The word means to have good opportunity; to have leisure: also, to devote one's leisure to something; to spend the time. Compare
Mark 6:31; 1 Corinthians 16:12.

Something new (ti kaino>teron). Lit., newer: newer than that which was then passing current as new. The comparative was regularly used by the Greeks in the question
what news? They contrasted what was new with what had been new up to the time of asking. The idiom vividly characterizes the state of the Athenian mind. Bengel
aptly says, "New things at once became of no account; newer things were being sought for." Their own orators and poets lashed them for this peculiarity. Aristophanes
styles Athens the city of the gapers ("Knights," 1262). Demades said that the crest of Athens ought to be a great tongue. Demosthenes asks them, "Is it all your care to
go about up and down the market, asking each other, 'Is there any news?'" In the speech of Cleon to the Athenians, given by Thucydides (iii., 38), he says: "No men
are better dupes, sooner deceived by novel notions, or slower to follow approved advice. You despise what is familiar, while you are worshippers of every new
extravagance. You are always hankering after an ideal state, but you do not give your minds even to what is straight before you. In a word, you are at the mercy of
your own ears."

22. I perceive (qewrw~). I regard you, in my careful observation of you. See on Luke 10:18.

Too superstitious (deisidaimoneste>rouv). This rendering and that of the Rev., somewhat superstitious, are both unfortunate. The word is compounded of dei>dw, to
fear, and dai>mwn, a deity. It signifies either a religious or a superstitious sentiment, according to the context. Paul would have been unlikely to begin his address with a
charge which would have awakened the anger of his audience. What he means to say is, You are more divinity-fearing than the rest of the Greeks. This propensity to
reverence the higher powers is a good thing in itself, only, as he shows them, it is misdirected, not rightly conscious of its object and aim. Paul proposes to guide the
sentiment rightly by revealing him whom they ignorantly worship. The American revisers insist on very religious. The kindred word deisidaimoni>a occurs Acts 25:19
and in the sense of religion, though rendered in A.V. superstition. Festus would not call the Jewish religion a superstition before Agrippa, who was himself a Jew. There
is the testimony of the Ephesian town-clerk, that Paul, during his three years' residence at Ephesus, did not rudely and coarsely attack the worship of the Ephesian
Diana. "Nor yet blasphemers of your goddess" (Acts 19:37).

23. As I passed by (dierco.menov). More strictly, "passing through (dia>)" your city, or your streets.

Beheld (ajnaqewrw~n). Only here and Hebrews 13:7. Rev:, much better, observed. The compound verb denotes a very attentive consideration (ajna>, up and down,
throughout).

Devotions (seba>smata). Wrong. It means the objects of their worship - temples, altars, statues, etc.

An altar (bwmo). Only here in New Testament, and the only case in which a heathen altar is alluded to. In all other cases qusiasth>rion is used, signifying an altar of the
true God. The Septuagint translators commonly observe this distinction, being, in this respect, more particular than the Hebrew scriptures themselves, which sometimes
interchange the word for the heathen altar and that for God's altar. See, especially, Joshua 22., where the altar reared by the Transjordanic tribes is called, bwmo, as
being no true altar of God (vv. 10, 11, 16, 19, 23, 26, 34); and the legitimate altar, qusiasth>rion (vv. 19, 28, 29).

To the unknown God (ajgnw>stw| Qew|~). The article is wanting. Render, as Rev., to an unknown God. The origin of these altars, of which there were several in
Athens, is a matter of conjecture. Hackett's remarks on this point are sensible, and are born out by the following words: "whom therefore," etc. "The most rational
explanation is unquestionably that of those who suppose these altars to have had their origin in the felling of uncertainty, inherent, after all, in the minds of the heathen,
whether their acknowledgment of the superior posers was sufficiently full and comprehensive; in their distinct consciousness of the limitation and imperfection of their
religious views, and their consequent desire to avoid the anger of any still unacknowledged God who might be unknown to them. That no deity might punish them for
neglecting his worship, or remain to all the gods named or known among them, but, distrustful still lest they might not comprehend fully the extent of their subjection and
dependence, they erected them also to any other God or power that might exist, although as yet unrevealed to them.... Under these circumstances an allusion to one of
these altars by the apostle would be equivalent to his saying to the Athenians thus: 'You are correct in acknowledging a divine existence beyond any which the ordinary
rites of your worship recognize; there is such an existence. You are correct in confessing that this Being is unknown to you; you have no just conceptions of his nature
and perfections.'"

Ignorantly (ajgnoou~ntev). Rather, unconsciously: not knowing. There is a kind of play on the words unknown, knowing not. Ignorantly conveys more rebuke than Paul
intended.
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Declare I (katagge>llw). Compare kataggeleu, setter-forth., in verse 18. Here, again, there is a play upon the words. Paul takes up their noun, setter-forth, and gives it
back to them as a verb. "You say I am a setter-forth of strange gods: I now set forth unto you (Rev.) the true God."
and perfections.'"

Ignorantly (ajgnoou~ntev). Rather, unconsciously: not knowing. There is a kind of play on the words unknown, knowing not. Ignorantly conveys more rebuke than Paul
intended.

Declare I (katagge>llw). Compare kataggeleu, setter-forth., in verse 18. Here, again, there is a play upon the words. Paul takes up their noun, setter-forth, and gives it
back to them as a verb. "You say I am a setter-forth of strange gods: I now set forth unto you (Rev.) the true God."

24. God. With the article: "the God."

The world (tosmon). Originally, order, and hence the order of the world; the ordered universe. So in classical Greek. In the Septuagint, never the world, but the
ordered total of the heavenly bodies; the host of heaven (Deuteronomy 4:19; 17:3; Isaiah 24:21; 40:26). Compare, also, Proverbs 17:6 and see note on James 3:6. In
the apocryphal books, of the universe, and mainly in the relation between God and it arising out of the creation. Thus, the king of the world (2 Macc. vii. 9); the creator
or founder of the world (2 Maec. vii. 23); the great potentate of the world (2 Macc. xii. 15). In the New Testament: 1. In the classical and physical sense, the universe
(John 17:5; 21:25; Romans 1:20; Ephesians 1:4 etc.). 2. As the order of things of which man is the center (Matthew 13:38; Mark 16:15; Luke 9:25; John 16:21;
Ephesians 2:12; 1 Timothy 6:7). 3. Humanity as it manifests itself in and through this order (Matthew 18:7; 2 Peter 2:5; 3:6; Romans 3:19). Then, as sin has entered and
disturbed the order of things, and made a breach between the heavenly and the earthly order, which are one in the divine ideal - 4. The order of things which is
alienated from God, as manifested in and by the human race: humanity as alienated from God, and acting in opposition to him (John 1:10; 12:31; 15:18, 19; 1
Corinthians 1:21; 1 John 2:15 etc.). The word is used here in the classical sense of the visible creation, which would appeal to the Athenians. Stanley, speaking of the
name by which the Deity is known in the patriarchal age, the plural Elohim, notes that Abraham, in perceiving that all the Elohim worshipped by the numerous clans of
his race meant one God, anticipated the declaration of Paul in this passage ("Jewish Church," i., 25). Paul's statement strikes at the belief of the Epicureans, that the
world was made by "a fortuitous concourse of atoms," and of the Stoics, who denied the creation of the world by God, holding either that God animated the world, or
that the world itself was God.

Made with hands (ceiropoih>toiv). Probably pointing to the magnificent temples above and around him. Paul's epistles abound in architectural metaphors. He here
employs the very words of Stephen, in his address to the Sanhedrim; which he very probably heard. See Acts 7:48.

25. Is worshipped (qerapeu>etai). Incorrect. Rendel; as Rev., served. Luke often uses the word in the sense of to heal or cure; but this is its primary sense. See on
Luke verse 15. It refers to the clothing of the images of the gods in splendid garments, and bringing them costly gifts and offerings of food and drink.

As though he needed (prosdeo>menov). Properly, "needed anything in addition (pro>v) to what he already has."

26. Before appointed (protetagme>nouv). The Rev., properly, omits before, following the reading of the best texts, prostetagme>nouv, assigned.

Bounds (ojroqesi>av). Only here in New Testament. The word, in the singular, means the fixing of boundaries, and so is transferred to the fixed boundaries themselves.

27. Might feel after. See on handle, Luke 14:39. Compare Tennyson:

"I stretch lame hands of faith, and grope

And gather dust and chaff, and call

To what I feel is Lord of all."

In Memoriam, lv.

28. We are also his offspring. A line from Aratus, a poet of Paul's own province of Cilicia. The same sentiment, in almost the same words, occurs in the fine hymn of
Cleanthes to Jove. Hence the words, "Some of your own poets."

29. The Godhead (to). Lit., that which is divine.

Like to gold, etc. These words must have impressed his hearers profoundly, as they looked at the multitude of statues of divinities which surrounded them.

Graven (cara>gmati). Not a participle, as A.V., but a noun, in apposition with gold, silver, and stone: "a graving or carved work of art," etc.

30. Winked at (uJperidw). Only here in New Testament. Originally, to overlook; to suffer to pass unnoticed. So Rev., overtooked.

32. Resurrection. This word was the signal for a derisive outburst from the crowd.

Mocked (ejcleu>azon). From cleu>h, a jest. Only here in New Testament, though a compound, diacleua>zw, mock, occurs, according to the best texts, at Acts 2:13.
The force of the imperfect, began to mock, should be given here in the translation, as marking the outbreak of derision.

In this remarkable speech of Paul are to be noted: his prudence and tact in not needlessly offending his hearers; his courtesy and spirit of conciliation in recognizing their
piety toward their gods; his wisdom and readiness in the use of the inscription "to the unknown God," and in citing their own poets; his meeting the radical errors of
every class of his hearers, while seeming to dwell only on points of agreement; his lofty views of the nature of God and the great principle of the unity of the human race;
his boldness in proclaiming Jesus and the resurrection among those to whom these truths were foolishness; the wonderful terseness and condensation of the whole, and
the rapid but powerful and assured movement of the thought.

34. Clave. See on Luke 10:11; 15:15; Acts 5:13.

The Areopagite. One of the judges of the court of Areopagus. Of this court Curtius remarks: "Here, instead of a single judge, a college of twelve men of proved
integrity conducted the trial. If the accused had an equal number of votes for and against him, he was acquitted. The Court on the hill of Ares is one of the most ancient
institutions of Athens, and none achieved for the city an earlier or more widely spread recognition. The Areopagitic penal code was adopted as a norm by all
subsequent legislators" ("History of Greece," i., 307).

CHAPTER 18
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1. Found. "A Jewish guild always keeps together, whether in street or synagogue. In Alexandria the different trades sat in the synagogue arranged Page       210and
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                                                                                                                                                                    St.
Paul could have no difficulty in meeting, in the bazaar of his trade, with the like-minded Aquila and Priscilla" (Edersheim, "Jewish Social Life").
subsequent legislators" ("History of Greece," i., 307).

CHAPTER 18

1. Found. "A Jewish guild always keeps together, whether in street or synagogue. In Alexandria the different trades sat in the synagogue arranged into guilds; and St.
Paul could have no difficulty in meeting, in the bazaar of his trade, with the like-minded Aquila and Priscilla" (Edersheim, "Jewish Social Life").

2. Lately (prosfa>twv). Only here in New Testament, though the kindred adjective, rendered new, is found in Hebrews 10:20. It is derived from fe>nw, to slay, and
the adjective means, originally, lately slain; thence, fresh, new, recent. It is quite common in medical writings in this sense.

3. Of the same craft (oJmo>tecnon) It was a Rabbinical principle that whoever does not teach his son a trade is as if he brought him up to be a robber. All the
Rabbinical authorities in Christ's time, and later; were working at some trade. Hillel, Paul's teacher, was a wood-cutter, and his rival, Shammai, a carpenter. It is
recorded of one of the celebrated Rabbis that he was in the habit of discoursing to his students from the top of a cask of his own making, which he carried every day to
the academy.

Tent-makers (skhnopoioi). Not weavers of the goat's-hair cloth of which tents were made, which could easily be procured at every large town in the Levant, but
makers of tents used by shepherds and travelers. It was a trade lightly esteemed and poorly paid.

5. Was pressed in the spirit (sunei>ceto tw|~ pneu>mati). Instead of spirit the best texts read lo>gw|, by the word. On pressed or constrained, see note on taken, Luke
4:38. The meaning is, Paul was engrossed by the word. He was relieved of anxiety by the arrival of his friends, and stimulated to greater activity in the work of
preaching the word.

6. Opposed themselves (ajntitassome>nwn). Implying an organized or concerted resistance. See on resisteth, 1 Peter 5:5.

12. Gallio. Brother of the philosopher Seneca (Nero's tutor), and uncle of the poet Lucan, the author of the "Pharsalia." Seneca speaks of him as amiable and greatly
beloved.

Deputy. See on Acts 13:7. The verb, to be deputy, occurs only here.

Judgment-seat. See on Acts 7:5.

14. Lewdness (rJa|diou>rghma). See on mischief, Acts 13:10. Rev., villainy.

15. Question. The best texts read the plural, guests. See on Acts 15:2.

Judge. In the Greek the position of the word is emphatic, at the beginning of the sentence: "Judge of these matters I am not minded to be."

17. Cared for none of these things. Not said to indicate his indifference to religion, but simply that he did not choose to interfere in this case.

18. Took his leave (ajpotaza>menov). See on Luke 9:61; Mark 6:46.

Priscilla and Aquila. They are named in the same order, Romans 16:3; 2 Timothy 4:19.

Having shorn his head. Referring to Paul, and not to Aquila.

He had a vow. A private vow, such as was often assumed by the Jews in consequence of some mercy received or of some deliverance from danger. Not the Nazarite
vow, though similar in its obligations; for, in the case of that vow, the cutting of the hair, which marked the close of the period of obligation, could take place only in
Jerusalem.

21. I must by all means keep this feast that cometh in Jerusalem. The best texts omit.

24. Eloquent (lo>giov). Only here in New Testament. The word is used in Greek literature in several senses. As lo>gov means either reason or speech, so this
derivative may signify either one who has thought much, and has much to say, or one who can say it well. Hence it is used: 1. Of one skilled in history. Herodotus, for
example, says that the Heliopolitans are the most learned in history (logiw>tatoi) of all the Egyptians. 2. Of an eloquent person. An epithet of Hermes or Mercury, as
the God of speech and eloquence. 3. Of a learned; person generally. There seems hardly sufficient reason for changing the rendering of the A.V. (Rev., learned),
especially as the scripture-learning of Apollos is specified in the words mighty in the scriptures, and his superior eloquence appears to have been the reason why some
of the Corinthians preferred him to Paul. See 1 Corinthians 1:12; 2:4; 2 Corinthians 10:10.

25. Instructed. See on Luke 1:4.

Fervent (ze>wn). Fervent, which is formed from the participle of the Latin ferveo, to boil or ferment, is an exact translation of this word, which means to seethe or
bubble, and is therefore used figuratively of mental states and emotions. See on leaven, Matthew 13:33.

Diligently (ajkribw~v). Rather, accurately; so far as his knowledge went. The limitation is given by the words following: knowing only the baptism of John. See on Luke
1:3; and compare the kindred verb, inquired diligently, Matthew 2:7 where Rev. renders learned carefully/y.

26. More perfectly (ajkribe>steron). The comparative of the same word. More accurately.

27. Exhorting (protreya>menoi). Originally, to turn forward, as in flight. Hence, to impel or urge. The word may apply either to the disciples at Corinth, in which case
we must render as A.V., or to Apollos himself, as Rev., encouraged him. I prefer the former. Hackett very sensibly remarks that Apollos did not need encouragement,
as he was disposed to go.

Helped (suneba>leto). The radical sense of the word is to throw together: hence, to contribute; to help; to be useful to. He threw himself into the work along with them.
On different senses of the word, see notes on Luke 2:19; 14:31; and compare Acts 4:15; 27:18; 28:27; 20:14.

Through grace. Grace has the article, the special grace of God imparted. Expositors differ as to the connection; some joining through grace with them which had
believed, insisting on the Greek order of the words; and others with helped, referring to grace conferred on Apollos. I prefer the latter, principally for the reason urged
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by          (c) 2005-2009,
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                                             to characterize Apollos and his work, and not those who believed."                                        Page 211 / 567

28. Mightily (eujto>nwv). See on Luke 23:10.
On different senses of the word, see notes on Luke 2:19; 14:31; and compare Acts 4:15; 27:18; 28:27; 20:14.

Through grace. Grace has the article, the special grace of God imparted. Expositors differ as to the connection; some joining through grace with them which had
believed, insisting on the Greek order of the words; and others with helped, referring to grace conferred on Apollos. I prefer the latter, principally for the reason urged
by Meyer, that "the design of the text is to characterize Apollos and his work, and not those who believed."

28. Mightily (eujto>nwv). See on Luke 23:10.

Convinced (diakathle>gceto). Only here in New Testament. See on tell him his fault, Matthew 18:15. The compound here is a very strong expression for thorough
confutation. Confute (Rev.) is better than convince. Note the prepositions. He confuted them thoroughly (dia>), against (kata>) all their arguments.

CHAPTER 19

1. Upper coasts (tarh). Coasts is a bad rendering. Better, as Rev., "the upper country;" lit., parts or districts. The reference is to districts like Galatia and Phrygia, lying
up from the sea-coast and farther inland than Ephesus. Hence the expedition of Cyrus from the sea-coast toward Central Asia was called Anabasis, a going-up.

Certain disciples. Disciples of John the Baptist, who, like Apollos, had been instructed and baptized by the followers of the Baptist, and had joined the fellowship of the
Christians. Some have thought that they had been instructed by Apollos himself; but there is no sufficient evidence of this. "There they were, a small and distinct
community about twelve in number, still preparing, after the manner of the Baptist, for the coming of the Lord. Something there was which drew the attention of the
apostle immediately on his arrival. They lacked, apparently, some of the tokens of the higher life that pervaded the nascent church; they were devout, rigorous, austere,
but were wanting in the joy, the radiancy, the enthusiasm which were conspicuous in others" (Plumptre, "St. Paul in Asia Minor").

2. Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed? The two verbs are in the aorist tense, and therefore denote instantaneous acts. The A.V. therefore gives an
entirely wrong idea, as there is no question about what happened after believing; but the question relates to what occurred when they believed. Hence Rev., rightly, Did
ye receive the Holy Ghost when ye believed?

We have not heard. Also the aorist. We did not hear; referring back to the time of their beginning.

Whether there be any Holy Ghost. But, as Bengel observes, "They could not have followed either Moses or John the Baptist without having heard of the Holy Ghost."
The words, therefore, are to be explained, not of their being unaware of the existence of the Holy Ghost, but of his presence and baptism on earth. The word e]stin,
there be, is to be taken in the sense of be present, or be given, as in John 7:39 where it is said, "The Holy Ghost was not yet (ou]pw h+n)," and where the translators
rightly render, "was not yet given."

3. Unto what (eijv ti>). Rev., more correctly, into. See on Matthew 28:19.

John. The last mention of John the Baptist in the New Testament. "Here, at last, he wholly gives place to Christ" (Bengel).

10. Asia. See on Acts 2:9.

11. Special (ouj tasav). A peculiar expression. Lit., not usual or common, such as one might fall in with frequently.

12. Body (crwto). Properly, the surface of the body, the skin; but, in medical language, of the body.

Handkerchiefs (souda>ria). See on Luke 19:20.

Aprons (simiki>nqia). Only here in New Testament. A Latin word, semicinctia. Lit., something passing half-way round the body: an apron or waistband. Perhaps
garments worn by Paul when engaged at his trade.

13. Vagabond (periercome>nwn). Lit., going about. Rev., strolling.

Exorcists (ejxorkistw~n). Only here in New Testament. The kindred verb, adjure, occurs Matthew 26:63 and means, originally, to administer an oath. These Jewish
exorcists pretended to the power of casting out evil spirits by magical arts derived from Solomon.

14. Did (poiou~ntev). The participle denotes a practice.

15. I know - I know (ginw>skw - ejpi>stamai). There is a purpose in using two different words to denote the demon's recognition of the Divine Master and of the
human agent, though it is not easy to convey the difference in a translation. It is the difference between an instinctive perception or recognition of a supreme power and
the more intimate knowledge of a human agent. A divine mystery would invest Jesus, which the demon would feel, though he could not penetrate it. His knowledge of a
man would be greater, in his own estimation at least. The difference may be given roughly, thus: "Jesus I recognize, and Paul I am acquainted with."

Overcame them (katakurieu>sav). The best texts read both of them, which would imply that only two of the seven were concerned in the exorcism. Rev, better,
mastered, thus giving the force of ku>riov, master, in the composition of the verb.

16. Prevailed against (i]scuse). See on Luke 14:30; 16:3.

17. Was known (ejge>neto gnwsto). More correctly, became known.

18. Confessed and shewed (ejxomologou>menoi kaillontev). The two words denote the fullest and most open confession. They openly (ejx) confessed, and declared
thoroughly (ajna>, from top to bottom) their deeds. See on Matthew 3:6.

19. Curious arts (taerga). The word means, literally, overwrought, elaborate, and hence recondite or curious, as magical practices. Only here and 1 Timothy 5:13 in its
original sense of those who busy themselves excessively (peri>): busybodies. The article indicates the practices referred to in the context.

Books. Containing magical formulas. Heathen writers often allude to the Ephesian letters. These were symbols, or magical sentences written on slips of parchment, and
carried about as amulets. Sometimes they were engraved on seals.

Burned (kate>kaion). Burned them up (kata>). The imperfect is graphic, describing them as throwing book after book on the pile.
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Counted (sunyh>fisan). Only here in New Testament. See on Luke 14:28. The preposition su>n, together, in the compound verb, indicates the reckoning up of the
sum-total.
carried about as amulets. Sometimes they were engraved on seals.

Burned (kate>kaion). Burned them up (kata>). The imperfect is graphic, describing them as throwing book after book on the pile.

Counted (sunyh>fisan). Only here in New Testament. See on Luke 14:28. The preposition su>n, together, in the compound verb, indicates the reckoning up of the
sum-total.

Fifty thousand pieces of silver. If reckoned in Jewish money, about thirty-five thousand dollars; if in Greek drachmae, as is more probable, about nine thousand three
hundred dollars.

23. The way. See on Acts 9:2.

24. Silversmith (ajrguroko>pov). Lit., a silver-beater.

Shrines. Small models of the temple of Diana, containing an image of the goddess. They were purchased by pilgrims to the temple, just as rosaries and images of the
virgin are bought by pilgrims to Lourdes, or bronze models of Trajan's column or of the Colonne Vendome by tourists to Rome or Paris. 24

Craftsmen (tecni>taiv). In the next verse he mentions the workmen (ejrga>tav), the two words denoting, respectively, the artisans, who performed the more delicate
work, and the laborers, who did the rougher work.

25. Wealth (eujpori>a). See on ability, Acts 11:29. Lit., welfare. Wealth is used by the A.V. in the older and more general sense of weal, or well-being generally.
Compare the Litany of the English Church: "In all time of our tribulation, in all time of our wealth."

27. Craft (me>rov). Lit., part or department of trade.

To be set at nought (eijv ajpelegmo). Lit., to come into refutation or exposure; hence, disrepute, as Rev. Compare Acts 18:28 and see note there. 'Apelegmo>v,
refutation, occurs only here in New Testament.

Diana. Or Artemis. We must distinguish between the Greek Artemis, known to the Romans as Diana, and the Ephesian goddess. The former, according to the legend,
was the daughter of Zeus (Jove), and the sister of Apollo. She was the patroness of the chase, the huntress among the immortals, represented with bow, quiver, and
spear, clad in hunting-habit, and attended by dogs and stags. She was both a destroyer and a preserver, sending forth her arrows of death, especially against women,
but also acting as a healer, and as the special protectress of women in childbirth. She was also the goddess of the moon. She was a maiden divinity, whose ministers
were vowed to chastity.

The Ephesian Artemis is totally distinct from the Greek, partaking of the Asiatic character; and of the attributes of the Lydian Cybele, the great mother of the gods. Her
worship near Ephesus appears to have existed among the native Asiatic population before the foundation of the city, and to have been adopted by the Greek
immigrants, who gradually transferred to her features peculiar to the Grecian goddess. She was the personification of the fructifying and nourishing, powers of nature,
and her image, as represented on current coins of the time, is that of a swathed figure, covered with breasts, and holding in one hand a trident, and in the other a club.
This uncouth figure, clad in a robe covered with mystic devices, stood in the shrine of the great temple, hidden by a purple curtain, and was believed to have fallen
down from heaven (ver. 35). In her worship the oriental influence was predominant. The priests were eunuchs, and with them was associated a body of virgin
priestesses and a number of slaves, the lowest of whom were known as neocori, or temple-sweepers (ver. 35). "Many a time must Paul have heard from the Jewish
quarter the piercing shrillness of their flutes, and the harsh jangling of testable dances and Corybantic processions, as, with streaming hair, and wild cries, and shaken
torches of pine, they strove to madden the multitudes into sympathy with that orgiastic worship which was but too closely connected with the vilest
debaucheries" (Farrar, "Life and Work of Paul").

Magnificence. See on 2 Peter 1:16.

28. Cried out (e]krazon). The imperfect is graphic; they continued crying. This reiteration was a characteristic of the oriental orgiastic rites.

29. The theater. The site of which can still be traced. It is said to have been capable of seating fifty-six thousand persons.

Having seized (sunarpa>santev). Lit., "having seized along with (su>n):" carried them along with the rush.

Companions in travel (sunekdh>mouv). Only here and 2 Corinthians 8:19. The word is compounded of su>n, along with, ejk, forth, and dh~mov, country or land, and
means, therefore, one who has gone forth with another from his country.

31. Of the chief officers of Asia (tw~n 'Asiarcw~n). The Asiarchs. These were persons chosen from the province of Asia, on account of their influence and wealth, to
preside at the public games and to defray their expenses.

33. They drew (proebi>basan). More correctly, urged forward. See on before instructed, Matthew 14:8.

34. With one voice cried out. There reverberations of their voices from the steep rock which formed one side of the theater must have rendered their frenzied cries still
more terrific.

35. The town-clerk. Or recorder, who had charge of the city-archives, and whose duty it was to draw up official decrees and present them to assemblies of the people.
Next to the commander, he was the most important personage in the Greek free cities.

Worshipper (newko>ron). Lit., a temple-sweeper. See on verse 27. This title, originally applied to the lowest menials of the temple, became a title of honor, and was
eagerly appropriated by the most famous cities. Alexander says, "The city of Ephesus is the sacristan of the great goddess Artemis." 25

36. Quiet (katestalme>nouv). Compare quieted (ver. 35). The verb means to let down or lower; and so is applied, metaphorically, to keeping one's self in check;
repressing.

Rash (propete). Lit., headlong.

37. Robbers of churches (iJerosu>louv). The A.V. puts a droll anachronism into the mouth of the town-clerk of a Greek city. Render, rather, as Rev., robbers of
temples.
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38. The law is open (agorai~oi a]gontai) Lit., the court-days are being kept. Rev., the courts are open. Compare Acts 17:5.
Rash (propete). Lit., headlong.

37. Robbers of churches (iJerosu>louv). The A.V. puts a droll anachronism into the mouth of the town-clerk of a Greek city. Render, rather, as Rev., robbers of
temples.

38. The law is open (agorai~oi a]gontai) Lit., the court-days are being kept. Rev., the courts are open. Compare Acts 17:5.

Deputies (ajnqu>patoi) Proconsuls, by whom Asia, as a senatorial province, was governed. See Introduction to Luke.

40. Concourse (sustrofh~v). Lit., a twisting together: hence of anything which is rolled or twisted into a mass; and so of a mass of people, with an underlying idea of
confusion: a mob. Compare Acts 28:12.

CHAPTER 20

1. Embraced (ajspasa>menov). Better, as Rev., took leave. The word is used for a salutation either at meeting or parting. See Acts 21:6, 7.

2. Greece. The Roman province of Achaia, comprehending Greece proper and the Peloponnesus. Luke uses Achaia (Acts 29:21) and Greece synonymously, as
distinguished from Macedonia.

3. Sail (ajna>gesqai). Better, as Rev., set sail. See on Luke 8:22; and compare Luke 5:3.

4. So pater. The best texts add, the son of Pyrrhus. Compare Romans 16:21.

Aristarchus. Compare Acts 19:29.

Gaius. Not the one mentioned in Acts 19:29, who was a Macedonian.

Tychicus and Trophimus. See Colossians 4:7, 8; Ephesians 6:21, 22; 2 Timothy 4:12; Titus 3:2; Acts 21:29; 2 Timothy 4:20.

5. Us. The first person resumed, indicating that Luke had joined Paul.

6. In five days (a]criv hJmerw~n pe>nte). Lit., "up to five days," indicating the duration of the voyage from Philippi.

7. First (th|~ mia|~). Lit., "the one day." The cardinal numeral here used for the ordinal.

Week (sabba>twn). The plural used for the singular, in imitation of the Hebrew form. The noun Sabbath is often used after numerals in the signification of a week. See
Matthew 28:1; Mark 16:1; John 20:19.

To break bread. The celebration of the eucharist, coupled with the Agape, or love-feast.

Preached (diele>geto). Better, as Rev., discoursed with them. It was a mingling of preaching and conference. Our word dialogue is derived from the verb.

8. Many lights. A detail showing the vivid impression of the scene upon an eye-witness. It has been remarked that the abundance of lights shows how little of secrecy or
disorder attached to these meetings.

The upper chamber. See on Acts 1:13.

9. The window. See on Acts 9:25. The windows of an Eastern house are closed with lattice-work, and usually reach down to the floor, resembling a door rather than a
window. They open, for the most part, to the court, and not to the street, and are usually kept open on account of the heat.

Fallen into a deep sleep (katafero>menov u[pnw| baqei~). Lit., born down by, etc. A common Greek phrase for being over come by sleep. In medical language the
verb was more frequently used in this sense, absolutely, than with the addition of sleep. In this verse the word is used twice: in the first instance, in the present participle,
denoting the corning on of drowsiness falling asleep; and the second time, in the aorist participle, denoting his being completely overpowered by sleep. Mr. Hobart
thinks that the mention of the causes of Eutychus' drowsiness - the heat and smell arising; from the numerous lamps, the length of the discourse, and the lateness of the
hour - are characteristic of a physician's narrative. Compare Luke 22:45.

Dead (nekro>v). Actually dead. Not as dead, or for dead.

10. Fell on him. Compare 1 Kings 17:21; 2 Kings 4:34.

Trouble not yourselves (mh). Rev., more correctly, make ye no ado. They were beginning to utter passionate outcries. See Matthew 9:23; Mark 5:39.

His life is in him. In the same sense in which Christ said, "The damsel is not dead, but sleepeth" (Luke 8:52).

11. Having gone up. From the court to the chamber above.

Talked (oJmilh>sav). Rather, communed. It denotes a more familiar and confidential intercourse than discoursed, in verse 7.

13. To go afoot (pezeu>ein). Only here in New Testament. There is no good reason for changing this to by land, as Rev. The A.V. preserves the etymology of the
Greek verb. The distance was twenty miles; less than half the distance by sea.

15. Arrived (pareba>lomen). Only here and Mark 4:30 where it is used more nearly according to its original sense, to throw beside; to bring one thing beside another
in comparison. Here, of bringing the vessel alongside the island. The narrative implies that they only touched (Rev.) there, but not necessarily the word.

16. To spend time (cronotribh~sai). Only here in New Testament. The word carries the suggestion of a waste of time, being compounded with tri>bw, to rub; to wear
out by rubbing. The sense is nearly equivalent to our expression, fritter away time.

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Elders. Called overseers or bishops in verse 28.
16. To spend time (cronotribh~sai). Only here in New Testament. The word carries the suggestion of a waste of time, being compounded with tri>bw, to rub; to wear
out by rubbing. The sense is nearly equivalent to our expression, fritter away time.

17. Having sent to Ephesus. About thirty miles.

Elders. Called overseers or bishops in verse 28.

20. Kept back (uJpesteila>mhn). A picturesque word. Originally, to draw in or contract. Used of furling sails, and of closing the fingers; of drawing back for shelter; of
keeping back one's real thoughts; by physicians, of withholding food from patients. It is rather straining a point to say, as Canon Farrar, that Paul is using a nautical
metaphor suggested by his constantly hearing the word for furling sail used during his voyage. Paul's metaphors lie mainly on the lines of military life, architecture,
agriculture, and the Grecian games. The statement of Canon Farrar, that he "constantly draws his metaphors from the sights and circumstances immediately around
him," is rather at variance with his remark that, with one exception, he "cannot find a single word which shows that Paul had even the smallest susceptibility for the
works of nature" ("Paul," i., 19). Nautical metaphors are, to say the least, not common in Paul's writings. I believe there are but three instances: Ephesians 4:14; 1
Timothy 1:19; 6:9. Paul means here that he suppressed nothing of the truth through fear of giving offense. Compare Galatians 2:12; Hebrews 10:38.

21. Repentance toward God. Repentance has the article: the repentance which is due to God. So, also, faith: the faith which is due toward Christ, as the advocate and
mediator.

29. Bound in the spirit. In his own spirit. Constrained by an invincible sense of duty. Not by the Holy Spirit, which is mentioned in the next verse and distinguished by
the epithet the Holy.

23. Testifieth (diamartu>retai). The compound verb signifies full, clear testimony. Not by internal intimations of the Spirit, but by prophetic declarations "in every city."
Two of these are mentioned subsequently, at Tyre and Caesarea (Acts 21:4, 11).

24. But none of these things move me, neither count I, etc. The best texts omit neither count I, and render, I esteem my life of no account, as if it were precious to
myself.

Dear (timi>an). Of value; precious.

Course (dro>mon). A favorite metaphor of Paul, from the race-course. See 1 Corinthians 9: 24-27; Philippians 3:14; 2 Timothy 4:7.

25. I know. The I is emphatic: I know through these special revelations to myself (ver. 23).

26. This day (th|~ sh>meron hJme>ra|). Very forcible. Lit., on today's day; this, our parting day.

27. Shunned. The same word as in verse 20: kept back.

28. To yourselves and to all the flock. To yourselves first, that you may duly care for the flock. Compare 1 Timothy 4:16.

Overseers (ejpisko>pouv). Denoting the official function of the elders, but not in the later ecclesiastical sense of bishops, as implying an order distinct from presbyters
or elders. The two terms are synonymous. The elders, by virtue of their office, were overseers. 26

To feed (poimai>nein). See on Matthew 2:6. The word embraces more than feeding; signifying all that is included in the office of a shepherd: tending, or shepherding.

Purchased (periepoih>sato). Only here and 1 Timothy 3:13. See on peculiar people, 1 Peter 2:9. The verb means, originally, to make (poie>w) to remain over and
above (peri>): hence to keep or save for one's self; to compass or acquire.

29. Grievous (barei~v). Lit., heavy: violent, rapacious.

31. Watch (grhgorei~te). See on Mark 8:35.

To warn (nouqetw~n). From nou~v, the mind, and ti>qhmi, to put. Lit., to put in mind; admonish (so Rev., better than warn). "It's fundamental idea is the well-
intentioned seriousness with which one would influence the mind and disposition of another by advice, admonition, warning, putting right, according to
circumstances" (Cremer).

32. I commend. See on 1 Peter 4:19.

Build you up. A metaphor in constant use by Paul, and preserved in the words edify, edification (Latin, aedes, "a house" and facere, "to make") by which oijkodome>w
and its kindred words are frequently rendered. In old English the word edify was used in its original sense of build. Thus Wycliffe renders Genesis 2:22"The Lord God
edified the rib which he took of Adam, into a woman."

So, too, Spenser:

"a little wide

There was a holy temple edified."

Faerie Queene, i., 1, 34.

33. Raiment. Mentioned along with gold and silver because it formed a large part of the wealth of orientals. They traded in costly garments, or kept them stored up for
future use. See on purple, Luke 16:19; and compare Ezra 2:69; Nehemiah 7:70; Job 27:16. This fact accounts for the allusions to the destructive power of the moth
(Matthew 6:19; James 5:2).

35. I have shewed you all things (pa>nta uJpe>deixa uJmi~n). The verb means to shew by example. Thus Luke 6:47"I will shew you to whom he is like," is followed by
the illustration of the man who built upon the rock. So acts 9:16. God will shew Paul by practical experience how great things he must suffer. The kindred noun
uJpo>deigma is always rendered example or pattern. See John 13:15; James 5:10 etc.; and note on 2 Peter 2:6. Rev., correctly, In all things I gave you an example.
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So. As I have done.

To help (ajntilamba>nesqai). See on Luke 1:54.
35. I have shewed you all things (pa>nta uJpe>deixa uJmi~n). The verb means to shew by example. Thus Luke 6:47"I will shew you to whom he is like," is followed by
the illustration of the man who built upon the rock. So acts 9:16. God will shew Paul by practical experience how great things he must suffer. The kindred noun
uJpo>deigma is always rendered example or pattern. See John 13:15; James 5:10 etc.; and note on 2 Peter 2:6. Rev., correctly, In all things I gave you an example.

So. As I have done.

To help (ajntilamba>nesqai). See on Luke 1:54.

He said (aujto). Rev., more strictly, "he himself said." This saying of Jesus is not recorded by the Evangelists, and was received by Paul from oral tradition.

The speech of Paul to the Ephesian elders "bears impressed on it the mark of Paul's mind: its ideas, its idioms, and even its very words are Pauline; so much so as to
lead Alford to observe that we have probably the literal report of the words spoken by Paul. 'It is,' he remarks, 'a treasure-house of words, idioms, and sentences
peculiar to the apostle himself"' (Gloag).

37. Kissed (katefi>loun). See on Matthew 26:49.

38. See (qewrei~n). See on Luke 10:18. The word for steadfast, earnest contemplation suggests the interest and affection with which they looked upon his
countenance for the last time.

CHAPTER 21

1. Gotten from (ajpospasqe>ntav). Withdrawn. Some see in the word an expression of the grief and reluctance with which they parted, and render having torn
ourselves away. See on Luke 22:41.

With a straight course. See on Acts 16:11.

2. Set forth (ajnh>cqhmen). Or set sail. See on Luke 8:22; 5:3.

3. Discovered (ajnafa>nantev). Better, sighted. A nautical phrase. The verb literally means to bring to light: and its use here is analogous to the English marine phrase, to
raise the land.

4. Finding disciples (ajneuro>ntev tou). The verb means to discover after search; and the article, the disciples, refers to the disciples who lived and were recognized
members of the church there. The A.V. overlooks both the preposition and the article. The verb might be rendered strictly by our common phrase, "having looked up
the disciples." See on Luke 2:16. A small number of disciples is implied in verse 5.

5. Accomplished (ejxarti>sai). Only here and 2 Timothy 3:17 where it is used in the sense of equip or furnish.

Children. The first time that children are mentioned in the notice of a Christian church.

Shore (aijgialo). Rev., beach. See on Matthew 13:2.

6. Taken leave. See on Acts 20:1.

7. Finished (dianu>santev). Only here in New Testament.

Saluted. The word rendered take leave in verse 6. See on Acts 20:1.

8. We that were of Paul's company. The best texts omit.

Philip. See Acts 8.

The seven. The first deacons. See Acts 6:5.

11. Bound his own feet and hands. Imitating the symbolical acts of the Old Testament prophets. See 1 Kings 22:11; Isaiah 20:1-3; Jeremiah 13:1-7; Ezekiel 4:1-6.
Compare John 21:18.

12. Besought him not to go up. This suggests the case of Luther when on his journey to the Diet of Worms, and the story of Regulus the Roman, who, being, permitted
to return to Rome with an embassy from the Carthaginians, urged his countrymen to reject the terms of peace, and to continue the war, and then, against the
remonstrances of his friends, insisted on fulfilling his promise to the Carthaginians to return in the event of the failure of negotiations, and went back to certain torture and
death.

13. I am ready (eJtoi>mwv e]cw). Lit., 1 hold myself in readiness.

15. Took up our carriages (ajposkeuasa>menoi). The verb means to pack up and carry off, or simply to pack or store away. Hence, some explain that Paul packed
and stored the greater part of his luggage in Caesarea. The best texts, however, read ejpiskeuasa>menoi, having equipped ourselves. Carriages is used in the old
English sense, now obsolete, of that which is carried, baggage. See 1 Samuel 17:22 A.V.

16. Bringing with them, etc. This would imply that Mnason was at Caesarea, and accompanied Paul and his companions to Jerusalem. It seems better to suppose that
the disciples accompanied the apostle in order to introduce him to Mnason, whom they knew. Render, conducting us to Mnason, with whom we should lodge.

Old (ajrcai>w|). Better, as Rev., early. The rendering old might be taken to mean aged; whereas the word means of long standing.

21. They are informed (kathch>qhsan). More than informed. They had been carefully instructed, probably by the Judaizing teachers. See on instructed, Luke 1:4.

To forsake Moses (ajpostasi>an ajpo, Mwse>wv). Lit., apostasy from Moses. Compare 2 Thessalonians 2:3.

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The multitude must needs come together. Some texts omit. So Rev. If retained, we should read a multitude.
21. They are informed (kathch>qhsan). More than informed. They had been carefully instructed, probably by the Judaizing teachers. See on instructed, Luke 1:4.

To forsake Moses (ajpostasi>an ajpo, Mwse>wv). Lit., apostasy from Moses. Compare 2 Thessalonians 2:3.

22. What is it therefore? How does the matter lie? What is to be done?

The multitude must needs come together. Some texts omit. So Rev. If retained, we should read a multitude.

23. A vow. The Nazarite vow. See Numbers 6:1-21.

24. Be at charges with them (dapa>nhson ejp' aujtoi~v). Lit., spend upon them. Pay the necessary charges on their account. Hence Rev., rightly, "for them." The
person who thus paid the expenses of poor devotees who could not afford the necessary charges shared the vow so far that he was required to stay with the Nazarites
until the time of the vow had expired. "For a week, then, St. Paul, if he accepted the advice of James and the presbyters, would have to live with four paupers in the
chamber of the temple which was set apart for this purpose; and then to pay for sixteen sacrificial animals and the accompanying meat-offerings" (Farrar, "Life and
Work of Paul"). He must also stand among the Nazarites during the offering of the sacrifices, and look on while their heads were shaved, and while they took their hair
to burn it under the caldron of the peace-offerings, "and while the priest took four sodden shoulders of rams, and four unleavened cakes out of the four baskets, and
four unleavened wafers anointed with oil, and put them on the hands of the Nazarites, and waved them for a wave-offering before the Lord" (Farrar).

Walkest orderly (stoicei~v). See on elements, 2 Peter 3:10.

25. Blood. See on Acts 15:29.

26. Purifying himself (aJgnisqei). See on 1 Peter 1:22; James 4:8.

Declaring (diagge>llwn). To the priests who directed the sacrifices and pronounced release from the vow.

Fulfillment - until, etc. There is some dispute and confusion here as to the precise meaning. The general sense is that, having entered the temple toward the close of the
period required for the fulfillment of these men's vow he gave notice that the vowed number of Nazarite days had expired, after which only the concluding offering was
required.

27. Asia. See on Acts 2:9.

Stirred up (sune>ceon). Only here in New Testament. Lit., poured together, threw into confusion. See on confounded, Acts 2:6; and confusion, Acts 19:29.

28. This place. The temple. Compare the charge against Stephen, Acts 6:13.

Greeks. See on Acts 6:1.

Temple (iJero). See on Matthew 4:5. The Jews evidently meant to create the impression that Paul had introduced Gentiles into the inner court, which was restricted to
the Jews. The temple proper was on the highest of a series of terraces which rose from the outer court, or Court of the Gentiles. In this outer court any stranger might
worship. Between this and the terraces was a balustrade of stone, with columns at intervals, on which Greek and Latin inscriptions warned all Gentiles against
advancing farther on pain of death. Beyond this balustrade rose a flight of fourteen steps to the first platform, on which was the Court of the Women, surrounded by a
wall. In this court were the treasury, and various chambers, in one of which the Nazarites performed their vows. It was here that the Asiatic Jews discovered Paul

29. Trophimus. See on Acts 20:4. As an Ephesian he would be known to the Asiatic Jews.

30. Drew him out of the temple. Better, as Rev., dragged (ei=lkon). Out of the sacred enclosure and down the steps to the outer court, as they would not defile the
temple proper with blood.

The doors were shut. Between the inner and outer courts.

31. Chief captain (cilia>rcw|). A commander of a thousand men. See on Mark 6:21; and on centurion, Luke 7:2.

Band (spei>rhv). Or cohort. See on Mark 15:16. These troops were quartered in the tower of Antonia, which was at the northwestern corner of the temple-area, and
communicated with the temple-cloisters by staircases.

32. Centurions. See on Luke 7:2.

Unto them (ejp' aujtou>v). Better, upon them.

33. Chains (aJlu>sesi). See on Mark 5:4.

34. Castle (parembolh>n). Better, barracks. The main tower had a smaller tower at each corner, the one at the southeastern corner being the largest and overlooking
the temple. In this tower were the quarters of the soldiers. The word is derived from the verb paremba>llw, to put in beside, used in military language of distributing
auxiliaries among regular troops and, generally, of drawing up in battle-order. Hence the noun means, a body drawn up in battle-array, and passes thence into the
meaning of an encampment, soldiers' quarters, barracks. In Hebrews 11:34 it occurs in the earlier sense of an army; and in Hebrews 13:11, 13; Revelation 20:9 in the
sense of an encampment. In grammatical phraseology it signifies a parenthesis, according to its original sense of insertion or interpolation.

36. Stairs. Leading from the temple-court to the tower. There were two flights, one to the northern and the other to the western cloister, so that the guard could go
different ways among the cloisters in order to watch the people at the Jewish festivals.

So it was (sune>bh). Lit., it happened. The verb means, literally, to come together; hence, of a coincidence of events. It is designedly introduced here to express more
vividly the fact of the peculiar emergency and the peril of Paul's situation. Things came to such a pass that he had to be carried up the stairs.

37. Canst thou speak (ginw>skeiv). Lit., dost thou know? So Rev.

38. Art thou not (oujk a]ra su). Indicating the officer's surprised recognition of his own mistake. "Thou art not, then, as I supposed." Rev. properly adds then (a]ra).
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The Egyptian. A false prophet, who, in the reign of Nero, when Felix was governor of Judaea, collected a multitude of thirty thousand, whom he led from the
wilderness to the Mount of Olives, saying that the walls of Jerusalem would fall down at his command and give them free entrance to the city. Felix with an army
dispersed the multitude, and the Egyptian himself escaped. There is a discrepancy in the number of followers as stated by Josephus (30,000) and as stated by the
37. Canst thou speak (ginw>skeiv). Lit., dost thou know? So Rev.

38. Art thou not (oujk a]ra su). Indicating the officer's surprised recognition of his own mistake. "Thou art not, then, as I supposed." Rev. properly adds then (a]ra).

The Egyptian. A false prophet, who, in the reign of Nero, when Felix was governor of Judaea, collected a multitude of thirty thousand, whom he led from the
wilderness to the Mount of Olives, saying that the walls of Jerusalem would fall down at his command and give them free entrance to the city. Felix with an army
dispersed the multitude, and the Egyptian himself escaped. There is a discrepancy in the number of followers as stated by Josephus (30,000) and as stated by the
commandant here (4,000). It is quite possible, however, that Josephus alludes to the whole rabble, while Lysias is referring only to the armed followers.

Madest an uproar. Better, as Rev., stirred up to sedition. The rendering of the A.V. is too vague. The verb means to unsettle or upset, and the true idea is given in the
A.V. of Acts 17:6, have turned the world upside down. Compare Galatians 5:12 and kindred words in Mark 15:7; Luke 23:19.

That were murderers (tw~n sikari>wn). The A.V. is too general, and overlooks the force of the article, which shows that the word refers to a class. Rev., rightly, the
assassins. The word, which occurs only here, and notably on the lips of a Roman officer, is one of those Latin words which "followed the Roman domination even into
those Eastern provinces of the empire which, unlike those of the West, had refused to be Latinized, but still retained their own language" (Trench, "Synonyms "). The
Sicarii were so called from the weapon which they used - the sica, or short, curved dagger. Josephus says: "There sprang up in Jerusalem another description of
robbers called Sikars, who, under the broad light of day, and in the very heart of the city, assassinated men; chiefly at the festivals, however, when, mixing among the
crowd, with daggers concealed under their cloaks, they stabbed those with whom they were at variance. When they fell, the murderers joined in the general
expressions of indignation, and by this plausible proceeding remained undetected" ("Jewish War," c. xiii.). The general New Testament term for murderer is foneu>v
(see Matthew 22:7; Acts 3:14; 28:4 etc.).

39. Mean (ajsh>mou). Lit., without a mark or token (sh~ma). Hence used of uncoined gold or silver: of oracles which give no intelligible response: of inarticulate
voices: of disease without distinctive symptoms. Generally, as here, undistinguished, mean. There is a conscious feeling of patriotism in Paul's expression.

40. Beckoned with the hand. Compare Acts 26:1.

Tongue (diale>ktw|). Lit., dialect: the language spoken by the Palestinian Jews - a mixture of Syriac and Chaldaic.

CHAPTER 22

1. Defence (ajpologi>av). See on answer, 1 Peter 3:15.

2. Kept-silence (pare>scon hJsuci>an). Lit., gave quiet.

3. At the feet. Referring to the Jewish custom of the pupils sitting on benches or on the floor, while the teacher occupied an elevated platform.

Gamaliel. One of the seven Rabbis to whom the Jews gave the title Rabban. Rab, "teacher," was the lowest degree; Rabbi, "my teacher," the next higher. and Rabban,
"our teacher," the highest. Gamaliel was a liberal Pharisee. "As Aquinas among the schoolmen was called Doctor Angelicus, and Bonaventura Doctor Seraphicus, so
Gamaliel was called the Beauty of the Law. He had no antipathy to the Greek learning. Candor and wisdom seem to have been features of his character" (Conybeare
and Howson). See Acts 5:34 sq.

Instructed (pepaideume>nov). See on chastise, Luke 23:16.

According to the perfect manner (katabeian). Lit., according to the strictness. See on perfect understanding, Luke 1:3; and diligently, Acts 18:25. Compare, also, Acts
18:26; 26:5.

Zealous (zhlwth). Or a zealot. On the word as a title, see on Mark 3:18.

4. Way. See on Acts 9:2.

5. Estate of the elders (presbute>rion). The eldership or Sanhedrim.

Went. The imperfect: was journeying.

6. About noon. Not mentioned in Acts 9.

8. Of Nazareth (oJ Nazwrai~ov). Lit., the Nazarene. Not mentioned in Acts 9.

9. Heard not (oujk h]kousan). The verb is to be taken in the sense of understood, as Mark 4:33; 1 Corinthians 14:2 which explains the apparent discrepancy with Acts
9:7.

11. For the glory of that light. The cause of his blindness is not stated in Acts 9.

12. A devout man, etc. In Acts 9:10, he is called a disciple. Paul here "affirms that he was not introduced to Christianity by an opponent of Judaism, but by a strict
Jew" (Gloag).

13. Stood (ejpista). More correctly, as Rev., "standing by (ejpi>)."

Receive thy sight (ajna>bleyon). Better, look up. See the following words: I looked up upon him. The word admits of both translations, to look up and to recover sight.

I looked up upon him. Some unite both meanings here: I looked up with recovered sight. So Rev., in margin.

14. The God of our fathers - Just One. A conciliatory touch in Paul's speech, mentioning both God and Christ by their Jewish names. Compare Acts 3:14; 7:52.

Hath chosen (proeceiri>sato). See on Acts 3:20. Better, as Rev., appointed.

15. All men. He keeps back the offensive word Gentiles (Acts 9:15).
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16. Wash away (ajpo>lousai). See on Acts 16:33.
Hath chosen (proeceiri>sato). See on Acts 3:20. Better, as Rev., appointed.

15. All men. He keeps back the offensive word Gentiles (Acts 9:15).

16. Wash away (ajpo>lousai). See on Acts 16:33.

17. I was in a trance (gene>sqai me ejn ejksta>sei). Rev., more correctly, I fell into a trance; the verb meaning to become, rather than the simple to be. On trance, see
note on astonishment, Mark 5:42; and compare note on Acts 10:10.

20. Martyr. Better, as Rev., witness. The special sense of the word was probably not in use at this time. See on Acts 1:22. It occurs, however, in Revelation 2:13;
17:6.

Standing by. See on verse 13.

Consenting (suneudokw~n). See on allow, Luke 11:48; and compare Acts 8:1.

Slew. See on Luke 23:32.

21. Gentiles. "The fatal word, which hitherto he had carefully avoided, but which it was impossible for him to avoid any longer, was enough.... The word 'Gentiles,'
confirming all their worst suspicions, fell like a spark on the inflammable mass of their fanaticism" (Farrar, "Life and Work of Paul").

22. They gave him audience (h]kouon). The imperfect. Up to this word they were listening.

Lifted up their voice, etc. "Then began one of the most odious and despicable spectacles which the world can witness, the spectacle of an oriental mob, hideous with
impotent rage, howling, yelling, cursing, gnashing their teeth, flinging about their arms, waving and tossing their blue and red robes, casting dust into the air by handfuls,
with all the furious gesticulations of an uncontrolled fanaticism" (Farrar). Hackett cites Sir John Chardin ("Travels into Persia and the East Indies") as saying that it is
common for the peasants in Persia, when they have a complaint to lay before their governors, to repair to them by hundreds or a thousand at once. They place
themselves near the gate of the palace, where they suppose they are most likely to be seen and heard, and there set up a horrid outcry, rend their garments, and throw
dust into the air, at the same time demanding justice. Compare 2 Samuel 16:13.

24. Examined (ajneta>zesqai). Only here and ver. 29. Not found in classical Greek. Apocrypha, Susanna, ver. 14.

By scourging (ma>stixin). Lit., with scourges.

25. Bound him with thongs (proe>teinan aujto). Against the rendering of the A.V. is the word proe>teinan, they stretched forward, in allusion to the position of the
victim for scourging, and the article with thongs; "the thongs," with reference to some well-known instrument. If the words referred simply to binding him, with thongs
would be superfluous. It is better, therefore, to take thongs as referring to the scourge, consisting of one or more lashes or cords, a sense in which it occurs in classical
Greek, and to render stretched him out for (or before) the thongs. The word is used elsewhere in the New Testament of a shoe-latchet (Mark 1:7; Luke 3:16; John
1:27).

Roman. See on Acts 16:37.

28. Sum (kefalai>ou). Lit., capital. The purchase of Roman citizenship was an investment. Under the first Roman emperors it was obtained only at large cost and with
great difficulty; later, it was sold for a trifle.

I was free born (ejgwnnhmai). Lit., I am even so born, leaving the mind to supply free or a Roman. Better, as Rev., I am a Roman born.

30. Brought Paul down. To the meeting-place of the Sanhedrim: probably not their usual place of assembly, which lay within the wall of partition, which Lysias and his
soldiers would not have been allowed to pass.

CHAPTER 23

1. Earnestly beholding. See on Luke 4:20. Some, who hold that Paul's eyesight was defective, explain this steadfast look in connection with his imperfect vision.

Men and brethren. He addresses the Sanhedrim as an equal.

I have lived (pepoli>teumai). Lit., have lived as a citizen, with special reference to the charge against him that he taught men against the law and the temple. He means
that he has lived as a true and loyal Jew.

Conscience (suneidh>sei). See on 1 Peter 3:16.

2. Ananias. He is described as a revengeful and rapacious tyrant. We are told that he reduced the inferior priests almost to starvation by defrauding them of their tithes,
and sent his creatures to the threshing-floors with bludgeons to seize the tithes by force.

3. Shall smite thee (tu>ptein se me>llei). More strictly, is about to smite. The words are not an imprecation, but a prophecy of punishment for his violent dealing.
According to Josephus, in the attack of the Sicarii upon Jerusalem, he was dragged from his hiding-place, in a sewer of the palace, and murdered by assassins.

Thou whited wall. Compare Matthew 23:27.

Contrary to the law (paranomw~n). A verb. Lit., transgressing the law.

4. Revilest (loidorei~v). The word signifies vehement abuse, scolding, berating.

6. The one part were Sadducees, etc. Perceiving the impossibility of getting a fair hearing, Paul, with great tact, seeks to bring the two parties of the council into
collision with each other.

The resurrection.
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                              Infobase          between the Pharisees and Sadducees, the latter of whom denied the doctrine of the resurrection, of Page
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                                                                                                                                                             state, /and
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any spiritual existence apart from the body.

8. Both. Showing that two classes of doctrines peculiar to the Sadducees, and not three, are meant:
6. The one part were Sadducees, etc. Perceiving the impossibility of getting a fair hearing, Paul, with great tact, seeks to bring the two parties of the council into
collision with each other.

The resurrection. A main point of contention between the Pharisees and Sadducees, the latter of whom denied the doctrine of the resurrection, of a future state, and of
any spiritual existence apart from the body.

8. Both. Showing that two classes of doctrines peculiar to the Sadducees, and not three, are meant:

1.The resurrection.

2.The existence of spirits, whether angels or souls of men; "neither angel nor spirit."

9. Strove. The diversion was successful. The Pharisees' hatred of the Sadducees was greater than their hatred of Christianity.

What if a spirit, etc. Neither the A.V. nor Rev. give the precise form of this expression. The words form a broken sentence, followed by a significant silence, which
leaves the hearers to supply the omission for themselves: "But if a spirit or angel has spoken to him - " The words which the A.V. supplies to complete the sentence, let
us not fight against God, are spurious, borrowed from Acts 5:39.

12. Banded together (poih>santev sustrofh). Lit., having made a conspiracy. See on concourse, Acts 19:40.

Bound themselves under a curse (ajneqema>tisan eJautou). Lit., anathematized or cursed themselves; invoked God's curse on themselves if they should violate their
vow. On the kindred noun ajna>qema, a curse, see note on offerings, Luke 21:5. In case of failure, they could procure absolution from their oath by the Rabbis.

13. Conspiracy (sunwmosi>an). Lit., swearing together; conjuration. According to its etymology, conspiracy is a breathing or blowing together (Latin, conspirare).
Hence, of concerted thought and action.

14. We have bound ourselves under a great curse (ajnaqe>mati ajneqemati>samen eJautou). Lit., we have anathematized ourselves with an anathema. A very strong
expression. For similar expressions, see Luke 22:15; John 3:29; Acts 4:17.

15. Enquire (diaginw>skein). Only here and Acts 24:22. Originally, to distinguish or discern; hence, to decide, as a suit. Rev., more correctly, therefore, judge.

More perfectly (ajkribe>steron). Rev., better, more exactly. See on Luke 1:3; Acts 18:25, 26.

Concerning him (ta). Lit., the things about him. Rev., better, his case.

18. The prisoner (oJ de>smiov). From de>w, to bind. Paul, as a Roman citizen, was held in custodia militaris, "military custody." Three kinds of custody were
recognized by the Roman law: 1. Custodia publica (public custody); confinement in the public jail. This was the worst kind, the common jails being wretched dungeons.
Such was the confinement of Paul and Silas at Philippi. 2. Custodia libera (free custody), confined to men of high rank. The accused was committed to the charge of a
magistrate or senator, who became responsible for his appearance on the day of trial. 3. Custodia militaris (military custody). The accused was placed in charge of a
soldier, who was responsible with his life for the prisoner's safe-keeping, and whose left hand was secured by a chain to the prisoner's right. The prisoner was usually
kept in the barracks, but was sometimes allowed to reside in a private house under charge of his guard.

21. Have bound themselves. "If we should wonder how, so early in the morning, after the long discussion in the Sanhedrim, which must have occupied a considerable
part of the day, more than forty men should have been found banded together, under an anathema, neither to eat nor to drink till they had killed Paul; and, still more,
how such a conspiracy, or, rather, conjuration, which, in the nature of it, would be kept a profound secret, should have become known to Paul's sister's son - the
circumstances of the case furnish a sufficient explanation. The Pharisees were avowedly a fraternity or guild; and they, or some of their kindred fraternities, would
furnish the ready material for such a band, to whom this additional vow would be nothing new or strange, and, murderous though it sounded, only seem a further
carrying out of the principles of their order. Again, since the wife and all the children of a member were ipso facto members of the guild, and Paul's father had been a
Pharisee (ver. 6), Paul's sister also would, by virtue of her birth, belong to the fraternity, even irrespective of the probability that, in accordance with the principles of the
party, she would have married into a Pharisaical family" (Edersheim, "Jewish Social Life").

23. Soldiers (stratiw>tav). Heavy-armed footmen: legionaries.

Spearmen (dexiola>bouv). Only here in New Testament, and not in classical Greek. From dexio>v, right, and lamba>nw, to take. The exact meaning is uncertain.
Some explain it as those who take the right side of the prisoners whom they have in charge; others, those who grasp (their weapon) with the right hand; others, again,
those who hold (a second horse) by the right hand. They are here distinguished from the heavy armed legionaries and the cavalry. They were probably light-armed
troops, javelin-throwers or slingers. One of the principal manuscripts reads dexiobo>louv, "those who throw with the right hand."

24. Beasts (kth>nh). See on Luke 10:34.

25. After this manner (perie>cousan topon tou~ton). Lit., containing this form or type. See on it is contained, 1 Peter 2:6.

26. To the most excellent (tw|~ krati>stw|). "His excellency": an official title. Compare Acts 24:3; 26:25.

Greeting (cai>rein). See on Acts 15:23.

27. Rescued. Bengel says, "a lie." Lysias wishes to make the impression that Paul's citizenship was the cause of his rescuing him; whereas he did not know of this until
afterward. He says nothing about the proposed scourging.

29. Questions. See on Acts 15:2.

Nothing - worthy of death or of bonds. Every Roman magistrate before whom the apostle is brought declares him innocent.

30. When it was told (mhnuqei>shv). Lit., pointed out, or shown, as Rev. See on Luke 20:37.

Farewell. The best texts omit. See on Acts 15:29.
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31. Took (ajnalabo>ntev). Lit., "having taken up." Compare set Paul on, verse 24.

To Antipatris. A hard night's ride: forty miles.
30. When it was told (mhnuqei>shv). Lit., pointed out, or shown, as Rev. See on Luke 20:37.

Farewell. The best texts omit. See on Acts 15:29.

31. Took (ajnalabo>ntev). Lit., "having taken up." Compare set Paul on, verse 24.

To Antipatris. A hard night's ride: forty miles.

32. On the morrow. After arriving at Antipatris.

33. Caesarea. Twenty-six miles from Antipatris.

34. Of what province (ejk poi>av ejparci>av). Rather, "from what kind of a province;" whether senatorial or imperial. See Introduction to Luke. Cilicia was an imperial
province.

35. I will hear thee (diakou>somai). Better, as Rev., will hear thy cause; the word meaning "to hear fully (dia>) in a judicial sense." The present questioning was merely
preliminary.

Herod's palace. Built by Herod the Great. Judaea being now a Roman province, the palace of its former kings had become the governor's official residence. It thus
appears that Paul was leniently dealt with, and not cast into the common prison.

CHAPTER 24

1. An orator (rJh>torov). An advocate. The Jews, being little acquainted with Roman forms and laws, had to employ Roman advocates.

3. Very worthy deeds (katorqwma>twn). From katorqo>w, to set upright. Hence, a success consequent on right judgment; a right action. The best texts, however,
read diorqwma>twn, settings right; amendments. Thus the sentence reads, literally, obtaining much peace through thee, and amendments taking place for this nation
through thy providence, we accept, etc.

Providence (pronoi>av). Forethought. Previdentia Augusti (the providence of the emperor) was a common title on the coins of the emperors.

4. Be tedious (ejgko>ptw). See on hindered, 1 Peter 3:7. The meaning is, rather, "that I may not further hinder thee, or detain thee.

Clemency (ejpieikei>a|) See on gentle, 1 Peter 2:18.

A few words (sunto>mwv). Lit., concisely. From sunte>mnw, to cut down or cut short.

5. Pestilent fellow (loimo). Lit., a plague or pest.

Ringleader (prwtosta>thn). Originally, one who stands first on the right of a line; a file-leader. Thus Thucydides says that all armies when engaging are apt to thrust
outward their right wing; and adds, "The first man in the front rank (oJ prwtosta>thv) of the right wing is originally responsible for the deflection" (v., 71). Here, of
course, metaphorically, as A.V. and Rev. Only here in New Testament.

Sect (aiJre>sewv). See on heresies, 2 Peter 2:1.

Nazarenes. The only passage in scripture where this term is used to denote the Christians. See on Matthew 2:23.

6. To profane (bebhlw~sai). The word is akin to bhlo>v, threshold, and bai>nw, to step; and its fundamental idea, therefore, is that of overstepping the threshold of
sacred places. The word profane is the Latin pro fanurn, in front of the sanctuary; that which is kept outside the fane because unholy.

We laid hold. The best texts omit all after these words as far as by examining.

8. From whom. Paul. It would refer to Lysias if the omitted passage above were retained.

9. Assented (sune>qento). But the best texts read sunepe>qento, jointly set upon or assailed. So Rev., joined in the charge.

10. The more cheerfully (eujqumo>teron). The best texts read the positive of the adverb, eujqu>mwv, cheerfully.

14. The way. See on Acts 9:2.

A sect. See on verse 5. The word is commonly used in an indifferent sense, as signifying merely a school or party. So Acts 15:5; 28:29. Here, however, in a bad sense
- a schisomatic sect, as in 1 Corinthians 11:19.

Worship (latreu>w). Better, as Rev., serve. See on Luke 1:74.

God of my fathers (tw|~ patrw>w| Qew|~). A familiar classical phrase, and therefore well known to Felix. Thus Demosthenes calls Apollo the patrw|~ov (ancestral
God) of Athens. Socrates is asked (Plato, "Euthydemus," 302), "Have you an ancestral Zeus (Zeu)? So, frequently, in the classics. Similarly, the Roman phrase, Di
patrii, "the gods of the forefathers." On the Roman reverence for the ancestral religion, see note on Acts 16:21. The Roman's own sentiment would prepare him to
respect Paul's.

15. Allow (prosde>contai). Or, as Rev., look for. The word admits of either sense.

16. Exercise myself (ajskw~). Originally, to work raw material, to form: hence, to practice, exercise, discipline; and so, in ecclesiastical language, to mortify the body.
Of the kindred adjective ajskhtiko>v, our word ascetic is a transcript.

Void of offense (ajpo>skopon). Lit., without stumbling; unshaken. The word is used thus in a passive sense here, as in Philippians 1:10. In 1 Corinthians 10:32 it occurs
in the active sense of giving offense to others, causing them to stumble.
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18. Whereupon (ejn oi=v). More correctly, in which (occupation); while so engaged. The best texts, however, read ejn ai=v, in which, the pronoun agreeing in gender
with offerings. The sense, according to this, is, as Rev., margin, in presenting which (offerings).
Of the kindred adjective ajskhtiko>v, our word ascetic is a transcript.

Void of offense (ajpo>skopon). Lit., without stumbling; unshaken. The word is used thus in a passive sense here, as in Philippians 1:10. In 1 Corinthians 10:32 it occurs
in the active sense of giving offense to others, causing them to stumble.

18. Whereupon (ejn oi=v). More correctly, in which (occupation); while so engaged. The best texts, however, read ejn ai=v, in which, the pronoun agreeing in gender
with offerings. The sense, according to this, is, as Rev., margin, in presenting which (offerings).

22. Deferred (ajneba>leto). Adjourned the case. Only here in New Testament.

I will know the uttermost (diagnw>somai). Better, as Rev., I will determine. See on Acts 23:15.

23. Liberty (a]nesin). From ajni>hmi, to send up; thence, to loosen, release. It is almost exactly expressed by our vulgarism, to let up. The noun here is more correctly
rendered by Rev., indulgence. In all the other New Testament passages it is rendered rest, ease, or relief. See 2 Corinthians 2:13; 7:5; 8:13; 2 Thessalonians 1:7.

To minister (uJphretei~n). See on officer, Matthew 5:25.

25. Righteousness, temperance, the judgment to come. Three topics which bore directly upon the character of Felix. Tacitus says of him that he "exercised the authority
of a king with the spirit of a slave; "and that, by reason of the powerful influence at his command, "he supposed he might perpetrate with impunity every kind of villainy."
He had persuaded his wife Drusilla to forsake her husband and marry him. He had employed assassins to murder the high-priest Jonathan, and might well tremble at the
preaching of the judgment to come. Temperance (ejgkra>teia) is, properly, self-control; holding the passions in hand.

Trembled (e]mfobov geno>menov) Lit., having become in fear. Rev., better, was terrified.

For this time (to). Or, for the present. Very literally, as to what has itself now.

26. He hoped also (a[ma dezwn). A comma should be placed after thee (ver. 25), and the participle ejlpi>zwn, hoping, joined with answered: "Felix answered, 'Go thy
way, etc.,' hoping withal that money would be given him."

Communed (wJmi>lei). See on talked, Acts 20:11.

27. Porcius Festus came into Felix's room (e]labe dia>docon oJ Fh~lix Po>rkion Fh~ston). Rev., better, Felix was succeeded by Porcius Festus. The Greek idiom is,
Felix received Porcius Festus as a successor.

To shew the Jews a pleasure (ca>ritav kataqe>sqai toi~v 'Ioudai>oiv). Lit., to lay up thanks for himself with the Jews. Rev., correctly, to gain favor with the Jews.

CHAPTER 25

1. Was come into the province (eJpibaa|). Lit., having entered upon the province..

2. Besought. The imperfect denotes their persistence: kept beseeching.

3. Laying wait (ejne>dran poiou~ntev). Lit., making or arranging an ambush.

4. Should be kept (threi~sqai). This puts it as a peremptory denial of the Jews' request by Festus; whereas it is only his statement of a fact. Render, as Rev., that Paul
was kept in charge. Festus' reply is conciliatory, and is put on the ground of convenience.

6. Judgment-seat. See on Acts 7:5.

8. Have I offended (h[marton). See on the kindred noun aJmarti>a, sin, Matthew 1:21.

9. Do a pleasure. See on Acts 24:27. Rev., better, to gain favor.

Before me (ejp' ejmou~). Not with him as judge, but by the Sanhedrim in his presence.

10. Very well (ka>llion). The force of the comparative should be preserved: "thou knowest better than thy question implies."

11. Deliver (cari>sasqai). With an underlying sense of giving him up as a favor to the Jews.

I appeal (ejpikalou~mai). The technical phrase for lodging an appeal. The Greek rendering of the Latin formula appello.

12. The council. A body of men chosen by the governor himself from the principal Romans of the province. These were called assessors, sometime friends, sometimes
captains. Though a Roman citizen had the right of appeal to the emperor, a certain discretion was allowed the governors of provinces as to admitting the appeal. It
might be disallowed if the affair did not admit of delay, or if the appellant were a known robber or pirate. In doubtful cases the governor was bound to consult with his
council, and his failure to do so exposed him to censure. Cicero, in his impeachment of Verres, the brutal governor of Sicily, says; "Will you deny that you dismissed
your council, the men of rank with whom your predecessor and yourself had been wont to consult, and decided the case yourself?" (ii., 33). That Festus exercised this
discretion in Paul's case is shown by his conferring with the council.

13. Agrippa the king. Herod Agrippa II., son of the Herod whose death is recorded in Acts 12:20-23.

Bernice. Sister of Drusilla, the wife of Felix. She is said to have lived in incestuous relations with her brother. Juvenal, in his sixth satire, alludes to this: "A most notable
diamond, made more precious by having been worn on the finger of Bernice. This a barbarian king once gave to his incestuous love. This Agrippa gave to his sister."

16. Opportunity (to>pon). Lit., place. An unclassical use of the word.

18. Stood up (staqe>ntev). See on Luke 18:11; 19:8.

 Copyright
19.         (c) 2005-2009,
    Superstition              Infobase
                 (deisidaimoni>av).     Media
                                      See      Corp.
                                          on Acts 17:22. Better, religion, as Rev. As Agrippa was a Jew by religion, Festus would not have insultedPage
                                                                                                                                                      him by 222    / 567
                                                                                                                                                             applying  the
word superstition to his faith. Note, however, that he speaks of it as their own religion, not identifying Agrippa with them. It was a non-committal expression, since the
word meant either religion or superstition according to circumstances. He left Agrippa "to take the word in a good sense, but reserved his own view, which was
16. Opportunity (to>pon). Lit., place. An unclassical use of the word.

18. Stood up (staqe>ntev). See on Luke 18:11; 19:8.

19. Superstition (deisidaimoni>av). See on Acts 17:22. Better, religion, as Rev. As Agrippa was a Jew by religion, Festus would not have insulted him by applying the
word superstition to his faith. Note, however, that he speaks of it as their own religion, not identifying Agrippa with them. It was a non-committal expression, since the
word meant either religion or superstition according to circumstances. He left Agrippa "to take the word in a good sense, but reserved his own view, which was
certainly the Roman one" (Meyer). There is, indeed, a similar tact in Paul's use of the word to the Athenians. He selected "a word which almost imperceptibly shaded
off from praise to blame" (Trench). 27

Affirmed (e]fasken). The imperfect implies something habitual. "Paul kept asserting."

21. Of the Emperor (tou~ Sebastou~). Lit., the august one; hence a translation of Augustus, which was not a proper name, but a title of the Roman emperors.

26. Lord (kuri>w|). An instance of Luke's accuracy. The title "Lord" was refused by the first two emperors, Augustus and Tiberius. The emperors who followed
accepted it. In the time of Domitian it was a recognized title. Antoninus Pius was the first who put it on his coins.

27. Crimes (aijti>av). Rev., more correctly, charges.

CHAPTER 26

2. Happy (maka>rion). See on blessed, Matthew 5:3.

Answer (ajpologei~sqai). See on 1 Peter 3:15.

3. Expert (gnw>sthn). Lit., a knower.

Questions (zhthma>twn). See on Acts 15:2.

4. My manner of life, etc. The repeated articles give additional precision to the statement: "the manner of life, that which was from my youth; that which was from the
beginning."

6. For the hope (ejp' ejlpi>di). Lit., "on the ground of the hope."

Made of God. The article clearly defines what promise, "the one, namely, made of God."

7. Twelve tribes (dwdeka>fulon). Only here in New Testament. A collective term, embracing the tribes as a whole. Meyer renders our twelve-tribe-stock.

Instantly (ejn ejktenei>a|). Only here in New Testament. Lit., in intensity. See on fervently, 1 Peter 1:22. Compare more earnestly, Luke 22:44; without ceasing, Acts
12:5; fervent, 1 Peter 4:8. See, also, on instantly and instant, Luke 7:4; 23:23.

Serving. Compare Acts 24:14; and see on Luke 1:74.

Come (katanth~sai). Lit., to arrive at, as if at a goal. Compare Acts 16:1; 18:19; 25:13 etc. Rev. attain.

8. That God should raise the dead (eij oJ Qeorei). Much better, as Rev., if God raises the dead. He does not put it as a supposition, but as a fact: if God raises the
dead, as you admit that he has the power to do, and as your own writings tell you that he has done.

10. Saints (tw~n aJgi>wn). Lit., the holy ones. Paul did not call the Christians by this name when addressing the Jews, for this would have enraged them; but before
Agrippa he uses the word without fear of giving offense. On this word a[giov, holy, which occurs over two hundred times in the New Testament, it is to be noted how
the writers of the Greek scriptures, both in the New Testament and, what is more remarkable, in the Septuagint, bring it out from the background in which it was left by
classical writers, and give preference to it over words which, in pagan usage, represented conceptions of mere externality in religion. Even in the Old Testament, where
externality is emphasized, a[giov is the standard word for holy. 28

Gave my voice (kath>negka yh~fon). Lit., laid down my vote. See on counteth, Luke 14:28. Some suppose that Paul here refers to casting his vote as a member of the
Sanhedrim; in which case he must have been married and the father of a family. But this there is no reason for believing (compare 1 Corinthians 7:7, 8); and the phrase
may be taken as expressing merely moral assent and approval.

12. Whereupon (ejn oi=v). See on Acts 24:18. Better, on which errand; in which affairs of persecution.

13. Above the brightness of the sun. Peculiar to this third account of Paul's conversion. The other peculiarities are: the falling of his companions to the ground along with
himself; the voice addressing him in Hebrew; and the words, "It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks."

14. It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks. Or, goads. The sharp goad carried in the ploughman's hand, against which the oxen kick on being pricked. The
metaphor, though not found in Jewish writings, was common in Greek and Roman writings. Thus, Euripides ("Bacchae," 791): "Being enraged, I would kick against the
goads, a mortal against a God." Plautus ("Truculentus, 4, 2, 55): "If you strike the goads with your fists, you hurt your hands more than the goads." "Who knows
whether at that moment the operation of ploughing might not be going on within sight of the road along which the persecutor was traveling? (Howson, "Metaphors of St.
Paul").

16. Have I appeared (w]fqhn). See on Luke 22:43.

To make (proceiri>sasqai). Better, as Rev., appoint. See on Acts 3:20.

A minister and a witness. See on Matthew 5:25; Acts 1:22.

17. The people. The Jews.

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22. Help of (c)
            God2005-2009,  Infobase
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                              th~v para). Lit.,Corp.
                                                "help that is from God." The article defines the nature of the help more sharply than A.V. The wordPage
                                                                                                                                                    for help223   / 567
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A minister and a witness. See on Matthew 5:25; Acts 1:22.

17. The people. The Jews.

22. Help of God (ejpikouri>av th~v para). Lit., "help that is from God." The article defines the nature of the help more sharply than A.V. The word for help originally
meant alliance.

23. That Christ should suffer (eij paqhto). Rather, if or whether the Messiah is liable to suffering. He expresses himself in a problematic form, because it was the point
of debate among the Jews whether a suffering Messiah was to be believed in. They believed in a triumphant Messiah, and the doctrine of his sufferings was an obstacle
to their receiving him as Messiah. Note the article, "the Christ," and see on Matthew 1:1.

24. Much learning doth make thee mad (ta se gra>mmata eijv mani>an peritre>pei). The A.V. omits the article with much learning: "the much knowledge" with which
thou art busied. Rev., "thy much learning." Doth make thee mad: literally, is turning thee to madness.

25. Speak forth (ajpofqe>ggomai). See on Acts 2:4.

28. Almost thou persuadest (ejn ojli>gw| me pei>qeiv). Lit., in a little thou persuadest. The rendering almost must be rejected, being without sufficient authority. The
phrase, in a little, is adverbial, and means in brief; summarily. We may supply pains or talk. "With little pains, or with a few words." The words are ironical, and the
sense is, "You are trying to persuade me offhand to be a Christian." Thou persuadest (pei>qeiv) is rather, thou art for persuading; thou attemptest to persuade; a force
which both the present and the imperfect sometimes have. 29

29. Almost and altogether (ejn oli>gw| kailw|). 30 Lit., in little and in great; i.e., with little or with great pains.

Were (gene>sqai). Better, as Rev., might become. Agrippa's word, "to become a Christian," is repeated.

Except these bonds. An exquisite touch of Christian courtesy.

30. The king, the governor, Bernice. Mentioned in the order of their rank.

31. Doeth. Referring, not to Paul's past conduct, but to the general character of his life.

CHAPTER 27

1. Sail (ajpoplei~n). Lit., sail away.

Band. See on Mark 15:16.

2. Meaning to sail (me>llontev plei~n). This refers the intention to the voyagers; but the best texts read me>llonti, agreeing with ploi>w|, ship; so that the correct
rendering is, as Rev., a ship - which was about to sail.

3. Touched (kath>cqhmen). From kata>, down, and a]gw, to lead or bring. To bring the ship down from deep water to the land. Opposed to ajnh>xqhmen, put to sea
(ver. 2); which is to bring the vessel up (ajna>) from the land to deep water. See on Luke 8:22. Touched is an inferential rendering. Landed would be quite as good.
From Caesarea to Sidon, the distance was about seventy miles.

Courteously (filanqrw>pwv). Only here in New Testament. Lit., in a man-loving way; humanely; kindly. Rev., kindly, better than courteously. Courteous, from court,
expresses rather polish of manners than real kindness.

To refresh himself (ejpimelei>av tucei~n). Lit., to receive care or attention.

4. We sailed under (ujpepleu>samen). Rev., correctly, under the lee of: under the protection of the land.

6. A ship of Alexandria. Employed in the immense corn trade between Italy and Egypt. See verse 38. The size of the vessel may be inferred from verse 37.

7. Many (iJkanai~v). See on Luke 7:6.

Scarce (mo>liv). Incorrect. Render, as Rev., with difficulty. See, also, hardly, in verse 8. The meaning is not that they had scarcely reached Cnidus when the wind
became contrary, nor that they had come only as far as Cnidus in many days; but that they were retarded by contrary winds between Myra and Cnidus, a distance of
about one hundred and thirty miles, which, with a favorable wind, they might have accomplished in a day. Such a contrary wind would have been the northwesterly,
which prevails during the summer months in that part of the Archipelago.

9. The Fast. The great day of atonement, called "the Fast" by way of eminence. It occurred about the end of September. Navigation was considered unsafe from the
beginning of November until the middle of March.

10. I perceive (qewrw~). As the result of careful observation. See on Luke 10:18.

Hurt (u[brewv). The word literally means insolence, injury, and is used here metaphorically: insolence of the winds and waves, "like our 'sport' or 'riot' of the
elements" (Hackett). Some take it literally, with presumption, as indicating the folly of undertaking a voyage at that season; but the use of the word in verse 21 is
decisive against this.

Damage (zhmi>av). Better, as Rev., loss. Hurt and damage (A.V.) is tautological. See on the kindred verb, notes on lose, Matthew 16:26 and cast away, Luke 9:25.

11. Master (kubernh>th|). Only here and Revelation 13:17. Lit., the steersman.

12. Not commodious (ajneuqe>tou). Lit., not well situated.

Lieth toward the southwest and northwest (ble>ponta kataba kai). Instead of lieth, Rev., literally and correctly, renders looking. The difference between the Rev. and
A.V., as to the points of the compass, turns on the rendering of the preposition kata> The words southwest and northwest mean, literally, the southwest and northwest
 Copyright
winds.       (c) 2005-2009,
        According             Infobase
                   to the A.V.,        Media
                                 kata means    Corp.and has reference to the quarter from which these winds blow. According to the Rev., kata> means
                                            toward,                                                                                                 Page   224"looking
                                                                                                                                                        down:    / 567
down the southwest and northwest winds," i.e., in the direction toward which they blow, viz., northeast and southeast. This latter view assumes that Phenice and Lutro
are the same, which is uncertain. For full discussion of the point, see Smith, "Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul;" Hackett, "Commentary on Acts;" Conybeare and
12. Not commodious (ajneuqe>tou). Lit., not well situated.

Lieth toward the southwest and northwest (ble>ponta kataba kai). Instead of lieth, Rev., literally and correctly, renders looking. The difference between the Rev. and
A.V., as to the points of the compass, turns on the rendering of the preposition kata> The words southwest and northwest mean, literally, the southwest and northwest
winds. According to the A.V., kata means toward, and has reference to the quarter from which these winds blow. According to the Rev., kata> means down: "looking
down the southwest and northwest winds," i.e., in the direction toward which they blow, viz., northeast and southeast. This latter view assumes that Phenice and Lutro
are the same, which is uncertain. For full discussion of the point, see Smith, "Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul;" Hackett, "Commentary on Acts;" Conybeare and
Howson, "Life and Epistles of St. Paul."

13. Loosing thence (a]rantev). Lit., having taken up. It is the nautical phrase for weighing anchor. So Rev.

14. There arose against it (e]bale kat' aujth~v). Against what? Some say, the island of Crete; in which case they would have been driven against the island, whereas we
are told that they were driven away from it. Others, the ship. It is objected that the pronoun aujth~v, it, is feminine, while the feminine noun for ship (nau~v) is not
commonly used by Luke, but rather the neuter, ploi~on. I do not think this objection entitled to much weight. Luke is the only New Testament writer who uses nau~v
(see verse 41), though he uses it but once; and, as Hackett remarks, "it would be quite accidental which of the terms would shape the pronoun at this moment, as they
were both so familiar." A third explanation refers the pronoun to the island of Crete, and renders, "there beat down from it." This is grammatical, and according to a
well-known usage of the preposition. The verb ba>llw is also used intransitively in the sense of to fall; thus Homer ("Iliad," xi., 722), of a river falling into the sea.
Compare Mark 4:37: "the waves beat (ejpe>ballen) into the ship; "and Luke 15:12: "the portion of goods that falleth (ejpiba>llon) to me." The rendering of the Rev. is,
therefore, well supported, and, on the whole, preferable: there beat down from it. It is also according to the analogy of the expression in Luke 8:23there came down a
storm. See note there, and on Matthew 8:24.

A tempestuous wind (a]nemov tufwniko). Lit., a typhonic wind. The word tufw~n means a typhoon, and the adjective formed from it means of the character of a
typhoon.

Euroclydon (Eujroklu>dwn). The best texts read Eujraku>lwn, Euraquilo: i.e., between Eurus, "the E.S.E. wind," and Aquilo, "the north-wind, or, strictly, N. 1/3 E."
Hence, E. N. E.

15. Bear up (ajntofqalmei~n). Only here in New Testament. From ajnti> opposite, and ojfqalmo>v, the eye. Lit, to look the wind: in the eye. The ancient ships often
had an eye painted on each side of the bow. To sail "into the eye of the wind" is a modern nautical phrase.

We let her drive (ejpido>ntev ejfero>meqa). Lit., having given up to it, we were born along.

16. We had much work to come by the boat (mo>liv ijscu>samen perikratei~v gene>sqai th~v ska>fhv). Lit., we were with difficulty able to become masters of the
boat: i.e., to secure on deck the small boat which, in calm weather, was attached by a rope to the vessel's stern. Rev., we were able with difficulty to secure the boat.
On with difficulty, see note on scarce, ver. 7.

17. Helps (bohqei>aiv). Any apparatus on hand for the purpose: ropes, chains, etc.

Undergirding (ujpozwnnu>ntev). In modern nautical language, frapping: passing cables or chains round the ship's hull in order to support her in a storm. Mr. Smith
("Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul") cites the following from the account of the voyage of Captain George Back from the arctic regions in 1837: "A length of the
stream chain-cable was passed under the bottom of the ship four feet before the mizzen-mast, hove tight by the capstan, and finally immovably fixed to six ringbolts on
the quarter-deck. The effect was at once manifest by a great diminution in the working of the parts already mentioned; and, in a less agreeable way, by impeding her
rate of sailing."

Quicksands (thrtin). The rendering of the A.V. is too general. The word is a proper name, and has the article. There were two shoals of this name - the "Greater
Syrtis" (Syrtis Major), and the "Smaller Syrtis" (Syrtis Minor). It was the former upon which they were in danger of being driven; a shallow on the African coast,
between Tripoli and Barca, southwest of the island of Crete.

Strake sail (cala>santev to). Lit., as Rev., lowered the gear. See on goods, Matthew 12:29. It is uncertain what is referred to here. To strike sail, it is urged, would be a
sore way of running upon the Syrtis, which they were trying to avoid. It is probably better to understand it generally of the gear connected with the fair-weather sails.
"Every ship situated as this one was, when preparing for a storm, sends down upon deck the 'top-hamper,' or gear connected with the fair-weather sails, such as the
topsails. A modern ship sends down top-gallant masts and yards; a cutter strikes her topmast when preparing for a gale" (Smith, "Voyage," etc.). The stormsails were
probably set.

18. Lightened (ejkbolh). Lit., made a casting out. Rev., began to throw the freight overboard. Note the imperfect, began to throw. The whole cargo was not cast
overboard: the wheat was reserved to the last extremity (ver. 38).

19. Tackling (skeuh). The word means equipment, furniture. The exact meaning here is uncertain. Some suppose it to refer to the main-yard; an immense spar which
would require the united efforts of passengers and crew to throw overboard. It seems improbable, however, that they would have sacrificed so large a spar, which, in
case of shipwreck, would support thirty or forty men in the water. The most generally received opinion is that it refers to the furniture of the ship - beds, tables, chests,
etc.

21. Hearkened (peiqarch>santav). See on obey, Acts 5:29.

Loosed (ajna>gesqai). Rev., set sail. See on Luke 8:22.

Harm (u[brin). See on ver. 10.

23. The angel. Rev., correctly, an angel. There is no article.

Of God (tou~ Qeou~). Rev., correctly, supplies the article: "the God," added because Paul was addressing heathen, who would have understood by angel a messenger
of the gods.

27. Adria. The Adriatic Sea: embracing all that part of the Mediterranean lying south of Italy, east of Sicily, and west of Greece.

Deemed (uJpeno>oun). Better, as Rev., suspected or surmised.

That they drew
Copyright      near to someInfobase
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                                                some land is drawing near to them.                                                                     Page 225 / 567
30. Under color (profa>sei). Lit., on pretense.
27. Adria. The Adriatic Sea: embracing all that part of the Mediterranean lying south of Italy, east of Sicily, and west of Greece.

Deemed (uJpeno>oun). Better, as Rev., suspected or surmised.

That they drew near to some country. Lit., that some land is drawing near to them.

30. Under color (profa>sei). Lit., on pretense.

Cast (ejktei>nein). Lit., to stretch out. The meaning is, to carry out an anchor to a distance from the prow by means of the small boat. Rev., lay out.

33. While the day was coming on (a]cri dera gi>nesqai). Lit., until it should become day: in the interval between midnight and morning.

39. Bay (ko>lpon). See on bosom, Luke 6:38.

Shore (aijgialo). See on Matthew 13:2. Better, as Rev., beach.

They were minded (ejbouleu>santo). Better, as Rev., took counsel. See on Matthew 1:19.

40. Taken up (perielo>ntev). Wrong. The word means to remove, and refers here to cutting the anchor-cables, or casting off, as Rev.

Committed themselves (ei]wn). Wrong. The reference is to the anchors. Rev., correctly, left them in the sea.

Rudder bands (zeukthri>av tw~n phdali>wn). Lit., the bands of the rudders. The larger ships had two rudders, like broad oars or paddles, joined together by a pole,
and managed by one steersman. They could be pulled up and fastened with hands to the ship; as was done in this case, probably to avoid fouling the anchors when they
were cast out of the stern. The bands were now loosened, in order that the ship might be driven forward.

Mainsail (ajrte>mwna). Only here in New Testament. Probably the foresail. So Rev.

Made toward (katei~con). Lit., held; bore down for.

CHAPTER 28

1. They knew. The best texts read we knew: ascertained or recognized: with a reference to ver. 39.

2. Barbarous people. From the Roman point of view, regarding all as barbarians who spoke neither Greek nor Latin. Not necessarily uncivilized. It is equivalent to
foreigners.

Compare Romans 1:14; 1 Corinthians 14:11. The inhabitants of Malta were of Carthaginian descent. "Even in the present day the natives of Malta have a peculiar
language, termed the Maltese, which has been proved to be essentially an Arabic dialect, with an admixture of Italian" (Gloag).

No little (ouj tucou~san). See on special, Acts 19:11. Rev., much better, "no common kindness."

Kindness (filanqrwpi>an). See on the kindred adverb courteously, Acts 28:3.

Present rain (uJeto). Lit., which was upon us, or had set in. No mention of rain occurs up to this point in the narrative of the shipwreck. The tempest may thus far have
been unattended with rain, but it is hardly probable.

3. Of sticks (fruga>nwn). Only here in New Testament. From ajpo> to roast or parch. Hences dry sticks.

Out of (ejk). The best texts read ajpo>, by reason of.

4. Justice (Di>kh). Personified.

Suffereth not (oujk ei]asen). The aorist tense: did not suffer. His death is regarded as fixed by the divine decree.

5. The beast (toon). Luke uses the word in the same way as the medical writers, who employed it to denote venomous serpents, and particularly the viper; so much so
that an antidote, made chiefly from the flesh of vipers, was termed qhriakh>. A curious bit of etymological history attaches to this latter word. From it came the Latin
theriaca, of which our treacle (molasses) is a corruption. Treacle, therefore, is originally a preparation of viper's flesh, and was used later of any antidote. Thus
Coverdale's translation of Jeremiah 8:22 has, "There is no more treacle in Gilead." Gurnall ("Christian in Complete Armor") says: "The saints' experiences help them to a
sovereign treacle made of the scorpion's own flesh (which they through Christ have slain), and that hath a virtue above all other to expel the venom of Satan's
temptations from the heart." So Jeremy Taylor: "We kill the viper and make treacle of him."

6. Swollen (pi>mprasqai). Only here in New Testament. The usual medical word for inflammation.

Looked (prosdokw>ntwn). Occurring eleven times in Luke, and only five times in the rest of the New Testament. Frequent in medical writers, to denote expectation of
the fatal result of illness.

No harm (mhde). Lit., nothing out of place. The word a]topov occurs three times in Luke, and only once elsewhere in the New Testament (2 Thessalonians 3:2). Used
by physicians to denote something unusual in the symptoms of disease and also something fatal or deadly as here. Rev., nothing amiss. Compare Luke 23:41; and Acts
25:5 where the best texts insert the word.

Said (e]legon). The imperfect, denoting current talk.

A God. "Observe," says Bengel, "the fickleness of human reasoning. He is either an assassin, say they, or a God. So, at one time bulls, at another stones" (Acts 14:13,
19).

7. The chief man (tw|~ prw>tw|). Official title, without reference to his rank and possessions. Though not occurring as the official designation of the governor of Malta
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8. Sick (suneco>menon). Lit., taken or holden. See on taken, Luke 4:38.
19).

7. The chief man (tw|~ prw>tw|). Official title, without reference to his rank and possessions. Though not occurring as the official designation of the governor of Malta
in any ancient author, it has been found in two inscriptions discovered in the island.

8. Sick (suneco>menon). Lit., taken or holden. See on taken, Luke 4:38.

Fever (puretoi~v). Lit., fevers. This peculiarly medical use of the plural is confined to Luke in the New Testament. It denotes successive and varying attacks of fever.

Bloody flux (dusenteri>a|). Only here in New Testament. Our word dysentery is nearly a transcript of it. Hippocrates often speaks of the two complaints in
combination.

Healed (ija>sato). See on Luke 6:19.

10. Honors (timai~v). The word was applied to payments for professional services, and that fact may have influenced Luke in selecting it; but it is evidently not used in
that sense here.

11. Sign. Answering to the ship's name in modern times. It was the image of a God, a man, a beast, or of some other object, sculptured or painted on the prow. The
figure of the guardian deity was affixed to the stern.

Castor and Pollux. Known as the twin brothers and the Dioscuri, or sons of Jove. They were regarded as tutelary deities of sailors.

16. The centurion delivered the prisoners to the captain of the guard. The best texts omit.

20. I am bound (peri>keimai). Lit., compassed.

22. We desire (ajxiou~men). Rather, we think it fitting. Compare Acts 15:38.

Sect. See on heresies, 2 Peter 2:1.

25. Agreed not. See on agreed together, ch. verse 9.

27. Waxed gross. See on Matthew 13:15.

Their ears are dull of hearing. Lit., with their ears they heard heavily.

Closed. See on Matthew 13:15.

30. Hired house (misqw>mati). Probably different from the xeni>a, or lodging-place, where he resided for the first few days, perhaps as the guest of friends, though
under custody, and where he received the Jews (ver. 23).

LIST OF GREEK WORDS USED BY LUKE ONLY

ajgka>lh, arm, Luke 2:28

aJgnismo>v, purification, Acts 21:26

a]gnwstov, unknown, Acts 17:23

ajgorai~ov, pertaining to the market place, base, Acts 17:5

ajgorai~oi, court-days, Acts 19:38

a]gra, draught, Luke 5:4, 9

ajgra>mmatov, unlearned, Acts 4:13

ajgraule>w, abide in the field, Luke 2:8

ajgwni>a, agony, Luke 22:44

aijsqa>nomai, perceive, Luke 9:45

aijti>ama, complaint, Acts 25:7

ai]tion, fault, Luke 23:4, 14, 22; Acts 19:40

aijcma>lwtov, captive, Luke 4:18, 19

ajkata>kritov, uncondemned, Acts 16:37; 22:25

ajkri>beia, exactness, perfect manner, Acts 22:3

ajkrbe>statov, most strict, Acts 26:5

ajkribe>steron, more perfect, Acts 18:26; 23:15, 20; 24:22
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ajroath>rion, place of hearing, Acts 25:23

ajkwlu>twv, without hindrance, Acts 28:31
ajkrbe>statov, most strict, Acts 26:5

ajkribe>steron, more perfect, Acts 18:26; 23:15, 20; 24:22

ajroath>rion, place of hearing, Acts 25:23

ajkwlu>twv, without hindrance, Acts 28:31

ajli>sghma, pollution, Acts 15:20

ajllogenh>v, stranger, Luke 17:18

ajllo>fulov, of another nation, Acts 10:28

ajma>rturov, without witness, Acts 14:17

ajmpelourgo>v, dresser of the vineyard, Luke 13:7

ajmu>nomai, defend, Acts 7:24

ajnabaqmo>v, stair, Acts 21:35, 40

ajnaba>llomai, put off, defer, Acts 24:22

ajna>bleyiv, recovering of sight, Luke 4:18

ajnabolh>, delay, Acts 25:17

ajnagnwri>zomai, to be made known, Acts 7:13

ajnadei>knumi, appoint, shew, Luke 10:1; Acts 1:24

ajna>deixiv, shewing, Luke 1:80

ajnadi>dwmi, deliver, Acts 23:33

ajnazhte>w, seek, Luke 2:44; Acts 11:25

ajna>qhma, gift, offering, Luke 21:5

ajnai>deia, importunity, Luke 11:8

ajnai>resiv, death, Acts 8:1; 22:20

ajnakaqi>zw, set up, 7;15; Acts 9:40

ajna>krisiv, examination, Acts 25:26

ajna>lhyiv, taking up, Luke 9:51

ajnanti>rjrJh>tov, not to be spoken against, Acts 19:36

ajnantirjrJh>twv, without gainsaying, Acts 10:29

ajnapei>zw, persuade, Acts 18:13

ajnaptu>ssw, open, unroll, Luke 4:17

ajnaskeua>zw, subvert, Acts 15:24

ajnaspa>w, pull or draw up, Luke 14:5; Acts 11:10

ajnata>ssomai, set forth in order, Luke 1:1

ajnatre>fw, nourish up, Acts 7:20, 21; 22:3

ajnafai>nw, bring to light, appear, to sight, Luke 19:11; Acts 21:3

ajnafwne>w, speak out, Luke 1:42

ajna>yuxiv, refreshing, Acts 3:19

ajne>kleiptov, that faileth not, Luke 12:33

ajne>ndekton, impossible, Luke 17:1

ajneta>zw, examine, Acts 22:24, 29
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ajneu>qetov, not commodious, Acts 27:12

ajneuri>skw, find, Luke 2:16; Acts 21:4
ajne>ndekton, impossible, Luke 17:1

ajneta>zw, examine, Acts 22:24, 29

ajneu>qetov, not commodious, Acts 27:12

ajneuri>skw, find, Luke 2:16; Acts 21:4

ajnqomologe>omai, give thanks, Luke 2:38

ajnqupateu>w, to be deputy or proconsul Acts 18:12

anqu>patov, deputy, proconsul, Acts 13:7, 8, 12; 19:38

ajnoikodome>w, build again, Acts 15:16

ajntei~pon, gainsay, Luke 21:15; Acts 4:14

ajntiba>llw, exchange, have one to another, Luke 24:17

ajntikale>w, bid again in return, Luke 14:12

ajntikru>, over against, Acts 20:15

ajntipare>rcomai, pass by on the other side, Luke 10:31, 32

ajntipe>ran, over against, Luke 8:26

ajntipi>ptw, resist, Acts 7:51

ajntofqalme>w, bear up into (into the eye of), Acts 27:15

ajnwteriko>v, upper, Acts 19:1

ajpaite>w, ask again, require, Luke 6:30; 12:20

ajpartismo>v, finishing, Luke 14:28

ajpei~mi, go (away), Acts 17:10

ajpelau>nw, drive away, Acts 18:16

ajpelegmo>v, refutation, contempt, Acts 19:27

ajpelpi>zw, hope for in return, Luke 6:35

ajperi>tnhtov, uncircumcised, Acts 7:51

ajpografh>, taxing (enrolment), Luke 2:2; Acts 5:37

ajpode>comai, receive, Luke 8:40; Acts 2:14; 15:4; 18:27; 24:3; 28:30

ajpoqli>bw, press, Luke 8:45

ajpokata>stasiv, restitution, Acts 3:21

ajpoklei>w, shut to, Luke 13:25

ajpoma>ssomai, wipe off, Luke 10:11

ajpopi>ptw, fall from, Acts, 9:18

ajpople>w, sail away, Acts 13:4; 14:26; 20:15; 27:1

ajpori>a, perplexity, Luke 21:25

ajporjrJi>ptw, cast, Acts 27:43

ajpostomati>zw, provoke to speak, Luke 11:53

ajpofqe>ggomai, shake off, Luke 9:5; Acts 28:5

ajpofqe>ggomai, speak forth, Acts 2:4, 14; 26:25

ajpoforti>zomai, unlade, Acts 21:3

ajpoyu>cw, fail at heart, Luke 21:26
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a[ptw, to light, Luke 8:16; 11:33; 15:8; 22:55
ajpoforti>zomai, unlade, Acts 21:3

ajpoyu>cw, fail at heart, Luke 21:26

a[ptw, to light, Luke 8:16; 11:33; 15:8; 22:55

ajpwqe>omai, put away from, Acts 13:46

ajrguroko>pov, silversmith, Acts 19:24

ajrh>n (ajrno>v, ajmno>v), lamb, Luke 10:3

a]rotron, plough, Luke 9:62

ajrte>mwn, mainsail, Acts 27:40

ajrcieratiko>v, of the high-priest, Acts 4:6

ajrcitelw>nhv, chief among the publicans, Luke 19:2

a]shmov, mean, undistinguished, Acts 21:39

ajsiti>a, abstinence, Acts 27:21

a]sitov, fasting, Acts 27:33

ajske>w, to exercise, Acts 24:16

ajsme>nwv, gladly, Acts 2:41; 21:17

a+sson, close by, nearer, Acts 27:13

ajstra>ptw, to lighten (of lightning), Luke 17:24; 24:4

ajsu>mfwnov, not agreeing, Acts 28:25

ajsw>twv, wastefully, unsavingly, Luke 15:13

a]teknov, without children, Luke 20:28, 29, 30

a]ter, in the absence of, without Luke 22:6, 35

aujgh>, break of day, Acts 20:11

aujsthro>v, austere, Luke 19:21, 22

aujto>pthv, eye-witness, Luke 1:2

aujto>ceir, with one's own hands, Acts 27:19

a]fantov, vanished out of sight, Luke 24:31

ajfelo>thv, singleness, Acts 2:46

a]fixiv, departure, Acts 20:29

a]fnw, suddenly, Acts 2:2; 16:26; 28:6

ajfro>v, foaming, Luke 9:39

ajfupno>w, fall asleep, Luke 8:23

ajclu>v, Acts 13:11

baqu>nw, deepen, make deep, Luke 6:48

bala>ntion, purse, Luke 10:4; 12:33; 22:35, 36

basi>leia, royal mansion, king's court, Luke 7:25

ba>siv, foot, Acts 3:7

ba>tov, measure, Luke 16:6

belo>nh, needle, Luke 18:25

bi>a, violence,
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bi>aiov, mighty, Acts 2:2
ba>tov, measure, Luke 16:6

belo>nh, needle, Luke 18:25

bi>a, violence, Acts 5:26; 21:35; 24:7; 27:41

bi>aiov, mighty, Acts 2:2

bi>wsiv, manner of life, Acts 26:4

bolh>, a throw, cast, Luke 22:41

boli>zw, to sound (with a lead), Acts 27:28

bouno>v, hill, Luke 3:5; 23:30

braduploe>w, sail slowly, Acts 27:7

bru>cw, gnash, Acts 7:54

brw>simov, meat, Luke 24:41

burseu>v, tanner, Acts 9:43; 10:6, 32

bwmo>v, altar, Acts 17:23

ga>za, treasure, Acts 8:27

gela>w, laugh, Luke 6:21, 25

gerousi>a, senate, Acts 5:21

gh~rav, old age, Luke 1:36

gleu~kov, new or sweet wine, Acts 2:13

gnw>sthv, expert, Acts 26:3

dakyu>liov, ring, Luke 15:22

daneisth>v, creditor, Luke 7:41

dapa>nh, cost, Luke 14:28

deisidaimone>sterov, very religious, Acts 17:22

deisidaimoni>a, religiousness, Acts 25:19

dexiola>bov, spearman, Acts 23:23

desme>n, to bind, Luke 8:29

desmofu>lax, jailer, Acts 16:23, 27, 36

desmw>thv, prisoner, Acts 27:1, 42

deuterai~ov, on the second day, Acts 28:13

deutero>prwtov, second after the first, Luke 6:1

dhmhgore>w, make an oration, Acts 12:21

dh~mov, people, Acts 12:22; 17:5; 19:30, 33

dh~mo>siov, public, open, Acts 5:18; 16:37; 18:28; 20:20

diaba>llomai, to be accused, Luke 16:1

diaginw>skw, judge, determine, Acts 23:15; 24:22

dia>gnwsiv, decision, Acts 15:21

diagoggu>zw, murmur, Luke 15:2; 19:7

diagrhgore>w, to keep awake, or be fully awake, Luke 9:32

diade>comai, receive by succession, Acts 7:45
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dia>docov, successor, Acts 24:27

diakatele>gcomai, convince, Acts 18:28
diagrhgore>w, to keep awake, or be fully awake, Luke 9:32

diade>comai, receive by succession, Acts 7:45

dia>docov, successor, Acts 24:27

diakatele>gcomai, convince, Acts 18:28

diakou>omai, hear (a cause), Acts 23:35

dialale>w, noise abroad, converse, Luke 1:65; 6:11

dialei>pw, cease, Luke 7:45

dia>lektov, tongue, dialect, Acts 1:19; 2:6, 8; 21:40; 22:2; 26:14

dialu>omai, to be scattered, Acts 5:36

dima>comai, strive, Acts 23:9

diamerismo>v, division, Luke 12:51

diane>momai, to be spread abroad, Acts 4:17

dianeu>w, to beckon, Luke 1:21

diano>hma, thought, Luke 11:17

dianuktereu>w, continue all night, Luke 6:12

dianu>`w, finish, Acts 21:7

diaple>w, sail over, Acts 27:5

diapone>omai, to be grieved, Acts 4:2; 16:18

diapore>w, to be perplexed, Luke 9:7; 24:4; Acts 2:12; 5:24; 10:17

diapragmateu>omai, gain by trading, Luke 19:15

diapri>omai, to be cut to the heart; lit., sawn, Acts 5:33; 7:54

diasei>w, do violence, Luke 3:14

diaspei>rw, scatter abroad, Acts 8:1, 4; 11:19;

dia>sthmei, space, Acts 5:7

diatara>ttw, to trouble, Luke 1:29

diatele>w, to continue, Acts 27:33

diathre>w, to keep, Luke 2:51; Acts 15:29

diafeu>gw, to escape, Acts 27:42

diafqora>, corruption, Acts 2:27, 31; 13:34, 35, 36, 37

diafula>ttw, keep, Luke 4:10

diaceiri>zomai, slay, Acts 5:30; 26:21

diacleua>zw, mock, Acts 2:13

diacwri>zomai, depart, Luke 9:33

dierwta>w, make inquiry, Acts 10:17

dieti>a, two years, Acts 24:27; 28:30

dih>ghsiv, declaration, Luke 1:1

diaqa>lassov, where two seas meet, Acts 27:41

dii`>sthmi, separate, intervene, put a space between, Luke 22:59; 24:51; Acts 27:28

dii`scuri>zomai, confidently affirm, Luke 22:59; Acts 12:15
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dikasth>v, judge, Luke 12:14; Acts 7:27, 35
dii`>sthmi, separate, intervene, put a space between, Luke 22:59; 24:51; Acts 27:28

dii`scuri>zomai, confidently affirm, Luke 22:59; Acts 12:15

dikasth>v, judge, Luke 12:14; Acts 7:27, 35

diodeu>w, go throughout, Luke 8:1; Acts 17:1

diopeth>v, fallen from Jupiter, Acts 19:35

dio>rqwma, a setting right, Acts 24:3

dou>lh, handmaid, Luke 1:38, 48; Acts 2:18

doch>, feast, reception, Luke 5:29; 14:13

dracmh>, drachma, Luke 15:8, 9

dusenteri>a, as dysentery, Acts 28:8

dwdeka>fulon, the twelve tribes (collective), Acts 26:7

eJbdomh>konta, seventy, Luke 10:1, 17; Acts 7:14; 23:23; 27:37

eJbrai`ko>v, Hebraic, Luke 23:38

eJbrai`>v, Hebrew, Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14

ejgka>qetov, spy, Luke 20:20

e]gkuov, charge, Acts 23:29; 25;16

e]gkuov, great with child, Luke 2:5

ejdafi>zw, lay even with the ground, Luke 19:44

e]dafov, ground, Acts 22:7

ejqi>zw, to accustom, Luke 2;27

eijskale>w, call in, Acts 10:23

eijsphda>w, spring in, Acts 14:14; 16:29

eijstre>cw, run in, Acts 12:14

eJkatonta>rchv, centurion, Acts 10:1, 22; 24:23; 27:1, 31

ejkbolh>, casting out, Acts 27:18

ejkgami>skomai, to be given in marriage, Luke 20:34, 35

ejkdihge>omai, declare, Acts 13:41; 15:3

e]kdotov, delivered, Acts 2:23

ejkei~ste, thither, Acts 21:3; 22:5

e]kqambov, greatly wondering, Acts 3:11

e]kqetov, exposed, Acts 7:19

ejkkolumba>w, swim out, Acts 27:42

ejkkomi>zomai, to be carried out, Luke 7:12

ejkkre>mamai, to hang upon, be attentive, Luke 19:48

ajklale>w, tell, Acts 23:22

ejkmukthri>zw, deride, Luke 16:14; 23:35

ejkpe>mpw, send forth, Acts 13:4; 17:10

ejkple>w, sail forth, A Luke 15:39; 18:18; 20:6

ejkplhro>w, fulfil,
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ejkplh>rwsiv, accomplishment, Acts 21:26
ejkpe>mpw, send forth, Acts 13:4; 17:10

ejkple>w, sail forth, A Luke 15:39; 18:18; 20:6

ejkplhro>w, fulfil, Acts 13:33

ejkplh>rwsiv, accomplishment, Acts 21:26

ejktara>ssw, exceedingly trouble, Acts 16:20

ejktele>w, finish, Luke 14:29, 30

ejkte>neia, intensity, Acts 26:7

ejktene>steron, more earnestly, Luke 22:44

ejkti>qhmi, cast out, set forth, expound, Acts 7:21; 11:4; 18:26; 28:23

ejkyu>cw, give up the ghost, Acts 5:5, 10; 12:23

ejlai>wn, of olives, Olivet, Acts 1:12

e]leusiv, coming, Acts 7:52

eJlko>omai, to be ulcerated, Luke 16:20

ajmba>llw, cast into, Luke 12:5

ejmbiba>zw, causeto enter, Acts 27:6

ejmmai>nomai, to be mad, Acts 26:11

ejmpipla>w, fill, Acts 14:17

ejmpne>w, breathe, Acts 9:1

e]nanti, before, Luke 1:8

ejndeh>v, needy, Acts 4:34

ejnde>cetai, it is admissible or posssible, Luke 13:33

ejndidu>skomai, to be clothed, Luke 7;27; 16:19

ejne>dra, a lying in wait, Acts 23:16; 25:3

ejnedreu>w, to lie in wait, Luke 11:54; 23:21

e]neimi, to be in (ye have), Luke 11:41

ejniscu>w, to strengthen, Luke 22:43; Acts 9:19

ejnne>a, nine, Luke 17:17:

ejneo>v, speechless, Acts 9:7

ejnneu>w, make signs, Luke 1:62

ejnto>piov, belonging to a place, Acts 21:12

ejnu>pnion, dream, Acts 2:17

ejnwti>zomai, hearken, Acts 2:14

ejxaite>omai, to desire, 22:31

ejxa>llomai, leap up, Acts 3:8

ejxastra>ptw, to be glistering, Luke 9:29

e]xeimi, depart, Acts 13:42; 17:15; 20:7; 27:43

eJxh~v, next (day), Luke 7:11; 9:37; Acts 21:1; 25:17; 27:18

ejxoloqreu>omai, to be destroyed, Acts 3:23

ejxoch>, exorcist, Acts 19:13
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ejxoch>, eminence, Acts 25:23

e]xupnov, out of sleep, awakened, Luke 16:27
ejxoloqreu>omai, to be destroyed, Acts 3:23

ejxoch>, exorcist, Acts 19:13

ejxoch>, eminence, Acts 25:23

e]xupnov, out of sleep, awakened, Luke 16:27

ejxw>qw, drive out, Acts 7:45; 27:39

ejpaqroi>zomai, to be gathered thickly together, Luke 11:29

ejpaite>w, to beg, Luke 16:3

ejpakroa>omai, to listen, Acts 16:25

ejpa>nagkev, necessary, Acts 15:28

ejpane>rcomai, to return, Luke 10:35; 19:35

ejparci>a, province, Acts 23:34; 25:1

e]pauliv, habitation, Acts 1:20

ejpegei>rw, stir up, Acts 13:50; 14:2

ejpidh>per, forasmuch, Luke 1:1

ejpe>keina, beyond, Acts 7:43

ejpibiba>zw, to set upon, Luke 10:34; 19:35; Acts 23:24

ejpiboa>w, to cry out upon, Acts 25:24

ejpiboulh>, plot, Acts 9:24; 20:3, 19; 23:30

ejpigi>nomai, spring up, arise, Acts 28:13

ejpidhme>w, to dwell as a stranger, Acts 2:10; 17:21

ejpikouri>a, help, Acts 26:22

ejpikri>nw, give sentence, Luke 23:24

ejpilei>cw, lick, Luke 16:21

ejpime>leia, care, Acts 27:3

ejpimelw~v, diligently, Luke 15:8

ejpineu>w, to consent, Acts 28:20

ejpi>noia, thought, Acts 8:22

ejpiou~sa, next (day), Acts 7:26; 16:11; 20:15; 21:18; 23:11

ejpiporeu>omai, to come to, Luke 8:4;

ejpisitismo>v, victuals, Luke 9:12

ejpiskeua>zw, to prepare baggage, Acts 21:15

ejpi>stasiv, a stirring up, Acts 24:12

ejpista>hv, master, Luke 5:5; 8:24, 45; 9:33, 49; 17:13

ejpisthri>zw, confirm, Acts 14:22; 15:32, 41; 18:23

ejpistrofh., conversion, Acts 15:3

ejpisfalh>v, dangerous, Acts 27:9

ejpiscu>w, togrow stronger, become more vehement, Luke 23:5

ejpitroph>, commission, Acts 26:12

ejpifanh>v, notable, Acts 2:20
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ejpifwne>w, cry upon or against, Luke 23:21; Acts 12:22; 22:24
ejpitroph>, commission, Acts 26:12

ejpifanh>v, notable, Acts 2:20

ejpifwne>w, cry upon or against, Luke 23:21; Acts 12:22; 22:24

ejpiceire>w, take in hand, Luke 1:1; Acts 9:29; 19:13

ejpice>w, pour upon, Luke 10:34

ejpoke>llw, run aground, Acts 27:41

ejrei.dw, stick fast, Acts 27:41

e]sqhsiv, raiment, Luke 24:4

eJspe>ra, evening, Luke 24:29; Acts 4:3; 28:23

eujergete>w, do good, Acts 10:38

eujerge>thv, benefactor, Luke 22:25

eujqudrome>w, run straight, Acts 16:11; 21:1

eu]qumov, of good cheer, Acts 27:36

eujqumo>teron, more cheerfully, Acts 24:10

eujlabh>v, devout, Luke 2:25; Acts 2:5; 8:2

eujpore>omai, to prosper, Acts 11:29

eujpori>a, prosperity, Acts 19:25

eujto>nwv, vehemently, strongly, Luke 23:10; Acts 18:28

eujfore>w, bring forth plentifully, Luke 12:16

ejfa>llomai, leap upon, Acts 19:16

ejfhmeri>a, course (of priests), Luke 1:5, 8

ejfora>w, look upon, Luke 1:25; Acts 4:29;

zeu~gov, pair, yoke, Luke 2:24; 14:19

zeukthri>a, rudder-bands, Acts 27:40

zh>thma, question, Acts 15:2; 18:15; 23:29; 25:19; 26:3

zwogone>w, to preserve alive, Luke 17:33; Acts 7:19

hJgemoni>a, reign, Luke 3:1

hJgemoneu>w, to be governor, Luke 2:2; 3:1

qa>mbov, amazement, Luke 4:36; 5:9; Acts 3:10

qa>rsov, courage, Acts 28:15

qea>, goddess, Acts xix., 27, 35, 37

qeomace>w, to fight against God, Acts 23:9

qeoma>cov, a fighting against God, Acts 5:39

qe>rmh, heat, Acts 28:3

qewri>a, a sight, Luke 23;48

qhreu>w, to catch (as a hunter), Luke 11:54

qoruba>zomai, to be troubled, Luke 10:41

qrau>w, bruise, Luke 4:18

qro>mbov,  great
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qumia>w, to burn incense, Luke 1:9
qoruba>zomai, to be troubled, Luke 10:41

qrau>w, bruise, Luke 4:18

qro>mbov, great drop, Luke 22:44

qumia>w, to burn incense, Luke 1:9

qumomace>w, to be highly displeased, Acts 12:20

i]asiv, cure, healing, Luke 13:32; Acts 4:22, 30

iJdrw>v, sweat, Luke 22:44

iJerateu>w, to perform the priest's duty, Luke 1:8

iJero>sulov, robber of temples, Acts 19:37

iJkma.v, moisture, Luke 8:6

iJppeu>v, horseman, Acts 23:23, 32

ijsa>ggelov, equal to the angels, Luke 20:36

i]swv, perhaps, Luke 20:13

kaqa>ptw, fasten, seize upon, Acts 28:3

kaqexh~v, in order or succession, Luke 1:3; 8:1; Acts 3:24; 11:4; 18:23;

kaqhmerino>v, daily, Acts 6:1

kaqi>hmi, let down, Luke 5:19; Acts 9:25; 10:11; 11:5

kaqo>lou, at all, Acts 4:18

kaqopli>zomai, to be fully armed, Luke 11:21

kaqo>ti, because, according as, Luke 1:7; 19:9; Acts 2:24, 45; 4:35

ka>kwsiv, affliction, Acts 7:34

kardiognw>sthv, knower of the heart, Acts 1:24; 15:8

karpofo>rov, fruitful, Acts 14:17

kata>basiv, descent, Luke 19:37

kataggeleu>v, setter forth, Acts 17:18

katade>w, bind up, Luke 10:34

kataklei>w, shut up, Luke 3:20; Acts 26:10

kataklhrodote>w, divide by lot, Acts 13:19

katakli>nw, to make recline, Luke 9:14; 14:8; 24:30

katakolouqe>w, follow after, Luke 23:55; Acts 16:17

katakrhmni>zw, to cast down headlong, Luke 4:29

kataliqa>zw, to stone, Luke 20:6

kata>loipov, residue, Acts 15:17

katame>nw, abide, Luke 1:13

kataneu>w, beckon, Luke 5:7

katanu>ssw, to prick or pierce, Acts 2:37

katapi>ptw, to fall down, Acts 26:14; 28:6

kataple>w, arrive at (by sea), Luke 8:26

katariqme>omai, to be numbered with, Acts 1:17
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katasei>w, to move (the hand), as a signal of silence, Acts 12:17; 13:16; 19:33; 21:40

katasofi>zomai, deal subtly with, Acts 7:19
kataple>w, arrive at (by sea), Luke 8:26

katariqme>omai, to be numbered with, Acts 1:17

katasei>w, to move (the hand), as a signal of silence, Acts 12:17; 13:16; 19:33; 21:40

katasofi>zomai, deal subtly with, Acts 7:19

katastellw, to appease, quiet, A Luke 19:35, 36

katasu>rw, to drag along, Luke 12:58

katasfa>ttw, slay, Luke 19:27

kata>scesiv, possession, Acts 7:5, 45

katatre>cw, run down, Acts 21:32

katafe>rw, bear down; oppress, Acts 20:9; 26:10

katafronhth>v, despiser, Acts 13:41

katayu>cw, to cool, Luke 16:24

katei>dwlov, full of idols, Acts 17:16

katoiki>a, habitation, Acts 17:26

ke>ramov, tiling, Luke 5:19

kera>tion, husk, Luke 15:16

khri>on, comb (honey), Luke 24:42

kla>siv, breaking, Luke 24:35; Acts 2:42

klini>dion, couch, Luke 5:19, 24

klisi>a, company (at table), Luke 9:14

koitw>n, bedchamber, Acts 12:20

kolumba>w, swim, Acts 27:43

kolwni>a, colony, Acts 16:12

kopeto>v, lamentation, Acts 8:2

kopri>a, dung, Luke 13:8; 14:35

ko>rax, raven, Luke 12:24

ko>rov, measure, Luke 16:7

koufi>zw, lighten (as a ship), Acts 27:38

kraipa>lh, surfeiting, Luke 21:34

kra>tistov, most excellent, Luke 1:3; Acts 23:26; 24:3; 26:25

kth>twr, possessor, Acts 4:34

lake>w, burst asunder, Acts 1:18

lakti>zw, to kick, Acts 26:14

laceuto>v, rock-hewn, Luke 23:53

lei~ov, smooth, Luke 3:5

lepi>v, a scale, Acts 9:18

lh~rov, tattle, idle talk, Luke 24:11

limh>n, a haven, Acts 27:8, 12

li>y, the southwest wind, Acts 27:12
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lo>giov, eloquent, Acts 18:24
limh>n, a haven, Acts 27:8, 12

li>y, the southwest wind, Acts 27:12

lo>giov, eloquent, Acts 18:24

lumai>nomai, to make havoc, Acts 8:3

lusitelei~, it is better, Luke 17:2

lutrwth>v, deliverer, Acts 7:35

magei>a, sorcery, Acts 8:11

mageu>w, to use sorcery, Acts 8:9

maqh>tria, female disciple, Acts 9:36

makroqu>mwv, patiently, Acts 26:3

mani>a, madness, Acts 26:24

manteu>omai, to divine, practice soothsaying, Acts 16:16

masti>zw, to scourge, Acts 26:25

megalei~a, great things, Luke 1:49; Acts 2:11

meli>ssiov, of honey, Luke 24:42

meristh>v, divider, Luke 12:14

meshmbri>a, south, Acts 8:26; 22:6

mesto>w, to fill, Acts 2:13

metaba>llomai, to change one's mind, Acts 28:6

metakale>omai, call for, Acts 7:14; 10:32; 20:17; 24:25

metape>mpw, send for, Acts 10:5, 22, 29; 11:13; 24:24, 26; 25:3

metewri>zomai, to be of doubtful mind, Luke 12:29

metoiki>zw, to remove the dwelling place, Acts 7:4, 43

metri>wv, moderately, Acts 20:12

mhdamw~v, by no means, not so, Acts 10:14; 11:8

mi>sqiov, hired, salaried, Luke 15:17, 19

mi>sqwma, hired house, Acts 28:30

mna~, pound, mina, Luke 19:13, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25

mo>giv, hardly, Luke 9:39

moscopoie>w, to make a calf, Acts 7:41

nau>klhrov, ship-owner, Acts 27:11

nau~v, ship, Acts 27:41

neani>av, young man, Acts 7:58; 20:9; 23:17, 18, 22

neosso>v, young (especially of birds), Luke 2:24

newko>rov, temple-sweeper, Luke 19:35

nhsi>on, island, Acts 27:16

nossia>, brood, Luke 13:34

ojgdoh>konta, fourscore, Luke 2:37; 16:7

oJdeu>w,
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oJdoipore>w, to go on one's journey, Acts 10:9
nossia>, brood, Luke 13:34

ojgdoh>konta, fourscore, Luke 2:37; 16:7

oJdeu>w, to journey, Luke 10:33

oJdoipore>w, to go on one's journey, Acts 10:9

ojdoipore>w, to be sorrowful, Luke 2:48; 16:24, 25; Acts 20:38

ojqo>nh, sheet, Acts 10:11; 11:5

oi]khma, cell, Acts 12:7

oijkonome>w, to be a steward, Luke 16:2

ojke>w, to delay, Acts 9:38

oJloklhri>a, perfect soundness, Acts 3:16

o]mbrov, shower, Luke 12:54

oJmile>w, talk together, commune, Luke 24:14, 15; Acts 20:11; 24:26

oJmo>tecnov, of the same craft, Acts 18:3

o]neidov, reproach, Luke 1:25

oJpo>te, when, Luke 6:3

ojpta>nomai, to be seen, Acts 1:3

ojpto>v, broiled, Luke 24:42

ojrguia>, fathom, Acts 27:28

ojreino>v, hilly, mountainous, Luke 1:39, 65

ojrqri>zw, to rise early, Luke 21:38

oJroqesi>a, boundary, Acts 17:26

oujrano>qen, from heaven, Acts 14:17; 26:13

oujsi>a, substance, property, Luke 15:12, 13

ojfru>v, brow, Luke 4:29

ojclopoie>w, gather a company, Acts 17:5

paqhto>v, destined to suffer, Acts 26:23

pamplhqei>, all at once, Luke 23:18

pandocei~on, inn, Luke 10:34

pandoceu>v, host, Luke 10:35

panoiki>, with all one's house, Acts 16:34

pa>nth, always, Acts 24:3

parabia>zomai, constrain, Luke 24:29; Acts 16:15

para>doxov, strange, Luke 5:26

paraqewre>w, neglect, Acts 6:1

paraine>w, admonish, Acts 27:9, 22

parakaqi>zw, sit by, Luke 10:39

parakalu>ptw, to hide, Luke 9:45

parale>gomai, to sail near by, Acts 27:8, 13

para>liov, near or by the sea, Luke 6:17
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paranome>w, to transgress law, Acts 23:3

paraple>w, to sail by, Acts 20:16
parale>gomai, to sail near by, Acts 27:8, 13

para>liov, near or by the sea, Luke 6:17

paranome>w, to transgress law, Acts 23:3

paraple>w, to sail by, Acts 20:16

para>shmov, sign or emblem, Acts 28:11

paratei>nw, continue, prolong, Acts 20:7

parath>rhsiv, observation, Luke 17:20

paratugca>nw, fall in with, meet, Acts 17:17

paraceimasi>a, wintering near or at, Acts 27:12

parenocle>w, trouble, Acts 15:19

parqeni>a, virginity, Luke 2:36

paroi>comai, to pass away, Acts 14:16

parotru>nw, stir up, Acts 13:50

patrw|~ov, of the fathers, Acts 22:3; 24:14; 28:17

pedino>v, plain, Luke 6:17

pezeu>w, to go afoot, Acts 20:13

peira>w, attempt, Acts 9:26; 26:21

penicro>v, poor, Luke 21:2

pentekaide>katov, fifteenth, Luke 3:1

peria>ptw, kindle, Luke 22:55

periastra>ptw, shine round about, Acts 9:3; 22:6

perikrath>v, master (of the boat) Luke 27:16

perikru>ptw, hide, Luke 1:24

perikuklo>w, compass round, Luke 19:43

perila>mpw, shine round about, Luke 2:9; Acts 26:13

perime>nw, wait for, Acts 1:4

pe>rix, round about, Acts 5:16

perioike>w, dwell round about, Luke 1:65

peri>oikov, neighbor, Luke 1:58

perioch>, place, contents of a passage (of scripture), Acts 8:32

perirjrJh>gnumi, rend off, Acts 16:22

perispa>omai, to be cumbered, Luke 10:40

peritre>pw, pervert, Acts 26:24

ph>ganon, rue, Luke 11:42

pie>zw, press down, Luke 6:38

pi>mpramai, to be inflamed or swollen, Acts 28:6

pinaki>dion, writing-tablet, Luke 1:63

ple>w, to sail, Luke 8:23; Acts 21:3; 27:2, 6, 24

plhmmu>ra, flood, Luke 6:48
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plo>ov, sailing, voyage, Acts 21:7 27:9, 10
ple>w, to sail, Luke 8:23; Acts 21:3; 27:2, 6, 24

plhmmu>ra, flood, Luke 6:48

plo>ov, sailing, voyage, Acts 21:7 27:9, 10

polita>rchv, ruler of the city, Acts 17:6, 8

poli>thv, citizen, Luke 15;15; 19:14; Acts 21:39

pollaplasi>wn, manifold more, Luke 18:30

porfuro>pwliv, seller of purple, Acts 16:14

pragmateu>omai, to trade, Luke 19:13

pra>ktwr, officer, exactor, Luke 12:58

presbei>a, embassy, Luke 4:32; 19:14

prhnh>v, headlong, Acts 1:18

proba>llw, put forward, Luke 21:30; Acts 19:33

prokhru>ssw, preach before (time), Acts 3:20; 13:24

promeleta>w, meditate beforehand, Luke 21:14

proora>w, see before, Acts 2:25; 21:29

proporeu>omai, go before, Luke 1:76; Acts 7:40

prosanabai>nw, go up, Luke 14:10

prosdapana>w, spend, Luke 8:43

prosapeile>omai, threaten farther, Acts 4:21

prosdapana>w, spend more, Luke 10:35

prosde>omai, to need, Luke 17:25

prosdoki>a, expectation, Luke 21:26; Acts 12:11

prosea>w, permit, Acts 27:7

proserga>zomai, gain, Luke 19:16

prosklhro>omai, consort with, Acts 17:4

proslale>w, speak to, Acts 13:43; 28:20

pro>speinov, very hungry, Acts 10:10

prosph>gnumi, crucify, Acts 2:23

prospoie>omai, make as though, Luke 24:28

prosrh>gnumi, beat vehemently upon, Luke 6:48, 49

prosfa>twv, lately, Acts 18:2

prosyau>w, touch, Luke 11:46

proswpolh`>mpthv, respecter of persons, Acts 10:34

prota>ssomai, be appointed beforehand, Acts 17:26

protei>nw, bind, Acts 22:25

protre>pomai, exhort, Acts 18:27

prou`pa>rcw, to be beforetime, Luke 23:12; Acts 8:9

profe>rw, bring forth, Luke 6:45

proceiri>zomai, choose, appoint,
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proceirotone>omai, to be chosen before, Acts 10:41
prou`pa>rcw, to be beforetime, Luke 23:12; Acts 8:9

profe>rw, bring forth, Luke 6:45

proceiri>zomai, choose, appoint, Acts 22:14; 26:16

proceirotone>omai, to be chosen before, Acts 10:41

prw>ra, prow, Acts 27:30, 41

prwtosta>thv, ringleader, Acts 24:5

ptoe>omai, to be terrified, Luke 21:9; 24:37

ptu>ssw, to roll together (a parchment), Luke 4:20

pura>, fire, Acts 28:2, 3

rJabdou~cov, serjeant, Acts 16:35, 38

rJadiou>rghma, crime,villany, Acts 18:14

rJadiourgi>a, villany, mischief, Acts 13:10

rJh~gma, ruin, Luke 6:49

rJh>twr, orator, Acts 24:1

rJw>nnumai, farewell, A Luke 15:29; 23:30

sa>lov, swell of the sea, billows, Luke 21:25

sani>v, board, Acts 27:44

sebasto>v, Augustan, Acts 27:1

sika>riov, assassin, Acts 21:38

si>kera, strong drink, Luke 1:15

simiki>nqion, apron, Acts 19:12

sinia>zw, sift, Luke 22:31

sitome>trion, portion of meat, Luke 12:42

ska>ptw, dig, Luke 6:48; 13:8; 16:3

ska>fh, boat, Acts 27:16, 30, 32

skeuh>, tackling, Acts 27:19

skhnopoio>v, tent-maker, Acts 18:3

skirta>w, leap, frisk, Luke 1:41, 44; 6:23

sklhrotra>chlov, stiff-necked, Acts 7:51

sku~la, spoils, Luke 11:22

soro>v, bier, Luke 7:14

spargano>w, wrap in swaddling-clothes, Luke 2:7, 12

spermolo>gov, babbler, Acts 17:18

ste>mma, garland, Acts 14:13

stereo>w, to strengthen, Acts 3:7, 16; 16:5

stigmh>, moment (of time), Luke 4:5

stratopeda>rchv, captain, magistrate, Luke 22:4, 52; Acts 4:1; 5:24, 26; 16:20-38

strati>a, host, Luke 2:13; Acts 7:42

stratopeda>rchv, captain of the guard, Acts 28:16
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strato>pedon, army, Luke 21:20

sugge>neia, kindred, Luke 1:61; Acts 7:3, 14
strati>a, host, Luke 2:13; Acts 7:42

stratopeda>rchv, captain of the guard, Acts 28:16

strato>pedon, army, Luke 21:20

sugge>neia, kindred, Luke 1:61; Acts 7:3, 14

suggeni>v, kinswoman, Luke 1:36

sugaku>ptomai, to be covered, Luke 12:2

sugkatabai>nw, to go down with, Acts 25:5

sugkatati>qemai, to consent, Luke 23:51

sugkatayhfi>omai, to be numbered with, Acts 1:26

sugkine>w, stir up, Acts 6:12

sugkomi>zw, carry away (for burial), Acts 8:2

sugku>ptw, to be bent together, Luke 13:11

sugkuri>a, chance, coincidence, Luke 10:31

sugce>w, stir up, Acts 21:27

sugcu>nw, confound or confuse, Acts 2:6; 9:22; 19:32; 21:31

su>gcusiv, confusion, Acts 19:29

suzh>thsiv, disputation, Acts 15:2, 7; 28:29

suka>minov, sycamine, Luke 17:6

sukomwrai>a, sycamore, Luke 19:4

sukofante>w, accuse falsely, Luke 3:14; 19:8

sullogi>zomai, to reason together, Luke 20:5

sumba>llw, to put together in mind, ponder. confer, encounter, meet, help, Luke 2:19; 14:31; Acts 4:15; 17:18; 18:27; 20:14

supa>reimi, to be present with, Acts 25:24

sumperilamba>nw, embrace, Acts 20:10

sumpi>nw, drink with, Acts 10:41

sumpi>ptw, fall in, Luke 6:49

sumplhro>w, fill; of time, to come fully, Luke 8:23; 9:51; Acts 2:1

sumfu>omai, spring up with, Luke 8:7

sumfwni>a, music, Luke 15:25

sumyhfi>zw, count, or reckon up, Acts 19:19

sunaqroi>zw, gather together, Luke 24:33; Acts 12:12; 19:25

sunali>zomai, to be assembled together, Acts 1:4

sunarpa>zw, catch, Luke 8:29; Acts 6:12; 19:29; 27:15

sundromh>, a running together, concourse, Acts 21:30

su>neimi, to be with, Luke 10:18; Acts 22:11

su>neimi, (ei+mi, to go), to be gathered together, Luke 8:4

sunelau>nw, set at one, Acts 7:26

sune>pomai, accompany, Acts 20:4

sunefi>sthmi, assail together, Acts 16:22
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sunqru>ptw, break, Acts 21:13
sune>pomai, accompany, Acts 20:4

sunefi>sthmi, assail together, Acts 16:22

sunqru>ptw, break, Acts 21:13

sunodeu>w, journey with, Acts 9:7

sunodi>a, company (of travelers), Luke 2:44

sunomile>w, talk with, Acts 10:27

sunomore>w, to border together, to adjoin, Acts 18:7

sunto>mwv, concisely, Acts 24:4

su>ntrofov, brought up with, Acts 13:1

suntugca>nw, to come to, or at, Luke 8:19

sunwmosi>a, conspiracy, Acts 23:13

su>rtiv, quicksand, Acts 27:17

suspara>ssw, to tear, Luke 9:42

sustre>fw, gather, Acts 28:3

sustrofh>, concourse, Acts 19:40; 23:12

sfa>gion, victim, slain beast, Acts 7:42

sfodrw~v, exceedingly, Acts 27:18

sfuro>n, ankle-bone, Acts 3:7

scolh>, school, Acts 19:9

takto>v, set, appointed, Acts 12:21

tanu~n, now, Acts 4:29; 5:38; 17:30; 20:32; 27:22

ta>racov, stir, Acts 12:18; 19:23

ta>cista, with all speed, Acts 17:5

tekmh>rion, proof, Acts 1:3

telesfore>w, bring fruit to perfection, Luke 7:14

tessarakontaeth>v, period of forty years, Acts 7:23

tessareskaide>katov, fourteenth, Acts 27:27, 33

tetra>dion, quaternion, Acts 12:4

tetraplo>ov, fourfold, Luke 19:8

tetrarce>w, to be tetrarch, Luke 3:1

timwre>w, punish, Acts 22:5; 26:11

toi~cov, wall, Acts 23:3

trau~ma, wound, Luke 10:34

traumati>zw, to wound, Luke 20:12; Acts 19:16

tracu>v, rough, Luke 3:5; Acts 27:29

trh~ma, eye (of a needle), Luke Luke 18:25

tri>stegon, third loft, Acts 20:9

trisci>lioi, three thousand, Acts 2:41

trofofore>w,
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trugw>n, turtle-dove, Luke 2:24
tri>stegon, third loft, Acts 20:9

trisci>lioi, three thousand, Acts 2:41

trofofore>w, to bear as a nursing father, Acts 13:18

trugw>n, turtle-dove, Luke 2:24

tufwniko>v, tempestuous, whirling, Acts 27:14

ujgro>v, moist, fresh, green, Luke 23:31

uJdrwpiko>v, a dropsical person, Luke 14:2

uJperei>dw, overlook, Acts 17:30

uJperekcu>nomai, run over, Luke 6:38

ujperw|~on, upper room, Acts 1:13; 9:37, 39; 20:8

ujphrete>w, serve, minister, Acts 13:36; 20:34; 24:23

uJpoba>llw, suborn, Acts 6:11

uJpozw>nnumi, undergird, Acts 27:17

uJpokri>nomai, feign, Luke 20:20

uJpolamba>nw, suppose, answer, receive, Luke 7:43; 10:30; Acts 1:9; 2:15

uJponoe>w, think, suppose, Acts 13:25; 25:18; 27:27

uJpople>w, sail under, Acts 27:4, 7

uJpopne>w, blow softly, Acts 27:13

uJpostrw>nnumi, spread, Luke 19:36

uJpotre>cw, run under, Acts 27:16

ujpocwre>w, withdraw, Luke 5:16; 9:10

fantasi>a, pomp, Acts 25:23

fa>ragx, valley, Luke 3:5

fa>siv, tidings, Acts 21:31

fa>tnh, manger, Luke 2:7, 12, 16; 13:15

filanqrw>pwv, courteously, Acts 27:3

filoneiki>a, strife, Luke 22:24

filo>sofov, philosopher, Acts 17:18

filofro>nwv, courteously, Acts 28:7

fo>bhtron, a terror, fearful sight, Luke 21:11

fo>rtov, lading, Acts 27:10

froni>mwv, wisely, Luke 16:8

frua>ssw, rage, Acts 4:25

fru>ganoon, stick, Acts 28:3

fulaki>zw, imprison, Acts 22:19

fu>lax, keeper, Acts 5:23; 12:6, 19

ca>rax, trench, Luke 19:43

ca>sma, gulf, Luke 10:26

ceima>zomai, to be tempest-tossed, Acts 27:18
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ceiragwge>w, lead by the hand, Acts 9:8; 22:11

ceiragwgo>v, one leading by the hand, Acts 13:11
ca>sma, gulf, Luke 10:26

ceima>zomai, to be tempest-tossed, Acts 27:18

ceiragwge>w, lead by the hand, Acts 9:8; 22:11

ceiragwgo>v, one leading by the hand, Acts 13:11

cleua>zw, mock, Acts 17:32

coro>v, dancing, Luke 15:25

co>rtasma, sustenance, Acts 7:11

cra>w, lend, Luke 11:5

crewfeile>thv, debtor, Luke 7:41; 16:5

cronotribe>w, spend time, Acts 20:16

crw>v, body, skin, Acts 19:12

cw~rov, northwest, Acts 27:12

yw>cw, to rub, Luke 6:1

wne>omai, to buy, Acts 7:16

wjo>n, egg, Luke 11:12

INTRODUCTION TO THE EPISTLES OF JAMES PETER AND JUDE
The name "catholic" is applied to the epistle of James, the two epistles of Peter, the three of John, and the epistle of Jude. The term is variously explained, some
regarding it as equivalent to canonical, others as opposed to heretical, and as applied to writing which agree with the doctrines of the universal church. Others, again,
suppose that this group of epistles was so designated, in order to distinguish it from the two other groups formed by the Gospels and Acts, and the Pauline epistles, as a
general collection of the writings of the other apostles.

The better explanation is that they are called "catholic," or general, because addressed to no particular church or individual, but to a number of scattered churches or
people (see 1 Peter 1:1 and James 1:1). In this sense the term does not strictly apply to the second and third epistles of John, which are addressed to individuals, and
includes them only when regarded in the light of appendices to the first epistle. We speak in this Introduction of the epistles of James, Peter, and Jude only, reserving
remarks on the epistles of John for the general introduction to the Johannine writings, in the second volume.

THE EPISTLE OF JAMES

According to the oldest arrangement of the New Testament, the epistle of James stands first in order of all the apostolical epistles. The most competent critics generally
agree in designating as its author James, the president of the church at Jerusalem, and known as the Lord's brother.

"No doubt," says Dean Stanley, "if we look at James' influence and authority from the more general point of view, whether of the whole Jewish Christian world or of the
whole Gentile Christian world, it sinks into nothing before the majesty of Peter and Paul;" but within the circle of the purely Palestinian Christians, and in Jerusalem,
James is the chief representative of the Christian society. The later traditions of the Jewish Christians invest him with a priestly sanctity. His austerities and devotions are
described in extravagant terms. He is said to have kneeled until his knees were as hard as the knees of camels, and to have been constant in prayer in the temple. He
went barefoot, and practiced abstinence from wine, and wore the long hair, the linen ephod, and the unshorn beard of the Nazarites, and even abstained from washing.
He was known as "The Just." The people vied with each other to touch the hem of his garment; and he is reputed to have called down rain in the drought, after the
manner of Elijah. His chair was preserved as a relic until the fourth century, and a pillar in the valley of Jehosaphat marked the spot where he fell.

The account of his martyrdom is given by Eusebius from the lost work of Hegesippus, by Josephus, and in the Clementine Recognitions. In Hegesippus and the
Recognitions, the story is dramatic and deeply tinged with romance. The narrative of the former "is," says Dr. Schaff, "an overdrawn picture of the middle of the second
century, colored by Judaizing traits, which may have been derived from 'the Ascents of James' and other apocryphal sources." It is, substantially, as follows: Having
been asked, "What is the gate of Jesus?" he replied that he was the Savior; from which some believed that Jesus is the Christ. The Jews and Scribes and Pharisees,
becoming alarmed, came to James, and besought him to restrain the people from going after Jesus, to persuade against him all that came to the Passover, and, with this
view, to stand on the pinnacle of the temple, where he might be seen and heard by all the people. They accordingly placed him there, and said, "O Just One, to whom
we all give heed, inasmuch as the people is gone astray after Jesus who is crucified, tell us what is the gate of Jesus?" He answered, with a loud voice, "Why ask ye me
concerning Jesus, the Son of man? He sits in heaven, on the right hand of the mighty power, and he is also about to come in the clouds of heaven." Many being
convinced, and saying, "Hosanna to the Son of David!" the Scribes and Pharisees said, "We have done ill in furnishing so great a testimony to Jesus. Let us go and cast
him down." They went up then and threw him down, and as he was not killed by the fall they began to stone him. And he, turning round, knelt and said, "I beseech thee,
Lord God and Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." But while they were thus stoning him, one of the priests, of the sons of Rechab, cried, saying,
"Stop! what do ye? The Just One prays for you;" and one of them, one of the fullers, took the club with which he used to press the cloths, and struck it on the head of
the Just One. And so he bore witness, and they buried him on the place by the temple.

The epistle was probably written from Jerusalem, where James would be likely to become acquainted with the condition of the Jews, through those who came up at the
feasts. Certain allusions in the epistle go to confirm this. The comparison of the double-minded man to a wave of the sea (James 1:6), and the picture of the ships
(James 3:4); might well be written by one dwelling near the sea and familiar with it. The illustrations in James 3:11, 12 - the figs, the oil, the wine, the salt and bitter
springs - are furnished by Palestine, as are the drought (James 5:17, 18), the former and the latter rain (James 5:7), and the hot, parching wind (James 1:11), for which
the name kau>swn was specially known in Palestine.

The epistle is written from a Jewish stand-point. "Christianity appears in it, not as a new dispensation, but as a development and perfection of the old. The Christian's
highest honor is not that he is a member of the universal church, but that he is the genuine type of the ancient Israelite. It reveals no new principle of spiritual life, such as
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                                                                                                                                                                of the
law" (Stanley). Twice only the name of Christ occurs (James 1:1; 2:1); the word "gospel" not at all; and there is no allusion to Redemption, Incarnation, Resurrection, or
Ascension. the rules of morality which he lays down are enforced by Jewish rather than by Christian motives and sanctions. The violation of the "royal law" is menaced
the name kau>swn was specially known in Palestine.

The epistle is written from a Jewish stand-point. "Christianity appears in it, not as a new dispensation, but as a development and perfection of the old. The Christian's
highest honor is not that he is a member of the universal church, but that he is the genuine type of the ancient Israelite. It reveals no new principle of spiritual life, such as
those which were to turn the world upside down in the teaching of Paul or of John, but only that pure and perfect morality which was the true fulfilment of the
law" (Stanley). Twice only the name of Christ occurs (James 1:1; 2:1); the word "gospel" not at all; and there is no allusion to Redemption, Incarnation, Resurrection, or
Ascension. the rules of morality which he lays down are enforced by Jewish rather than by Christian motives and sanctions. The violation of the "royal law" is menaced
with the sentence of the law (James 2:8, 13); and uncharitable judgment is deprecated on the ground of the law's condemnation, and not as alien to the spirit of Christ.

At the same time, the very legalism of the epistle is the outgrowth of the Sermon on the Mount, the language of which it reflects more than any other book of the New
Testament. It meets the formalism, the fatalism, the hypocrisy, the arrogance, insolence, and oppression engendered by the sharp social distinctions of the age, with a
teaching conceived in the spirit, and often expressed in the forms of the Great Teacher's moral code. "The epistle," says Dr. Scott, "strikes the ear from beginning to end
as an echo of the oral teaching of our Lord. There is scarcely a thought in it which cannot be traced to Christ's personal teaching. If John has lain on the Savior's
bosom, James has sat at his feet."

The following correspondences may be noted:

MatthewJames

Matthew 5:3.James 1:9; 2:5.

Matthew 5:4.James 4:9.

Matthew 5:7, 9.James 2:13; 3:17.

Matthew 5:8.James 4:8.

Matthew 5:9.James 3:18.

Matthew 5:11, 12.James 1:2; 5:10, 11.

Matthew 5:19.James 1:19, 25; 2:10, 11.

Matthew 5:22.James 1:20.

Matthew 5:27.James 2:10, 11.

Matthew 5:34 seq.James 5:12.

Matthew 5:48.James 1:4.

Matthew 6:15.James 2:13.

Matthew 6:19.James 5:2 seq.

Matthew 6:24.James 4:4.

Matthew 6:25.James 4:13-16.

Matthew 7:1 seq.James 3:1; 4:11 seq.

Matthew 7:2.James 2:13.

Matthew 7:7, 11.James 1:5, 17.

Matthew 7:8.James 4:3.

Matthew 7:12.James 2:8.

Matthew 7:16.James 3:12

Matthew 7:21-26.James 1:22; 2:14; 5:7-9.

The style and diction of the epistle are strongly marked. Links connecting them with the historic individuality of the writer, which are so numerous in the case of Peter,
are almost entirely wanting. The expression, "Hearken, my beloved brethren" (James 2:5), suggests the familiar phrase Acts 15:13; and the ordinary Greek greeting,
cai>rein, hail (Acts 15:23), is repeated in James 1:1; the only two places where it occurs in a Christian epistle. The purity of the Greek, and its comparative freedom
from Hebraisms, are difficult to account for in a writer who had passed his life in Jerusalem. The style is sententious and antithetic; the thoughts not linked in logical
connection, but massed in groups of short sentences, like the proverbial says of the Jews; with which class of literature the writer was evidently familiar. His utterance
glows with the fervor of his spirit; it is rapid, exclamatory, graphic, abrupt, sometimes poetical in form, and moving with a rhythmical Greek with Hebrew intensity of
expression."

THE EPISTLES OF PETER.

The life and character of the apostle Peter are familiar to all readers of the Gospels and Acts. It has already been shown in the Introduction to the Gospel of Mark how
the style and diction of that gospel exhibit the influence of Peter, and how the characteristics which appear in the Acts, in those scenes in which Peter was the only or
the principal actor, reappear in the second gospel. If these epistles are from his pen, we may therefore expect to find in them traces of the keen-sightedness, the ready
application of what is observed, and the impulsiveness and promptness which appear in the other two books, always allowing for the difference between a narrative
and  a hortatory
 Copyright       style.
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It has been observed that "the sight, and what it should do and reap, fills a great space in Peter's letters." Accordingly, we read that God's salvation is ready to be
revealed in the last time (1 Peter 1:5); the angels desire to look into the mysteries of the gospel (1 Peter 1:12); Christ was manifested at the end of the times (1 Peter
The life and character of the apostle Peter are familiar to all readers of the Gospels and Acts. It has already been shown in the Introduction to the Gospel of Mark how
the style and diction of that gospel exhibit the influence of Peter, and how the characteristics which appear in the Acts, in those scenes in which Peter was the only or
the principal actor, reappear in the second gospel. If these epistles are from his pen, we may therefore expect to find in them traces of the keen-sightedness, the ready
application of what is observed, and the impulsiveness and promptness which appear in the other two books, always allowing for the difference between a narrative
and a hortatory style.

It has been observed that "the sight, and what it should do and reap, fills a great space in Peter's letters." Accordingly, we read that God's salvation is ready to be
revealed in the last time (1 Peter 1:5); the angels desire to look into the mysteries of the gospel (1 Peter 1:12); Christ was manifested at the end of the times (1 Peter
1:20); the Gentiles shall behold your good works (1 Peter 2:12); unbelieving husbands shall be convinced by beholding the chaste behavior of their wives (1 Peter 3:2);
the apostle was a witness of Christ's sufferings (1 Peter 5:1), and an eye-witness of his majesty (2 Peter 1:16); the elders must exercise oversight of the flock (1 Peter
5:2). Similarly he speaks of the day of visitation, or, lit., overlooking (1 Peter 2:12); Christ is the bishop, lit., overseer, of souls (1 Peter 2:25); he who lacks Christian
graces is blind, seeing only what is near (2 Peter 1:9); Lot was vexed at seeing the wickedness of his neighbors (2 Peter 2:8); the wicked have eyes full of adultery (2
Peter 2:14).

Equally apparent is his readiness to apply what he sees and hears. "Not one thought," says Canon Cook, "connected with the mystery of salvation is presented without
an instant and emphatic reference to what a Christian ought to feel, and what he ought to do. No place in the spiritual temple is so humble that he who holds it has not
before him the loftiest sphere of spiritual action and thought. Injunctions which touch the heart most powerfully are impressed upon us as we contemplate the eternal
glory, the manifestations of Christ's love." Thus we have sanctification of the spirit unto obedience (1 Peter 1:2); be holy in living (1 Peter 1:15). The first epistle
abounds in exhortations to personal religion (1 Peter 2:10-18; 3:1-16; 4:1-11; 5:1-9. Christian graces shall make believers to be neither idle or unfruitful (2 Peter 1:8);
they shall not fall if they do these things (2 Peter 1:10); he exhorts to holy living and godliness (2 Peter 3:11).

It is in such pointed and practical exhortations as these that the prompt and energetic character of the apostle reappears. Dr. Davidson observes that the writer is
"zealous, but mild, earnest, but not fervid;" a statement which is adapted to provoke a smile from one who has felt the nervous grip of the first epistle, and which
becomes palpably absurd if we admit, as of course Dr. Davidson does not, the authenticity of the second. The "mild tone" assuredly is not dominant there; but, in any
event, it would be strange if the letters did not show traces of the mellowing of years, and of the ripening of the spirit of Christ is this once passionate and headstrong
disciple. The second chapter of the second epistle is no feeble reminder of the Peter who smote off the ear of Malchus.

The graphic and picturesque character of these letters is notable. In the two epistles, containing eight chapters, the longest of which consists of but twenty-five verses,
there are one hundred and nineteen words which occur nowhere else in the New Testament. Picture-words abound, such as wjruo>menov, roaring (1 Peter 5:8);
oJpli>sasqe, arm yourselves (1 Peter 4:1); ejpika>lumma, cloke (1 Peter 2:16); fimou~n, put to silence, lit., muzzle (1 Peter 2:15); skolio>v, froward, lit., awry or
twisted (1 Peter 2:18); ejktenw~v, fervently, lit., on the stretch (1 Peter 1:22); ajpo>qesiv, putting off (2 Peter 1:14); e]xodov, decease (2 Peter 1:15); diauga>zein,
dawn (2 Peter 1:19); aujcmhro, dark or dry (2 Peter 1:19); ejpi>lusiv, interpretation, lit., untying (2 Peter 1:20); streblou~sin, wrest, as with a windlass (1 Peter 3:16),
and many others.

The same graphic character appears in what may be styled reminiscent words or phrases, in which the former personal experience of the writer is mirrored. Thus, gird
yourselves with humility (1 Peter 5:5 see note there) recalls the picture of the Lord girded with a towel and washing the disciple's feet. To look into (1 Peter 1:12)
expresses a stooping down to gaze intently, and carries us back to the visit of Peter and John to the sepulchre on the morning of the resurrection, when they stooped
down and looked into the tomb. In feed the flock (Rev., tend, 1 Peter 5:2) is reflected Christ's charge to Peter at the lake. The recurrence of the word
ajpproswpolh>mptwv, without respect of persons (1 Peter 1:17), used in a kindred form by Peter, Acts 10:34 would seem to indicate that the scene in the house of
Cornelius was present to his mind; and be watchful (1 Peter 5:8) may have been suggested by the remembrance of his own drowsiness in Gethsemane, and of Christ's
exhortation to watch. So, too, it is interesting to read the words buffeted (1 Peter 2:20), the tree (tolon, an unusual word, used by him, Acts 5:30; 10:39), and stripe or
weal (1 Peter 2:24), in the light of the gospel narratives of Christ's sufferings. Christ had called Simon a rock, and a little later a stumbling-block. Peter combines both
words into one phrase, a rock of offense (1 Peter 2:8). A very striking instance appears in the reference to the Transfiguration (2 Peter 1:17, 18), where he uses the
peculiar word e]xodov, decease; lit., going out, which occurs in Luke 9:31 and also in Hebrews 11:22. Compare, also, tabernacle, in 2 Peter 1:13, 14, with let us
make three tabernacles.

Both epistles are pervaded with an Old-Testament atmosphere. The testimony of Old-Testament prophecy, teaching, and history is emphasized (1 Peter 1:10-12; 3:5,
6, 20; 2 Peter 1:19-21; 2:1, 4-8, 15, 16; 3:2, 5, 6). Old-Testament quotations and references are brought into the text, though the introductory formulas, because it is
written, and wherefore it is contained in scripture, do not occur in the second epistle; and the interweaving, as of familiar expressions, is not so conspicuous there as in
the first epistles (see 1 Peter 1:16, 24, 25; 2:6, 7, 9, 10, 23, 24; 3:6, 10, 14; 4:8, 18; 5:5, 7; 2 Peter 1:19-21; 2:5, 6, 7, 15, 21; 3:5, 6, 8, 13). The church of Christ is
represented as the church of Israel perfected and spiritualized (1 Peter 2:4-10; the exhortation to holiness (1 Peter 1:15, 16) is given in the language of Leviticus 11:44;
Christ is described (1 Peter 2:6) in the terms of Isaiah 28:16 and Psalms 118:22; and the prophetic utterance of Isaiah concerning the servant of Jehovah (Isaiah 52:13-
53:12) reappears in 1 Peter 2:23, 24.

The epistles are evidently the work of a Jew. We find, as we might expect, the writer illustrating his positions from Jewish history and tradition, as in his references to
Noah, Sarah, Balaam, and his use of the word rJantismo, sprinkling (1 Peter 1:2), a peculiarly Levitical term. He shows how the spirit of Christ dwelt in the Old-
Testament prophets, and how Christians are a royal priesthood.

The resemblance, both in ideas and expressions, to passages in the epistles of Paul and James is marked, especially in the first epistle. It will be instructive to compare
the following:

James1 Peter

James 1:2, 3.1 Peter 1:6, 7.

James 1:10, 11.1 Peter 1:24.

James 1:18.1 Peter 1:23.

James 4:6, 10.1 Peter 5:5, 6.

James 5:20.1 Peter 4:8.

Paul1 Peter

Romans 12:2.1 Peter 1:14.

Romans 4:24.1
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Romans 12:1.1 Peter 2:5.
Paul1 Peter

Romans 12:2.1 Peter 1:14.

Romans 4:24.1 Peter 1:21.

Romans 12:1.1 Peter 2:5.

Romans 9:33.1 Peter 2:6-8.

Romans 9:25, 26.1 Peter 2:10.

Romans 13:1-4.1 Peter 2:13, 14.

Galatians 5:13.1 Peter 2:16.

Romans 6:18.1 Peter 2:24.

Romans 12:17.1 Peter 3:9.

Romans 12:6, 7.1 Peter 4:10, 11.

Romans 8:18.1 Peter 5:1.

Romans 2:7, 10.1 Peter 1:7.

Romans 8:17.1 Peter 4:13.

Romans 12:13.1 Peter 4:9.

Romans 13:13.1 Peter 4:3.

Romans 13:14.1 Peter 4:1.

1 Thessalonians 5:6.1 Peter 5:8.

1 Corinthians 16:20.1 Peter 5:14.

Nor are such resemblances wanting in the second epistle, though they are resemblances in tone, subject, and spirit, rather than verbal. It is in this epistle that Peter
designates Paul's writings as scripture (2 Peter 3:16). Compare

Paul2 Peter

Romans 1:28; 3:20.2 Peter 1:2.

1 Timothy 1:4; 4:7.2 Peter 1:16.

1 Timothy 6:5; Titus 1:11.2 Peter 2:3.

1 Corinthians 10:29; Galatians 5:13.2 Peter 2:19.

Romans 2:4; 9:22.2 Peter 3:15.

Galatians 2:4.2 Peter 2:1.

Into the much-vexed question of the authenticity of the second epistle we are not called upon to enter. The point of differences of style between the two epistles is a fair
one. There are such differences, and very decided ones, though perhaps they are no more and no greater than can be explained by diversity of subject and
circumstances, and the difference in the author's age. Some of the expressions peculiar to the second epistle are - granting things which pertain unto life and godliness (2
Peter 1:3); precious and exceeding great (2 Peter 1:4); adding all diligence, and supply virtue (2 Peter 1:5); an entrance richly supplied (2 Peter 1:11); receiving
forgetfulness (2 Peter 1:9); sects of perdition (2 Peter 2:1); cast down to Tartarus (2 Peter 2:4); the world compacted out of water and by means of water (2 Peter
3:5), etc.

But, while allowing for these differences, and recognizing the weakness of the external evidence for the authenticity of the epistle, the internal evidence of style and tone
seems to us to outweigh the differences, and to show that both epistles were from the same hand. There is the same picturesqueness of diction, and a similar fertility of
unusual words. Of the one hundred and twenty words which occur only in the writings of Peter, fifty-seven are peculiar to the second epistle; and, what is still more
noteworthy, only one of these words, ajpo>qesiv, putting off, is common to the two epistles - a fact which tells very strongly against the hypothesis of a forgery. That
hypothesis, it may be observed, is in the highest degree improbable. The Christian earnestness, the protest against deception, the tender and adoring reminiscence of
Christ, the emphasis upon the person and doctrine of the Lord Jesus which mark this epistle, imply a moral standard quite inconsistent with the perpetration of a
deliberate forgery.

Comparisons of expressions in this epistle with those used or inspired by Peter in the Acts of the Apostles exhibit a close correspondence; and a correspondence,
which, however, must not be too strongly pressed, appears on a comparison with certain passages in the gospels. Thus the verb dwre>omai, to give, occurs only in
Mark 15:45 and 2 Peter 1:3, 4 (see Introduction to Mark, on the relations between Mark and Peter); and the recurrence of the words exodus, or decease, and
tabernacle in the same connection (2 Peter 1:13-15, 17, 18) is very striking from the pen of one who, at the Transfiguration, heard the heavenly visitants conversing of
Christ's decease, and who proposed to build tabernacles for their abode. The repeated use of the word sthri>zw, stablish, and its derivatives (2 Peter 1:12; 3:17; 2:14;
3:16) is also suggestive, in view of the admonition of Jesus to Peter by the same word - strengthen thy brethren (Luke 22:32).

There  is the(c)
 Copyright    same retrospective
                 2005-2009,       character
                              Infobase      in both
                                        Media       epistles. In both the writer teaches that prophecy does not carry its own interpretation; in both hePage
                                                Corp.                                                                                                   alludes 250
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number saved from the flood; both have the same sentiments on the nature and right use of Christian liberty, and on the value of prophecy; in both ajreth>, virtue, is
attributed to God, a use of the word occurring nowhere else in the New Testament.
tabernacle in the same connection (2 Peter 1:13-15, 17, 18) is very striking from the pen of one who, at the Transfiguration, heard the heavenly visitants conversing of
Christ's decease, and who proposed to build tabernacles for their abode. The repeated use of the word sthri>zw, stablish, and its derivatives (2 Peter 1:12; 3:17; 2:14;
3:16) is also suggestive, in view of the admonition of Jesus to Peter by the same word - strengthen thy brethren (Luke 22:32).

There is the same retrospective character in both epistles. In both the writer teaches that prophecy does not carry its own interpretation; in both he alludes to the small
number saved from the flood; both have the same sentiments on the nature and right use of Christian liberty, and on the value of prophecy; in both ajreth>, virtue, is
attributed to God, a use of the word occurring nowhere else in the New Testament.

The style of both epistles is vigorous rather than elegant, strong, and sometimes rough, the work of a plain, practical man, and of an observer rather than a reasoner,
whose thoughts do not follow each other in logical sequence. The fervid spirit of the writer appears in his habit of massing epithets, and repeating his thoughts in nearly
the same words and forms (see, for instance, 1 Peter 1:4; 2:4, 11; 1:19; 2:9. Also, 1 Peter 1:7; 4:12; 1:13; 4:7; 5:8; 1:14; 2:11; 4:2; 2:15; 3:1; 16; 2:19; 3:14; 4:14. 2
Peter 1:4, 8, 17; 2:10, 11, 12-15; 3:15). Professor Ezra Abbot has brought out some remarkable correspondences between this epistle and the writings of Josephus,
and maintains that the author of the letter is largely dependent upon the Jewish historian (Expositor, 2nd series, iii., 49). The second epistle of Peter cannot be studied
apart from

THE EPISTLE OF JUDE

This brief letter is assigned to the Judas of Matthew 13:55 one of the brethren of Jesus, and of James, the author of the catholic epistle. It is a hotly debated question
whether Peter's second letter or Jude's epistle is the earlier, and, consequently, which writer drew upon the other. It is quite evident, either that the one used the other's
epistle or that both drew from a common source. A satisfactory decision is impossible in the present state of the evidence. The matter which is common to the two
epistles, besides various scattered resemblances, is principally in Jude 3-18; 2 Peter 1-5; 2:1-18 (see Ezra Abbot, Expositor, 2nd series, iii., 139).

Besides the resemblance to Second Peter, the epistle is marked by its apocryphal references, especially to the Book of Enoch (see notes on 9, 14). In style it is terse
and picturesque. "It is Greek as learned by a foreigner, and partly from books, and it is mixed up with Hebrew phrases." It contains at least fifteen words not found
elsewhere in the New Testament. Dean Alford says: "It is an impassioned invective, in which the writer heaps epithet on epithet, and image on image, and returns again
and again to the licentious apostates against whom he warns the church, as though all language were insufficient to give an adequate idea of their profligacy, and of his
own abhorrence of their perversion of the grace and doctrines of the Gospel."

THE FIRST GENERAL EPISTLE OF PETER

CHAPTER 1

1. Peter (Pe>trov). See on Matthew 16:18. As Paul in his letters does not call himself by his original name of Saul, so Peter calls himself, not Simon, but Peter, the
name most significant and precious both to himself and to his readers, because bestowed by his Lord. In the opening of the second epistle he uses both names.

An apostle. Of all the catholic epistles, Peter's alone puts forward his apostleship in the introduction. He is addressing churches with which he had no immediate
connection, and which were distinctively Pauline. Hence he appeals to his apostleship in explanation of his writing to them, and as his warrant for taking Paul's place.

To the strangers - elect (ver. 2, ejklektoi~v parepidh>moiv). The Rev., properly, joins the two words, elect who are sojourners, instead of continuing elect with
according to the foreknowledge, etc., as A.V.

Elect. Regarding all whom he addressed as subjects of saving grace. The term corresponds to the Old-Testament title of Jehovah's people: Isaiah 65:9, 15, 22; Psalms
105:43. Compare Matthew 20:16; 22:14; Romans 8:33.

Sojourners (parepidh>moiv). Persons sojourning for a brief season in a foreign country. Though applied primarily to Hebrews scattered throughout the world (Genesis
23:4; Psalms 39:12), it has here a wider, spiritual sense, contemplating Christians as having their citizenship in heaven. Compare Hebrews 11:13. The preposition
para>, in composition, implies a sense of transitoriness, as of one who passes by to something beyond.

Scattered (diaspora~v). Lit., of the dispersion; from diaspei>rw, to scatter or spread abroad; spei>rw meaning, originally, to sow. The term was a familiar one for the
whole body of Jews outside the Holy Land, scattered among the heathen.

2. According to (kata). In virtue of; in accordance with.

Foreknowledge (pro>gnwsin). Only here and Acts 2:23 in Peter's sermon at Pentecost. He is distinguishing there between foreknowledge and determinate counsel.

The Father. Implying that the relation contemplated by the divine foreknowledge is a new relation of sonship.

In sanctification (ejn aJgiasmw|~). Compare 2 Thessalonians 2:13. The spiritual state in which the being elected to salvation is realized. The word is peculiarly Pauline,
occurring eight times in Paul's epistles, and besides only here and Hebrews 12:14.

Unto obedience (eijv). Note the three prepositions: according to (kata>) the foreknowledge; in (ejn) sanctification; unto (eijv) obedience. The ground, sphere, and end
of spiritual sanctification.

Sprinkling (rJantismo). Here in a passive sense - the being sprinkled. Properly, the ritualistic act of sprinkling blood or water. See Numbers 19:19, 21. Compare
Hebrews 9:13; 12:24; Numbers 19:9, 13 where the water in which were the ashes of the red heifer is called u[dwr rJantismou~, water of sprinkling (Septuagint), which
the A.V. and Rev. Old Testament render water of separation. The word and its kindred verb occur only in Hebrews and Peter.

Jesus Christ. The foreknowledge of the Father, the sanctification of the Spirit, the obedience and sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ the Son. The Father
foreknowing, the Son atoning, the Spirit applying the Son's work in sanctifying. "The mystery of the Trinity and the economy of our salvation are intimated in this
verse" (Bengel).

Grace and peace (ca>riv eijrh>nh). Pauline terms. See Romans 1:7. The salutation is peculiar by the addition of be multiplied, which occurs 2 Peter 1:2; Jude 1:2 and
nowhere else in the salutations of the epistles. It is found, however, in the Septuagint, Daniel 4:1 (Sept. 3:31), and Daniel 6:25. Professor Salmond observes: "If the
Babylon from which Peter writes can be taken to be the literal Babylon (see on 1 Peter 5:13), it might be interesting to recall the epistles introduced by salutations so
similar to Peter's, which were written from the same capital by two kings, Nebuchadnezzar and Darius, of two great dynasties, and addressed to all their provinces."

3. Blessed (eujloghto). eu+, well, lo>gov, a word. Well-spoken-of; praised; honored. Used in the New Testament of God only. The kindred verb is applied to human
 Copyright
beings,  as to(c) 2005-2009,
               Mary          Infobase
                     (Luke 1:28):       Media
                                   "Blessed    Corp.
                                            (eujloghme>nh) art thou." Compare the different word for blessed in Matthew 5:3 etc. (maka>rioi), andPage   251
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                                                                                                                                                           there. The
style of this doxological phrase is Pauline. Compare 2 Corinthians 1:3; Ephesians 1:3.
similar to Peter's, which were written from the same capital by two kings, Nebuchadnezzar and Darius, of two great dynasties, and addressed to all their provinces."

3. Blessed (eujloghto). eu+, well, lo>gov, a word. Well-spoken-of; praised; honored. Used in the New Testament of God only. The kindred verb is applied to human
beings, as to Mary (Luke 1:28): "Blessed (eujloghme>nh) art thou." Compare the different word for blessed in Matthew 5:3 etc. (maka>rioi), and see notes there. The
style of this doxological phrase is Pauline. Compare 2 Corinthians 1:3; Ephesians 1:3.

Hath begotten us again (ajnagennh>sav hJma~v). The verb is used by Peter only, and by him only here and ver. 23. It is in the aorist tense, and should be rendered, as
Rev., begat; because regeneration is regarded as a definite historical act accomplished once for all, or possibly because Peter regards the historical act of Christ's
resurrection as virtually effecting the regeneration. The latter sentiment would be Pauline, since Paul is wont to speak of Christians as dying and rising with Christ.
Romans 7:4; 6:8-11.

Lively (zw~san). Better, as Rev., literally rendering the participle, living: a favorite word with Peter. See 1 Peter 1:23; 2:4, 5, 24; 4:5, 6; and compare Acts 9:41 where
Peter is the prominent actor; and 10:42, where he is the speaker.

Hope (ejlpi>da). Peter is fond of this word also (see 1 Peter 1:13, 21; 3:5, 15), which, in classical Greek, has the general signification of expectancy, relating to evil as
well as to good. Thus Plato speaks of living in evil hope ("Republic," i., 330); i.e., in the apprehension of evil; and Thucydides, of the hope of evils to come; i.e., the
expectation or apprehension. In the New Testament the word always relates to a future good.

4. An inheritance (klhronomi>an). A Pauline word, from klh~rov, a lot, and ne>momai, to distribute among themselves. Hence an inheritance is originally a portion
which one receives by lot in a general distribution. In the New Testament the idea of chance attaching to the lot is eliminated. It is the portion or heritage which one
receives by virtue of birth or by special gift. So of the vineyard seized by the wicked husbandmen: "Let us seize on his inheritance" (Matthew 21:38); of Abraham in
Canaan: "God gave him none inheritance" (Acts 7:5); "an eternal inheritance" (Hebrews 9:15).

Incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away. Note Peter's characteristic multiplication of epithets. Incorruptible (a]fqarton). From aj, not, and fqei>rw, to destroy
or corrupt. Undefiled (ajmi>anton). From aj, not, and miai>nw to defile, though the verb means especially to defile by staining, as with color; while molu>nw, also
translated defile (1 Corinthians 8:7), is to besmirch, as with mire. We might render unstained, though the word is not used with any conscious reference to its
etymology. That fadeth not away (ajma>ranton). Used by Peter only, and but once. From aj, not, and marai>nomai, to wither. The loveliness of the heavenly
inheritance is described as exempt from the blight which attaches to earthly bloom. As between a]fqarton, incorruptible, and ajma>ranton, unwithering, the former
emphasizes the indestructibility of substance, and the latter of grace and beauty. The latter adjective appears in the familiar botanical name amaranth. It will be observed
that all of these three epithets are compounded with the negative particle aj, not. Archbishop Trench aptly remarks that "it is a remarkable testimony to the reign of sin,
and therefore of imperfection, of decay, of death throughout this whole fallen world, that as often as we desire to set forth the glory, purity, and perfection of that other,
higher world toward which we strive, we are almost inevitably compelled to do this by the aid of negatives; by the denying to that higher order of things the leading
features and characteristics of this." Compare Revelation 21:1, 4, 22, 23, 27; 22:3, 5.

Reserved (tethrhme>nhn). Lit., which has been reserved, a perfect participle, indicating the inheritance as one reserved through God's care for his own from the
beginning down to the present. Laid up and kept is the idea. The verb signifies keeping as the result of guarding. Thus in John 17:11 Christ says, "keep (th>rson) those
whom thou hast given me;" in ver. 12, "I kept them" (ejth>roun); i.e., preserved by guarding them. "Those whom thou gavest me I guarded (ejfu>laxa)." So Rev., which
preserves the distinction. Similarly, John 14:15"keep (thrh>sate) my commandments;" preserve them unbroken by careful watching. So Peter was delivered to the
soldiers to guard him (fula>ssein), but he was kept (ejthrei~to) in prison (Acts 12:4, 51). Compare Colossians 1:5 where a different word is used: ajpokeime>nhn, lit.,
laid away.

For you (eijv). The use of this preposition, instead of the simpler dative, is graphic: with reference to you; with you as its direct object.

5. Kept (frouroume>nouv). A military term. Lit., garrisoned. Rev., guarded. Compare 2 Corinthians 11:32 and the beautiful metaphorical use of the word at Philippians
4:7"shall guard your hearts." The present participle indicates something in progress, a continuous process of protection. Hence, lit., who are being guarded. "The
inheritance is kept; the heirs are guarded" (Bengel).

By (ejn) the power; through (dia) faith; unto (eijv) salvation. By, indicating the efficient cause; through, the secondary agency; unto, the result.

Salvation. Note the frequent occurrence of this word, vv. 9, 10.

Ready (eJtoi>mhn). Stronger than about to be, or destined to be, implying a state of waiting or preparedness, and thus harmonizing with reserved.

6. Ye greatly rejoice (ajgallia~sqe). The word is always employed in the New Testament for great or lively joy. See Matthew 5:12; Luke 1:47; 10:21.

For a season (ojli>gon). More literally and correctly, as Rev., for a little while. Compare 1 Peter 5:10. The word is used nowhere else in the New Testament in this
sense.

In heaviness (luphqe>ntev). Lit., having been grieved. Rev., ye have been put to grief.

Through (ejn). But Rev., better, in; the preposition not being instrumental, but indicating the sphere or environment in which the grief operates.

Manifold (poiki>loiv). Literally the word means variegated. It is used to describe the skin of a leopard, the different-colored veinings of marble, or an embroidered
robe; and thence passes into the meaning of changeful, diversified, applied to the changing months or the variations of a strain of music. Peter employs it again, 1 Peter
4:10 of the grace of God, and James of temptations, as here (1 Peter1:2). Compare polupoi>kilov, manifold, in Ephesians 3:10 applied to the wisdom of God. The
word gives a vivid picture of the diversity of the trials, emphasizing this idea rather than that of their number, which is left to be inferred.

Temptations (peirasmoi~v). Better, trials, as in margin of Rev., since the word includes more than direct solicitation to evil. It embraces all that goes to furnish a test of
character. Compare James 1:2.

7. Trial (doki>mion). Only here and James 1:3. Rev., proof. The word means a test. As the means of proof, however, is not only the touchstone itself, but the trace of
the metal left upon it, the sense here is the result of the contact of faith with trial, and hence the verification of faith. The expression is equivalent to your approved faith.
Compare Romans 2:7, 10.

Than of gold. Omit the of, and read than gold. The comparison is between the approved faith and the gold; not between the faith and the proof of the gold.

Though it be tried (dokimazome>nou). Kindred with doki>mion, proof, and better rendered by Rev., proved. The verb is used in classical Greek of assaying or testing
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metals, and means, generally, to approve or sanction upon test. It is radically akin to de>cesqai, to receive, and hence implies a proof with a view Page      252 whether
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a thing be worthy to be received. Compare 1 Corinthians 3:13; Galatians 6:4; 1 John 4:1. It thus differs from peira>zein, to try or tempt (see on peirasmoi~v, ver. 6), in
that that verb indicates simply a putting to proof to discover what good or evil is in a person; and from the fact that such scrutiny so often develops the existence any
Than of gold. Omit the of, and read than gold. The comparison is between the approved faith and the gold; not between the faith and the proof of the gold.

Though it be tried (dokimazome>nou). Kindred with doki>mion, proof, and better rendered by Rev., proved. The verb is used in classical Greek of assaying or testing
metals, and means, generally, to approve or sanction upon test. It is radically akin to de>cesqai, to receive, and hence implies a proof with a view to determine whether
a thing be worthy to be received. Compare 1 Corinthians 3:13; Galatians 6:4; 1 John 4:1. It thus differs from peira>zein, to try or tempt (see on peirasmoi~v, ver. 6), in
that that verb indicates simply a putting to proof to discover what good or evil is in a person; and from the fact that such scrutiny so often develops the existence any
energy of evil, the word acquired a predominant sense of putting to the proof with the design or hope of breaking down the subject under the proof - in other words, of
temptation in the ordinary sense. Hence Satan is called oJ peira>zwn, the tempter, Matthew 4:3; 1 Thessalonians 3:5. See on Matthew 6:13. Archbishop Trench
observes that "dokima>zein could not be used of Satan, since he never proves that he may approve, nor tests that he may accept."

Might be found (euJreqh|~). In accord with the preceding expressions, and indicating discovery as the result of scrutiny.

Praise and glory and honor. Such is the order of the best texts, and so. Rev. Glory and honor often occur together in the New Testament, as Romans 2:7, 10; 1
Timothy 1:17. Only here with praise. Compare spirit of glory, 1 Peter 4:14.

8. Full of glory (dedoxasme>nh|). Lit., glorified, as Rev., in margin.

Receiving (komizo>menoi). The verb originally means to take care of or provide for; thence to receive hospitably or entertain; to bring home with a view to entertaining
or taking care of. Hence, to carry away so as to preserve, to save, rescue, and so to carry away as a prize or booty. Generally, to receive or acquire. Paul uses it of
receiving the awards of judgment (2 Corinthians 5:10; Ephesians 6:8; Colossians 3:25). In Hebrews it is used of receiving the promise (10:36; 11:39), and of Abraham
receiving back Isaac (11:19). Peter uses it thrice, and in each case of receiving the rewards of righteousness or of iniquity. See 1 Peter 5:4; 2 Peter 2:13.

10. Have inquired and searched diligently (ejxezh>thsan ejxhreu>nhsan). Rev., properly, renders the aorists sought and searched diligently. The ejx in composition has
the force of out, searched out, and is rendered by diligently.

Sought. Used of Esau's seeking carefully for a place of repentance, in Hebrews 12:17.

Searched. Used nowhere else in the New Testament. Compare Septuagint, 1 Samuel 23:23 of Saul's searching out David.

11. Did signify (ejdh>lou). Imperfect tense: better, was declaring, all along through the prophetic age, in successive prophets. See the same verb in 1 Corinthians 3:13;
2 Peter 1:14.

When it testified beforehand (promarturo>menon). Only here in New Testament.

Of Christ (eijv Cristo). Lit., unto Christ. So Rev., in margin. The sufferings destined for Christ, as in ver. 10 he speaks of the grace, eijv uJma~v, unto you; i.e., destined
to come unto you. Peter was especially concerned to show that the sufferings of Christ were in fulfilment of prophecy, because it was a subject of dispute with the Jews
whether the Christ was to suffer (Acts 3:18; 26:22, 23).

The glory (taxav). Rev., correctly, the glories. The plural is used to indicate the successive steps of his glorification; the glory of his resurrection and ascension, of the
last judgment, and of the kingdom of heaven.

12. Did minister (dihko>noun). Imperfect tense, were ministering. See on Mark 9:35. The term is applicable to any kind of service, official or not. Compare 2
Corinthians 3:3.

Desire (ejpiqumou~sin). The word commonly denotes intense desire. It is used by Christ in expressing his wish to eat the passover (Luke 22:15); of the prodigal's
desire to satisfy his hunger with the husks (Luke 15:16); and of the flesh lusting against the spirit (Galatians 5:17).

To look into (paraku>yai). A very graphic word, meaning to stoop sideways (para>). Used by Aristophanes to picture the attitude of a bad harp-player. Here it
portrays one stooping and stretching the neck to gaze on some wonderful sight. It occurs in James 1:25 describing him who looks into the perfect law of liberty as into a
mirror; and in Luke 24:12; John 20:5, 11 of Peter and John and Mary stooping and looking into the empty tomb. Possibly the memory of this incident unconsciously
suggested the word to Peter. The phrase illustrates Peter's habitual emphasis upon the testimony of sight (see Introduction). Bengel acutely notes the hint in para>,
beside, that the angels contemplate the work of salvation from without, as spectators and not as participants. Compare Hebrews 2:16; Ephesians 3:10.

13. Gird up (ajnazwsa>menoi). Lit., having girded up. Used here only. The metaphor is suggested by the girding up of the loose eastern robes preparatory to running or
other exertion. Perhaps recalling the words of Christ, Luke 12:35. Christ's call is a call to active service. There is a fitness in the figure as addressed to sojourners and
pilgrims (1 Peter 1:1; 2:11), who must be always ready to move.

Mind (dianoi>av). See on Mark 12:30.

Be sober (nh>fontev). Lit., being sober. Primarily, in a physical sense, as opposed to excess in drink, but passing into the general sense of self-control and equanimity.

Hope to the end (telei>wv ejlpi>sate). Better, as Rev., set your hope perfectly: wholly and unchangeably; without doubt or despondency.

That is to be brought (thnhn). Lit., which is being brought, as Rev., in margin. The object of hope is already on the way.

14. Obedient children (te>kna uJpakoh~v). Literally, and more correctly, as Rev., children of obedience. See on Mark 3:17. The Christian is represented as related to
the motive principle of his life as a child to a parent.

Fashioning yourselves (suschmatizo>menoi). See on Matthew 17:2; and compare Romans 12:2 the only other passage where the word occurs. As sch~ma is the
outward, changeable fashion, as contrasted with what is intrinsic, the word really carries a warning against conformity to something changeful, and therefore illusory.

15. As he which hath called you is holy (katasanta uJma~v a[gion). As of the A.V. is according to, or after the pattern of; and holy is to be taken as a personal name;
the which hath called being added for definition, and in order to strengthen the exhortation. Render, therefore, after the pattern of the Holy One who called you. So,
nearly, Rev., in margin. A similar construction occurs 2 Peter 2:1: the Lord that bought them.

Conversation (ajnastrofh|~). A favorite word with Peter; used eight times in the two epistles. From ajna>, up, and stre>fw, to turn. The process of development in the
meaning of the
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1.A turning upside down.
nearly, Rev., in margin. A similar construction occurs 2 Peter 2:1: the Lord that bought them.

Conversation (ajnastrofh|~). A favorite word with Peter; used eight times in the two epistles. From ajna>, up, and stre>fw, to turn. The process of development in the
meaning of the word is interesting.

1.A turning upside down.

2.A turning about or wheeling.

3.Turning about in a place, going back and forth there about one's business; and so,

4.one's mode of life or conduct.

This is precisely the idea in the word conversation (Lat., conversare, to turn around) which was used when the A.V. was made, as the common term for general
deportment or behavior, and was, therefore, a correct rendering of ajnastrofh>. So Latimer ("Sermons"): "We are not bound to follow the conversations or doings of
the saints." And Shakspeare, 2 Hen. IV., v., 5:

"But all are banished till their conversation

Appear more wise and modest to the world."

Our later limitation of the meaning to the interchange of talk makes it expedient to change the rendering, as Rev., to manner of living.

17. If ye call on the Father - judgeth. More correctly, Rev., If ye call on him as Father; the point being that God is to be invoked, not only as Father, but as Judge.

Without respect of persons (ajproswpolh>mptwv). Here only. Peter, however, uses proswpolh>mpthv, a respecter of persons, Acts 10:34 which whole passage
should be compared with this. Paul and James also use the kindred word swpolhmyi>a, respect of persons. See Romans 2:11; James 2:1. James has the verb
proswpolhmpte>w, to have respect of persons. The constituents of the compound word, pro>swpon, the countenance, and lamba>nw, to receive, are found in
Galatians 2:6; and the word is the Old-Testament formula to accept or to raise the face of another; opposed to making the countenance fall (Job 29:24; Genesis 4:5).
Hence, to receive kindly, or look favorably upon one (Genesis 19:21; 32:20 etc.). In the Old Testament it is, as Bishop Lightfoot observes, "a neutral expression
involving no subsidiary notion of partiality, and is much oftener found in a good than in a bad sense. When it becomes an independent Greek phrase, however, the bad
sense attaches to it, owing to the secondary meaning of pro>swpon, a mask; so that pro>swpon lamba>nein signifies to regard the external circumstances of a man, his
rank, wealth, etc., as opposed to his real, intrinsic character."

Sojourning (paroiki>av). Compare sojourners, ver. 1.

18. Ye were redeemed (ejlutrw>qhte). The verb occurs only in two other passages, Luke 24:21; Titus 2:14. It carries the idea of a ransom-price (lu>tron, from lu>w,
to loose).

With silver or gold (ajrguri>w| h} crusi>w|). Lit., with silver or gold money; the words meaning, respectively, a small coin of silver or of gold.

Conversation. Rev., manner of life. See on ver. 15.

Received by tradition from your fathers (patroparado>tou). A clumsy translation; improved by Rev., handed down from your fathers. The word is peculiar to Peter.

19. But with the precious blood of Christ. The word Cristou~, of Christ, stands at the end of the sentence, and is emphatic. Render, as Rev., with precious blood as of
a lamb, etc., even the blood of Christ.

Lamb. Peculiarly appropriate from Peter. See John 1:35-42. The reference is to a sacrificial lamb.

Without blemish (ajmw>mou). Representing the Old-Testament phrase for absence of physical defect (Exodus 12:5; Leviticus 22:20. Compare Hebrews 9:14).

Without spot (ajspi>lou). Compare 1 Timothy 6:14; James 1:27; 2 Peter 3:14. In each case in a moral sense.

20. Foreordained (proegnwsme>nou). Lit., and better, foreknown, as Rev.

Manifested (fanerwqe>ntov). Observe the difference in tense. Foreknown is the perfect participle, has been known from all eternity down to the present: "in reference
to the place held and continuing to be held by Christ in the divine mind" (Salmond). Manifested is the aorist participle, pointing to a definite act at a given time.

In these last times (ejp' ejsca>tou tw~n cro>nwn). Lit., as Rev., at the end of the times.

21. Which raised. Compare Romans 4:24.

That your faith and hope might be in God. Some render, that your faith should also be toward God.

22. Purified (hJgniko>tev). The Septuagint translation of the Old-Testament technical term for the purification of the people and priests (Joshua 3:5, 1 Chronicles
15:12; 1 Samuel 16:5). Also, of the separation from wine and strong drink by the Nazarite (Numbers 6:2-6. In this ceremonial sense, John 11:55; Acts 21:24, 26;
24:18. In the moral sense, as here, James 4:8; 1 John 3:3. Compare kaqari>sav, purifying, Acts 15:9.

Obeying (uJpakoh|~). Rev., obedience. A peculiarly New Testament term unknown in classical Greek. In the Septuagint only 2 Samuel 22:36; rendered in A.V.
gentleness. Rev., condescension, in margin.

Unfeigned (ajnupo>kriton). 'A, not, uJpokrith>v, actor. The latter word is from uJpokri>nesqai, to answer on the stage, and hence to play a part or to act. A hypocrite
is, therefore, an actor.

With a pure heart (ejk kaqara~v kardi>av). The best texts reject kaqara~v, pure. Render, therefore, as Rev., from the heart.

 Copyright(ejktenw~v).
Fervently   (c) 2005-2009,
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                                                                                                                                                   the narrative
probably came from him, and also at 1 Peter 4:8; "fervent charity." The words are compounded with the verb tei>nw, to stretch, and signify intense strain; feeling on the
rack.
is, therefore, an actor.

With a pure heart (ejk kaqara~v kardi>av). The best texts reject kaqara~v, pure. Render, therefore, as Rev., from the heart.

Fervently (ejktenw~v). Used by Peter only, and only in this passage. He uses the kindred adjective ejktenh>v, without ceasing, in Acts 12:5 where the narrative
probably came from him, and also at 1 Peter 4:8; "fervent charity." The words are compounded with the verb tei>nw, to stretch, and signify intense strain; feeling on the
rack.

23. Being born again (ajnagegennhme>noi). Rev., having been begotten again. Compare James 1:18.

Of (ejk) seed - by (dia>) the word. Note the difference in the prepositions; the former denoting the origin or source of life, the latter the medium through which it
imparts itself to the nature.

Word of God (lo>gou Qeou~). The gospel of Christ. Compare ver. 25, and Peter's words, Acts 10:36. Also, Ephesians 1:13; Colossians 1:5; James 1:18. Not the
personal Word, as the term is employed by John. Nevertheless, the connection and relation of the personal with the revealed word is distinctly recognized. "In the New
Testament we trace a gradual ascent from

(a)the concrete message as conveyed to man by personal agency through

(b)the Word, the revelation of God to man which the message embodies, forming, as it were, its life and soul, to

(c)the Word, who, being God, not only reveals but imparts himself to us, and is formed in us thereby" (Scott, on James 1:18"Speaker's Commentary").

Seed (spora~v). Nowhere else in the New Testament. Primarily, the sowing of seed.

24. Of man. Following the reading ajnqrw>pou, in the Septuagint, Isaiah 40:6 which Peter quotes here. But the best texts read aujth~v, of it, or, as Rev., thereof.

Withereth (ejxhra>nqh). Literally, the writer puts it as in a narrative of some quick and startling event, by the use of the aorist tense: withered was the grass. Similarly,
the flower fell (ejxe>pesen). Lit., fell off, the force of ejk.

25. Word of the Lord (rJh~ma kuri>ou). Compare ver. 23, and note that rJh~ma is used for word, instead of lo>gov; and Ku>riov, Lord, instead of Qeo>v, God,
which is the reading of the Hebrew, and of most copies of the Septuagint. The substitution indicates that Peter identifies Jesus with God. No very satisfactory reason
can be given for the change from lo>gov to rJh~ma. It may be due to the Greek translation, which Peter follows.

CHAPTER 2

1. All (pa~san - pa>nta). Lit., every, or all manner of.

Evil-speaking (katalalia>v). Lit., speakings against. A rare word. Only here and 2 Corinthians 12:20.

2. New-born (ajrtige>nnhta). Peculiar to Peter, and only in this passage. Lit., born but just now (a]rti).

Babes (bre>fh). The word signifying peculiarly a child at birth, or of tender years. See Luke 18:15; Acts 7:19. Of the infant Jesus, Luke 2:12, 16. Here marking the
recency of Christian life in the converts addressed.

Desire (ejpipoqh>sate). The compound is intensive; earnestly desire. So Rev., long for. Compare Philippians 2:26.

The sincere milk of the word (tola). The A.V. has rendered logiko, of the word; but wrongly. It describes the quality of the milk as spiritual or rational, as opposed to
liberal and ceremonial. In the only other place where it occurs (Romans 12:1) it is rendered reasonable; which Rev. gives here in margin.

Sincere (a]dolon) is another epithet of the milk. Lit., without guile, unadulterated. Compare guile in ver. 1. Laying aside guile, desire the guileless milk, etc. Hence Rev.,
renders the whole passage, Long for the spiritual milk which is without guile.

That ye may grow thereby. The best texts add, unto salvation.

3. Ye have tasted (ejgeu>sasqe). Aorist tense. More literally, ye tasted. "A taste excites the appetite" (Bengel). Compare long for, ver. 2, and Psalms 34:8.

Gracious (crhsto). Actively benignant, "as distinguished from other adjectives which describe goodness on the side of its sterling worth and its gentleness" (Salmond).
See on Matthew 11:30.

4. Coming (proserco>menoi). Indicating a close (pro>v) and an habitual (present participle) approach and an intimate association.

A living stone (li>qon zw~nta). Omit as unto. So Rev. The words are in apposition with whom (Christ). Compare Peter's use of the same word, stone, in Acts 4:11
and Matthew 21:42. It is not the word which Christ uses as a personal name for Peter (Pe>trov); so that it is not necessary to infer that Peter was thinking of his own
new name.

Disallowed (ajpodedokimasme>non). Rev., rejected. See on the simple verb, 1 Peter 1:7. The word indicates rejection after trial.

Of God (para). Of in the A.V. is equivalent to by; but para> has a stronger sense, implying the absolute power of decisive choice which is with God. Render, as Rev.,
with God; i.e., God being judge; and compare Matthew 19:26; Romans 2:11.

Precious (e]ntimon). At 1 Peter 1:19 (precious blood) another word is used (ti>miov), denoting essential preciousness. The word here indicates the preciousness as
recognized or held in honor.

5. Living stones - built up - a spiritual house. It seems as though Peter must have had in mind the conception embodied in Christ's commission to him, of a building
erected upon a rock. The metaphor of a house built of living stones is violent, and sufficiently characteristic of Peter; yet it pictures, in a very striking way, the union of
stability, growth, and activity in the ideal church. Note the transition from babes growing (ver. 2) to stones built up. But, as Salmond remarks, "In Paul we have even
bolder  instances
 Copyright        of apparentInfobase
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                                           of metaphors,
                                                  Corp. as when, in one breath, he represents believers as at once walking, rooted, and built up in Christ  Page(Colossians
                                                                                                                                                                    255 / 5672:6,
7).

To offer up (ajnene>gkai). The usual Old-Testament (Septuagint) term for offering of sacrifice. Lit., to bring up to the altar. Compare Hebrews 13:15. The force of
5. Living stones - built up - a spiritual house. It seems as though Peter must have had in mind the conception embodied in Christ's commission to him, of a building
erected upon a rock. The metaphor of a house built of living stones is violent, and sufficiently characteristic of Peter; yet it pictures, in a very striking way, the union of
stability, growth, and activity in the ideal church. Note the transition from babes growing (ver. 2) to stones built up. But, as Salmond remarks, "In Paul we have even
bolder instances of apparent confusion of metaphors, as when, in one breath, he represents believers as at once walking, rooted, and built up in Christ (Colossians 2:6,
7).

To offer up (ajnene>gkai). The usual Old-Testament (Septuagint) term for offering of sacrifice. Lit., to bring up to the altar. Compare Hebrews 13:15. The force of
ajna>, up, appears in the fact of the altar being raised. The word is often used of carrying from a lower to a higher place. Thus Matthew 17:1; Luke 24:51. In this sense
ver. 24 of this chapter is suggestive, where it is said that Christ bare (ajnh>negken) our sins: carried them up to the cross. See note there.

6. It is contained (perie>cei). From peri>, round about, and e]cw, to hold. Hence, to contain or comprehend. So Luke 5:9he was astonished (qa>mbov aujtoscev); lit.,
astonishment held him encompassed. Also, Acts 23:25"He wrote a letter after this manner (perie>cousan topon tou~ton); lit., containing this form. The verb here is
impersonal. The kindred word perioch> occurs only in Acts 8:32 rendered place; i.e., the passage of scripture: either the contents of the passage or the section of the
book circumscribed or marked off.

In the scripture (ejn grafh~|). The best texts reject the article. Grafh> means a passage of scripture. See on Mark 12:10. Hence Rev., in scripture; margin, in a
scripture.

Behold I lay, etc. See Romans 9:33.

Precious. See on ver. 4.

7. He is precious (hj timh). Wrong. Render, as Rev., For you therefore which believe is the preciousness (honor, in margin).

Is made the head of the corner (ejgenh>qh eijv kefalhav). Rev., correctly, "was made." The preposition eijv, unto, carrying the idea of coming unto the place of honor,
is not rendered in A.V. or Rev. Lit., it would be, was made or became unto the head, etc.

9. Generation (ge>nov). Better, Rev., race: a body with a common life and descent.

Nation (e]qnov). People (lao). The distinction between these three words cannot be closely pressed. Race emphasizes the idea of descent; nation, of community. Lao,
people, occurring very often in the Septuagint, is used there mostly of the Israelites, the chosen people. The same use is also frequent in the New Testament; but it is
employed in a more general sense, as by Luke 2:10. It would seem that this idea, however, in its metaphorical and Christian application, the chosen Israel of God,
directed Peter's choice of the word, since he adds, a people for God's own possession.

Peculiar (eijv peripoi>hsin). Lit., a people for acquisition. Rev., a people for God's own possession. Wyc., a people of purchasing. Cranmer, a people which are won.
The word occurs 1 Thessalonians 5:9 rendered obtaining (Rev.); Ephesians 1:14God's own possession (Rev.). See Isaiah 43:21 (Sept.), where the kindred verb
occurs: "This people have I formed for myself (periepoihsa>mhn).

Shew forth (ejxaggei>lhte). Only here in New Testament. Proclaim, tell abroad.

The praises (ta). Lit., the virtues. So Rev., excellencies. The word occurs Isaiah 43:21 (Sept., see above), and is rendered praise. See, also, Isaiah 43:12 (Sept.),
"Declare his praise (ajreta) in the islands."

10. People (lao). See on ver. 9, and note the choice of the term here. A people of God. Compare Romans 9:25, 26.

11. Beloved (ajgaphtoi>). A favorite term with Peter, occurring eight times in the epistles. See the phrase, our beloved Barnabas and Paul, Acts 15:25 in the letter sent
by the council at Jerusalem to the Gentile Christians, the account of which, doubtless, came from Peter. Compare our beloved brother Paul, 2 Peter 3:15.

Strangers (paroi>kouv). Rev., sojourners. Compare 1 Peter 1:17, "the time of your sojourning (paroiki>av)."

Which (ai[tinev). The compound pronoun denotes a class, of that kind which, classifying all fleshly desires in one category.

12. Conversation. Rev., behavior. See on 1 Peter 1:15.

Whereas (ejn w|=). Rev., correctly, wherein; in the matter in which.

They speak against (katalalou~sin). Compare evil-speakings, ver. 1, and Acts 28:22.

Which they shall behold (ejpopteu>ontev). Rev., beholding. Used by Peter only, here and 1 Peter 3:2. The kindred noun ejpo>pthv, an eye-witness, occurs only at 2
Peter 1:16. It is a technical word, meaning one who was admitted to the highest degree of initiation in the Elensinian mysteries. Here it conveys the idea of personal
witness; behold with their own eyes.

Evil-doers (kakopoiw~n). The word occurs four times in Peter, and nowhere else in the New Testament except John 18:30 where it is applied by the priests to Christ
himself.

Visitation (ejpiskoph~v). The radical idea of the word is that of observing or inspecting. Hence ejpi>skopov, an overseer or bishop. Visiting grows naturally out of this,
as visitare from visere, to look at attentively. See Introduction, on Peter's emphasis upon sight; and compare behold, in this verse. The "day of visitation" is the day of
looking upon: "When God shall look upon these wanderers, as a pastor over his flock, and shall become the overlooker or bishop of their souls" (ver. 25, Lumby).

13. Submit yourselves (uJpota>ghte). Rev., be subject. See Romans 13:1 sq.

Ordinance of man (ajnqrwpi>nh| kti>sei). Lit., to every human creation or institution. Rev., creation, in margin.

King. The emperor, styled king by Greek writers.

14. Sent (pempome>noiv). The present participle. In the habit of being sent: sent from time to time.
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By him. The king; not the Lord.

Punishment (ejkdi>khsin). Not strong enough. Better, vengeance, as Rev. Compare Luke 18:7; Romans 12:19.
King. The emperor, styled king by Greek writers.

14. Sent (pempome>noiv). The present participle. In the habit of being sent: sent from time to time.

By him. The king; not the Lord.

Punishment (ejkdi>khsin). Not strong enough. Better, vengeance, as Rev. Compare Luke 18:7; Romans 12:19.

Them that do well (ajgaqopoiw~n). Only here in New Testament.

15. Put to silence (fimou~n). A very graphic word, meaning to muzzle or gag. Compare 1 Corinthians 9:9; 1 Timothy 5:18. See on Matthew 22:12.

Ignorance (ajgnwsi>an). In classical Greek it is an ignorance arising from not coming into contact with the person or thing to be known. It occurs only once again in the
New Testament, 1 Corinthians 15:34. Here is signifies not want of acquaintance, but of understanding; a state of ignorance.

Of foolish men (tw~n ajfro>nwn ajnqrw>pwn). Of the foolish men; the article referring to those just mentioned, who speak against them as evil-doers.

16. Using (e]contev). Lit., having or holding.

Cloke (ejpika>lumma). Only here in New Testament. Lit., a veil. The idea is that of using Christian freedom as a mask for ungodly license. Paul uses the kindred verb
(Romans 4:7) of the covering of sins. On the sentiment, compare Galatians 5:13.

18. Servants (oijke>tai). Household servants. So Rev., in margin. Not a common term in the New Testament, occurring only in three other passages: Luke 16:13; Acts
10:7; Romans 14:4. Some suppose that Peter intended to cover by it freedmen and other dependents in the household, or that he uses it with a conciliatory purpose, as
presenting the slave in closer relation with the family.

Gentle (ejpieike>sin). A common derivation of this word is from ei]kw, to yield. Hence the meaning, mild, yielding, indulgent. But the true derivation if from eijko>v,
reasonable; and the word implies rather the not being unduly rigorous: "Wherein not strictness of legal right, but consideration for one another, is the rule of
practice" (Alford). Compare Philippians 4:5 where, for moderation (to, Rev. gives forbearance, with gentleness in margin. According to Aristotle, the word stands in
contrast with ajkribodi>kaiov, one who is exactingly just, as one who is satisfied with less than his due.

Froward (skolioi~v). Lit., crooked. See Luke 3:5. Peter uses the word in Acts 2:40 (untoward); and Paul, in Philippians 2:15 (crooked). The word froward is Anglo-
Saxon fream-ward or from-ward, the opposite of to-ward. (See untoward, above.) Thus Ben Jonson:

"Those that are froward to an appetite;"

i.e., averse. Compare the phrases to-God-ward (2 Corinthians 3:4); to-us-ward.

19. Conscience toward God (sunei>dhsin Qeou~). Rev., in margin, conscious of God. The idea is not conscientiousness in the ordinary sense, but the conscious sense
of one's relation to God; his consciousness of God. Thus one suffers patiently, not from a conscientious sense of dury, but from an inner consciousness of his relation to
God as a son, and to Christ as a joint-heir, which involves his suffering with him no less than his being glorified with him.

20. What glory (poi~on kle>ov). Lit., what kind of glory. This word for glory occurs nowhere else in the New Testament.

Buffeted (kolafizo>menoi). See Matthew 26:67: struck with the fist. This whole passage, vv. 19-24, bears the mark of Peter's memories of the scene of Christ's last
sufferings (see Introduction) - the blows of the servants, the scorn of the highpriest, the silent submission of Jesus, the cross, the stripes.

21. Leaving (uJpolimpa>nwn). Only here in the New Testament.

An example (uJpogrammo). Only here in the New Testament. A graphic word, meaning a copy set by writing-masters for their pupils. Some explain it as a copy of
characters over which the student is to trace the lines.

Follow (ejpakolouqh>shte). Lit., follow upon. The compound verb implies close following. From writers and painters, the metaphor changes now to a guide.

22. Found (euJre>qh). Stronger than the simple was, and indicating a guilelessness which had stood the test of scrutiny. Compare Matthew 26:60; John 18:38; 19:4, 6.
Christ's sinlessness had also stood the test of Peter's intimacy.

23. Reviled - again (ajnteloido>rei). Only here in the New Testament.

Committed himself (paredi>dou). But his gives a reflexive force to the verb which has no parallel. Commentators are divided, some supplying his cause, as Rev., in
margin; others, his judgment; other, his revilers. Better, the subject of the contest - his insults and injuries. Salmond renders, but left it to him, etc.

Judgeth righteously. Compare without respect of persons, 1 Peter 1:17.

24. Bare (ajnh>negken). See on ver. 5. Bare up to the cross, as to an altar, and offered himself thereon.

The tree (xu>lon). Lit., wood. Peter uses the same peculiar term for the cross, Acts 5:30; 10:39.

Being dead (ajpogeno>menoi). Rev., more strictly, having died. Used here only in the New Testament. The rendering of the verb can be given only in a clumsy way,
having become off unto sins; not becoming separate from sins, but having ceased to exist as regards them. Compare Romans 6:18.

Stripes (mw>lwpi). Lit., bruise. So Rev., in margin. Only here in New Testament; meaning a bloody wale which arises under a blow. "Such a sight we feel sure, as we
read this descriptive passage, St. Peter's eyes beheld on the body of his Master, and the flesh so dreadfully mangled made the disfigured form appear in his eyes like
one single bruise" (Lumby).

25. For ye were as sheep going astray (h=te gabata planw>menoi); i.e., as commonly understood, ye were like straying sheep. But the ye were should be construed
with the participle going astray, the verb and the participle together denoting habitual action or condition. Render, as Rev., ye were going astray like sheep. See on
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Bishop. See on ver. 12.
one single bruise" (Lumby).

25. For ye were as sheep going astray (h=te gabata planw>menoi); i.e., as commonly understood, ye were like straying sheep. But the ye were should be construed
with the participle going astray, the verb and the participle together denoting habitual action or condition. Render, as Rev., ye were going astray like sheep. See on
Mark 12:24.

Bishop. See on ver. 12.

CHAPTER 3

1. Likewise (oJmoi>wv). Rev., in like manner; better, because likewise in popular speech has, wrongly, the sense of also. Peter means in like manner with servants 1
Peter 2:18).

Be in subjection (uJpotasso>menai). Lit., being in subjection, or submitting yourselves; the same word which is used of the submission of servants 1 Peter 2:18).

Be won (kerdhqh>sontai). Rev., be gained. The word used by Christ, Matthew 18:15: "gained thy brother."

2. While they behold (ejpopteu>santev). See on 1 Peter 2:12.

Conversation. See on 1 Peter 1:15. Rev., behavior.

Coupled with fear (ejn fo>bw|). Lit., in fear.

3. Of plaiting (ejmplokh~v). Only here in New Testament. Compare 1 Timothy 2:9. The Roman women of the day were addicted to ridiculous extravagance in the
adornment of the hair. Juvenal ("Satire," vi.) satirizes these customs. He says: "The attendants will vote on the dressing of the hair as if a question of reputation or of life
were at stake, so great is the trouble she takes in quest of beauty; with so many tiers does she load, with so many continuous stories does she build up on high her
head. She is tall as Andromache in front, behind she is shorter. You would think her another person." The hair was dyed, and secured with costly pins and with nets of
gold thread. False hair and blond wigs were worn.

Putting on (ejndu>sewv). Only here in New Testament. Female extravagance in dress in the days of the empire reached an alarming pitch.

4. Meek (prae>ov). See on Matthew 5:5.

Of great price (polutele>v). The word used to describe costly raiment, 1 Timothy 2:9.

5. Adorned (ejko>smoun). Imperfect tense. Were accustomed to adorn.

6. Amazement (pto>hsin). Rev., terror. Compare the kindred verb ptohqh~te, be terrified, Luke 21:9; 24:37; on which, see note. The word means a scare, or nervous
excitement.

7. According to knowledge. With an intelligent recognition of the nature of the marriage relation.

The woman (tw|~ gunaikei>w|). Not a noun, however, as would appear from the ordinary rendering, but an adjective, agreeing with skeu>ei, vessel, as does also
ajsqeneste>rw|, weaker. Both are attributes of vessel; the female vessel as weaker. So Rev., in margin.

Vessel (skeu>ei). Compare 1 Thessalonians 4:4. The primary idea of vessel, which is formed from the Latin vasellum, the diminutive of vas, a vase, is that of the
receptacle which covers and contains; the case or protecting cover. Hence it is allied, etymologically, with vest, vestment, and wear. It is used in the New Testament

(1)in the sense of a cup or dish (Luke 8:16; John 19:29; 2 Timothy 2:20; Revelation 2:27; 18:12).

(2)Of the man, as containing the divine energy, or as a subject of divine mercy or wrath, and hence becoming a divine instrument. Thus Paul is a chosen vessel to bear
God's name (Acts 9:15). Vessels of wrath (Romans 9:22); of mercy (Romans 9:23). So of the woman, as God's instrument, along with man, for his service in the family
and in society.

(3)Collectively, in the plural, of all the implements of any particular economy, as a house, or a ship. Matthew 12:29goods; Acts 27:17 the tackling or gear of a ship.

Giving (ajpone>montev). Only here in New Testament. The word means, literally, to portion out, and is appropriate to the husband as controlling what is to be meted
out to the wife.

Hindered (ejgko>ptesqai). So A.V. and Rev., and the best texts, and the majority of commentators. The word means, literally, to knock in; make an incision into; and
hence, generally, to hinder or thwart (Galatians 5:7; 1 Thessalonians 2:18). Some, however, read ejkko>ptesqai, to cut off or destroy.

8. Of one mind (oJmo>fronev). Rev., like-minded. Only here in New Testament. Compare Romans 12:16; 15:5; Philippians 2:2 etc. Indicating unity of thought and
feeling. From oJmo>v, one and the same, and frh>n, the mind.

Having compassion one of another (sumpaqei~v). Only here in New Testament, though the kindred verb is found Hebrews 4:15; 10:34. The rendering is needlessly
diffuse. Rev., much better, compassionate; sympathetic, in margin. Interchange of fellow-feeling in joy or sorrow. Our popular usage errs in limiting sympathy to
sorrow.

Love as brethren (fila>delfoi). Rev., more strictly, loving as brethren. Only here in New Testament.

Pitiful (eu]splagcnoi). Only here and Ephesians 4:32. Rev., better, tender-hearted. From eu+, well, and spla>gcna, the nobler entrails, which are regarded as the seat of
the affections, and hence equivalent to our popular use of heart. The original sense has given rise to the unfortunate translation bowels in the A.V., which occurs in its
literal meaning only at Acts 1:18.

Courteous. The A.V. has here followed the reading of the Tex. Rec., filo>fronev. But the best texts read tapeino>fronev, humble-minded. So Rev. This occurs
nowhere else in the New Testament, though the kindred noun tapeinofrosu>nh, humility, is found often. See on tapeino>v, lowly, notes on Matthew 11:29.
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9. Rendering evil, etc. See Romans 12:17.

Blessing (eujlogou~ntev). Not a noun governed by rendering, but a participle. Be not rendering evil, but be blessing.
literal meaning only at Acts 1:18.

Courteous. The A.V. has here followed the reading of the Tex. Rec., filo>fronev. But the best texts read tapeino>fronev, humble-minded. So Rev. This occurs
nowhere else in the New Testament, though the kindred noun tapeinofrosu>nh, humility, is found often. See on tapeino>v, lowly, notes on Matthew 11:29.

9. Rendering evil, etc. See Romans 12:17.

Blessing (eujlogou~ntev). Not a noun governed by rendering, but a participle. Be not rendering evil, but be blessing.

10. Will love (qe>lwn ajgapa~n). Not the future tense of love, but the verb to will, with the infinitive: he that desires or means to love. Rev., would love.

11. Eschew (ejkklina>tw). The old word eschew is from the Norman eschever, to shun or avoid. It reappears in the German scheuen, to be startled or afraid, and in
the English shy, and to shy (as a horse). The Greek word here occurs only twice elsewhere (Romans 3:12; 16:17), where Rev. renders turn aside and turn away. It is
compounded of ejk, out of, and kli>nw, to cause to bend or slope; so that the picture in the word is of one bending aside from his course at the approach of evil. Rev.,
turn away from.

13. Followers (mimhtai). Lit., imitators. But the best texts read zhlwtai, zealots. So Rev., zealous.

14. Blessed. See on Matthew 5:3.

Be troubled (taracqh~te). The word used of Herod's trouble (Matthew 2:3); of the agitation of the pool of Bethesda (John 5:4); of Christ's troubled spirit (John 12:27).

15. Sanctify the Lord God. The A.V. follows the Tex. Rec., reading to, God, instead of to, Christ, which is the reading of the best texts. The article with Christ shows
that ku>rion, Lord, is to be taken predicatively. Render, therefore, as Rev., sanctify Christ (the Christ) as Lord.

Ready to give an answer (e[toimoi proan). Lit., ready for an answer. Answer is our word apology, not in the popular sense of excuse, but in the more radical sense of
defence. So it is translated Acts 22:1; Philippians 1:7, 16. Clearing of yourselves, 2 Corinthians 7:11.

Meekness. See on Matthew 5:5.

16. Having a good conscience (sunei>dhsin e]contev ajgaqh>n). The position of the adjective shows that it is used predicatively: having a conscience good or
unimpaired. Compare Hebrews 13:18"We have a good conscience (kalhdhsin)." Sunei>dhsiv, conscience, does not occur in the gospels, unless John 8:1-11 be
admitted into the text. Nor is it a word familiar to classical Greek. It is compounded of su>n, together with, and eijde>nai, to know; and its fundamental idea is knowing
together with one's self. Hence it denotes the consciousness which one has within himself of his own conduct as related to moral obligation; which consciousness
exercises a judicial function, determining what is right or wrong, approving or condemning, urging to performance or abstinence. Hence it is not merely intellectual
consciousness directed at conduct, but moral consciousness contemplating duty, testifying to moral obligation, even where God is not known; and, where there is
knowledge of God and acquaintance with him, inspired and directed by that fact. A man cannot be conscious of himself without knowing himself as a moral creature.
Cremer accordingly defines the word as "the consciousness man has of himself in his relation to God, manifesting itself in the form of a self-testimony, the result of the
action of the spirit in the heart." And further, "conscience is, essentially, determining of the self-consciousness by the spirit as the essential principle of life. In conscience
man stands face to face with himself." Conscience is, therefore, a law. Thus Bishop Butler: "Conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in,
but it likewise carries its own authority with it, that it is our natural guide, the guide assigned us by the Author of our nature; it therefore belongs to our condition of
being; it is our duty to walk in that path and follow this guide." And again, "That principle by which we survey, and either approve or disapprove our own heart, temper,
and actions, is not only to be considered as what it, in its turn, to have some influence, which may be said of every passion, of the lowest appetites; but likewise as
being superior; as from its very nature claiming superiority over all others; insomuch that you cannot form a notion of this faculty, conscience, without taking in judgment,
direction, superintendency. This is a constituent part of the idea, that is, of the faculty itself; and to preside and govern, from the very economy and constitution of man,
belongs to it. Had it strength as it had right; had it power as it had manifest authority, it would absolutely govern the world" (Sermons II. and III., "On Human Nature").

Conscience is a faculty. The mind may "possess reason and distinguish between the true and the false, and yet be incapable of distinguishing between virtue and vice.
We are entitled, therefore, to hold that the drawing of moral distinctions is not comprehended in the simple exercise of the reason. The conscience, in short, is a
different faculty of the mind from the mere understanding. We must hold it to be simple and unresolvable till we fall in with a successful decomposition of it into its
elements. In the absence of any such decomposition we hold that there are no simpler elements in the human mind which will yield us the ideas of the morally good and
evil, of moral obligation and guilt, of merit and demerit. Compound and decompound all other ideas as you please, associate them together as you may, they will never
give us the ideas referred to, so peculiar and full of meaning, without a faculty implanted in the mind for this very purpose" (McCosh, "Divine Government, Physical and
Moral").

Conscience is a sentiment: i.e., it contains and implies conscious emotions which arise on the discernment of an object as good or bad. The judgment formed by
conscience awakens sensibility. When the judicial faculty pronounces a thing to be lovable, it awakens love. When it pronounces it to be noble or honorable, it awakens
respect and admiration. When it pronounces it to be cruel or vile, it awakens disgust and abhorrence.

In scripture we are to view conscience, as Bishop Ellicott remarks, not in its abstract nature, but in its practical manifestations. Hence it may be weak (1 Corinthians
8:7, 12), unauthoritative, and awakening only the feeblest emotion. It may be evil or defiled (Hebrews 10:22; Titus 1:15), through consciousness of evil practice. It may
be seared (1 Timothy 4:2), branded by its own testimony to evil practice, hardened and insensible to the appeal of good. On the other hand, it may be pure (2 Timothy
1:3), unveiled, and giving honest and clear moral testimony. It may be void of offense (Acts 24:16), unconscious of evil intent or act; good, as here, or honorable
(Hebrews 13:18). The expression and the idea, in the full Christian sense, are foreign to the Old Testament, where the testimony to the character of moral action and
character is born by external revelation rather than by the inward moral consciousness.

Falsely accuse (ejphrea>zontev). Compare Luke 6:28; the only other passage where the word occurs, Matthew 5:44 being rejected from the best texts. The word
means to threaten abusively; to act despitefully. Rev., revile.

17. If the will of God be so (eij qe>loi tolhma tou~ Qeou~). More literally, as Rev., preserving the play upon the word will, if the will of God should so will.

18. The just for the unjust. But the Greek without the article is more graphic: just for unjust.

In the flesh. The Greek omits the article. Read in flesh, the material form assumed in his incarnation.

In the spirit. Also without the article, in spirit; not as A.V., by the Spirit, meaning the Holy Ghost, but referring to his spiritual, incorporeal life. The words connect
themselves with the death-cry on the cross: "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit." Huther observes, "Flesh is that side of the man's being by which he belongs to
earth, is therefore
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              (c) 2005-2009,   of earth, and  accordingly
                                          Media    Corp. perishable like everything earthy. Spirit, on the other hand, is that side of his being accordingPageto which he belongs
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to a supernal sphere of being, and is therefore not merely a creature of earth, and is destined to an immortal existence."

Thus we must be careful and not understand spirit here of the Spirit of God, as distinguished from the flesh of Christ, but of the spiritual nature of Christ; "the higher
In the flesh. The Greek omits the article. Read in flesh, the material form assumed in his incarnation.

In the spirit. Also without the article, in spirit; not as A.V., by the Spirit, meaning the Holy Ghost, but referring to his spiritual, incorporeal life. The words connect
themselves with the death-cry on the cross: "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit." Huther observes, "Flesh is that side of the man's being by which he belongs to
earth, is therefore a creature of earth, and accordingly perishable like everything earthy. Spirit, on the other hand, is that side of his being according to which he belongs
to a supernal sphere of being, and is therefore not merely a creature of earth, and is destined to an immortal existence."

Thus we must be careful and not understand spirit here of the Spirit of God, as distinguished from the flesh of Christ, but of the spiritual nature of Christ; "the higher
spiritual nature which belonged to the integrity of his humanity" (Cook).

19. By which (ejn w|=). Wrong. Rev., correctly, in which: in the spiritual form of life; in the disembodied spirit.

Went and preached (poreuqeiruxen). The word went, employed as usual of a personal act; and preached, in its ordinary New-Testament sense of proclaiming the
Gospel.

To the spirits (pneu>masin). As in Hebrews 12:23 of disembodied spirits, though the word yucai, souls, is used elsewhere (Revelation 6:9; 20:4).

In prison (ejn fulakh|~). Authorities differ, some explaining by 2 Peter 2:4; Jude 1:6; Revelation 20:7 as the final abode of the lost. Excepting in the last passage, the
word occurs nowhere else in the New Testament in a metaphorical sense. It is often translated watch (Matthew 14:25; Luke 2:8); hold and cage (Revelation 18:2).
Other explain as Hades, the kingdom of the dead generally.

20. In which (eijv h{n). Lit., into which. A pregnant construction; into which they were gathered, and in which they were saved.

By water (dia). Rev., through. Some take this as instrumental, by means of water; other as local, by passing through the water, or being brought safely through the
water into the ark. Rev., in margin, were brought safely through water.

21. The like figure whereunto. Following a rejected reading, w|+, to which; so that the literal rendering would be the antitype to which. Read o{ ajnti>tupon, which, the
antitype or as an antitype; i.e., which water, being the antitype of that water of the flood, doth now save you, even baptism. Rev., which, after a true likeness doth now,
etc. 'Anti>tupon, figure, or antitype, is from ajnti>, over against, and tu>pov, a blow. Hence, originally, repelling a blow: a blow against a blow; a counterblow. So of
an echo or of the reflection of light; then a correspondence, as of a stamp to the die, as here. The word occurs only once elsewhere, Hebrews 9:24: "the figures of the
true."

Putting away (ajpo>qesiv). Peculiar to Peter. Here and 2 Peter 1:14.

Filth (rJu>pou). Only here in New Testament. In classical Greek signifying especially dry dirt, as on the person.

Answer (ejperw>thma). Only here in New Testament. In classical Greek the word means a question and nothing else. The meaning here is much disputed, and can
hardly be settled satisfactorily. The rendering answer has no warrant. The meaning seems to be (as Alford), "the seeking after God of a good and pure conscience,
which is the aim and end of the Christian baptismal life." So Lange: "The thing asked may be conceived as follows: 'How shall I rid myself of an evil conscience? Wilt
thou, most holy God, again accept me, a sinner? Wilt thou, Lord Jesus, grant me the communion of thy death and life? Wilt thou, O Holy Spirit, assure me of grace and
adoption, and dwell in my heart?' To these questions the triune Jehovah answers in baptism, 'Yea!' Now is laid the solid foundation for a good conscience. The
conscience is not only purified from its guilt, but it receives new vital power by means of the resurrection of Jesus Christ."

This is the sense of ejperwta|~n eijv, in the only place where it occurs in scripture, 2 Samuel 11:7 (Sept.): "David asked of him how Joab did (ejperw>thsen eijv
eijrh>nhn 'Iwa>b)." Lit., with reference to the peace of Joab. Rev. renders, the interrogation, and puts inquiry, appeal, in margin.

22. Gone into heaven. Perhaps with the scene of the ascension in Peter's mind.

CHAPTER 4

1. Arm yourselves (oJpli>sasqe). Only here in New Testament. The thought is Pauline. See Romans 13:12; 2 Corinthians 6:7; Ephesians 6:10, 17; 1 Thessalonians 5:8;
Colossians 3:12.

Mind (e]nnoian). Only here and Hebrews 4:12. Literally the word means thought, and so some render it here. Rev. puts it in margin. The rendering intent, resolution, is
very doubtful. It seems rather to be the thought as determining the resolution. Since Christ has suffered in the flesh, be ye also willing to suffer in the flesh.

2. Live (biw~sai). Only here in New Testament.

The rest of the time (ejpi>loipon). Only here in New Testament.

3. For the time past, etc. Compare Romans 13:13.

Us (hJmi~n). The best texts omit.

Of our life (tou~ bi>ou). The best texts omit.

Will (bou>lhma, the better reading for qe>lhma). Desire, inclination. See on Matthew 1:19.

When we walked (peporeume>nouv). Rev., rightly, ye walked. Construe with to have wrought. The time past may suffice for you to have wrought the desire, etc.,
walking as ye have done; the perfect participle having an inferential reference to a course of life now done with.

Lasciviousness (ajselgei>av). The following enumeration of vices is characteristic of Peter's style in its fulness and condensation. He enumerates six forms of sensuality,
three personal and three social:

(1) 'Aselgei>aiv, wantonness. See on Mark 7:22. Excesses of all kinds, with possibly an emphasis on sins of uncleanness.

(2) 'Epiqumi>aiv, lusts. See on Mark 4:19. Pointing especially to fleshly lusts, "the inner principles of licentiousness" (Cook).
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(3) Oijnoflugi>aiv, excess of wine. Only here in New Testament. The kindred verb occurs in the Septuagint, Deuteronomy 21:20; Isaiah 46:12. From oi+nov, wine,
and fle>w or flu>w, to teem with abundance; thence to boil over or bubble up, overflow. It is the excessive, insatiate desire for drink, form which comes the use of the
word for the indulgence of the desire - debauch. So Rev., wine-bibbings. The remaining three are revellings, banquetings, and idolatries.
(1) 'Aselgei>aiv, wantonness. See on Mark 7:22. Excesses of all kinds, with possibly an emphasis on sins of uncleanness.

(2) 'Epiqumi>aiv, lusts. See on Mark 4:19. Pointing especially to fleshly lusts, "the inner principles of licentiousness" (Cook).

(3) Oijnoflugi>aiv, excess of wine. Only here in New Testament. The kindred verb occurs in the Septuagint, Deuteronomy 21:20; Isaiah 46:12. From oi+nov, wine,
and fle>w or flu>w, to teem with abundance; thence to boil over or bubble up, overflow. It is the excessive, insatiate desire for drink, form which comes the use of the
word for the indulgence of the desire - debauch. So Rev., wine-bibbings. The remaining three are revellings, banquetings, and idolatries.

Revellings (kw>moiv). The word originally signifies merely a merry-making; most probably a village festival, from kw>mh, a village. In the cities such entertainments
grew into carouses, in which the party of revellers paraded the streets with torches, singing, dancing, and all kinds of frolics. These revels also entered into religious
observances, especially in the worship of Bacchus, Demeter, and the Idaean Zeus in Crete. The fanatic and orgiastic rites of Egypt, Asia Minor, and Thrace became
engrafted on the old religion. Socrates, in the introduction to "The Republic," pictures himself as having gone down to the Piraeus to see the celebration of the festival of
Bendis, the Thracian Artemis (Diana); and as being told by one of his companions that, in the evening, there is to be a torch-race with horses in honor of the goddess.
The rites grew furious and ecstatic. "Crowds of women, clothed with fawns' skins, and bearing the sanctified thyrsus (a staff wreathed with vine-leaves) flocked to the
solitudes of Parnassus, Kithaeron, or Taygetus during the consecrated triennial period, and abandoned themselves to demonstrations of frantic excitement, and dancing
and clamorous invocation of the God. They were said to tear animals limb from limb, to devour the raw flesh, and to cut themselves without feeling the wound. The men
yielded to a similar impulse by noisy revels in the streets, sounding the cymbals and tambourine, and carrying the image of the God in procession" (Grote, "History of
Greece"). Peter, in his introduction, addresses the sojourners in Galatia, where the Phrygian worship of Cybele, the great mother of the gods, prevailed, with its wild
orgies and hideous mutilations. Lucretius thus describes the rites:

"With vigorous hand the clamorous drum they rouse,

And wake the sounding cymbal; the hoarse horn

Pours forth its threatening music, and the pipe,

With Phrygian airs distracts the maddening mind,

While arms of blood the fierce enthusiasts wield

To fright the unrighteous crowds, and bend profound

Their impious souls before the power divine.

Thus moves the pompous idol through the streets,

Scattering mute blessings, while the throngs devout

Strew, in return, their silver and their brass,

Loading the paths with presents, and o'ershade

The heavenly form; and all th' attending train,

With dulcet sprays of roses, pluct profuse,

A band select before them, by the Greeks

Curetes called, from Phrygian parents sprung,

Sport with fantastic chains, the measured dance

Weaving infuriate, charmed with human blood,

And madly shaking their tremendous crests."

De Rerum Natura, ii., 618-631.

Banquetings (po>toiv). Lit., drinking-bouts. Rev., carousings.

Abominable (ajqemi>toiv). Only here, and by Peter in the Acts 10:28. More literally, unlawful, emphasizing the idolatries as violations of divine law.

4. Run not with them. "In a troop" (Bengel); like a band of revellers. See above. Compare Ovid's description of the Bacchic rites:

"Lo, Baccus comes! and with the festive cries

Resound the fields; and mixed in headlong rout,

Men, matrons, maids, paupers, and nobles proud,

To the mysterious rites are born along."

Metamorphoses, iii., 528-530.

Excess (ajna>cusin). Only here in New Testament. Lit., pouring forth. Rev. has flood in margin. The word is used in classical Greek of the tides which fill the hollows.

Riot (ajswti>av). From aj, not, and sw>zw, to save. Lit., unsavingness, prodigality, wastefulness; and thence of squandering on one's own debased appetites, whence it
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added, living wastefully (zw~n ajsw>twv). Compare Ephesians 5:18; Titus 1:6.
Excess (ajna>cusin). Only here in New Testament. Lit., pouring forth. Rev. has flood in margin. The word is used in classical Greek of the tides which fill the hollows.

Riot (ajswti>av). From aj, not, and sw>zw, to save. Lit., unsavingness, prodigality, wastefulness; and thence of squandering on one's own debased appetites, whence it
takes the sense of dissoluteness or profligacy. In Luke 15:13 the kindred adverb ajsw>twv is used. The prodigal is described as scattering his substance, to which is
added, living wastefully (zw~n ajsw>twv). Compare Ephesians 5:18; Titus 1:6.

5. That is ready (eJtoi>mwv e]conti). Lit, having himself in readiness; there at God's right hand in heaven, wither he has gone (1 Peter 3:22). Implying, also, a near
judgment. Compare ver. 7.

7. Is at hand (h]ggiken). Lit., has come near. The word constantly used of the coming of Christ and his kingdom. See Matthew 3:2; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9; Hebrews
10:25.

Be ye sober (swfronh>sate). The word is from sw~v, sound, and frh>n, the mind. Therefore, as Rev., be ye of sound mind. Compare Mark 5:15.

Watch (nh>yate). See on 1 Peter 1:13. The A.V. has followed the Vulgate, vigilate (watch). Rev. is better: be sober.

Unto prayer (eijv proseuca>v). Lit., prayers. The plural is used designedly: prayers of all kinds, private or public. Tynd. renders, Be ye discreet and sober, that ye may
be apt to prayers. Compare Ephesians 6:18"with every kind of prayer, and watching thereunto."

8. Fervent (ejktenh~). See, on the kindred adverb fervently, notes on 1 Peter 1:22.

Love covereth, etc. Compare James 5:20; Proverbs 10:12.

9. Using hospitality. Compare Romans 13:13.

10. A gift (ca>risma). Originally, something freely given: a gift of grace (ca>riv). Used in New Testament

(a)of a blessing of God graciously bestowed, as upon sinners (Romans 5:15, 16; 11:29);

(b)of a gracious divine endowment: an extraordinary gift of the Holy Spirit dwelling and working in a special manner in the individual (1 Timothy 4:14; 2 Timothy 1:6;
Romans 12:6, 8). So here.

Manifold. See on 1 Peter 1:6.

11. Oracles (lo>gia). In classical Greek, of the oracular responses of heathen deities. Here, divine utterances or revelations. Compare Acts 7:38; Romans 3:2;
Hebrews 5:12.

Giveth (corhgei~). Only here and 2 Corinthians 9:10. Peter uses the compound ejpicorhge>w, furnish, in 2 Peter 1:5; which see.

12. Think it not strange (mh). I.e., alien from you and your condition as Christians. Compare 1 Peter 5:4.

Fiery trial (purw>sei). The word means burning. In Proverbs 27:21 (Sept.), it is rendered furnace. In Psalms 45 (Sept.), 46 (A.V.), we read, "Thou, O God, hast
proved us: thou hast smelted us, as silver is smelted." Compare Zechariah 13:9.

Which is to try you (uJmi~n ginome>nh|). The A.V. thus makes the trial a thing of the future; mistranslating the Greek present participle, which is taking place. This
participle, therefore, represents the trial as actually in progress. The Rev. does not give this force by its which cometh upon you.

To try you (pro). Lit., for trial or probation.

Strange thing (xe>non). Compare think it not strange, above.

Happened (sumbai>nontov). Again the present participle. Better, perhaps, were happening; by chance, instead of with the definite purpose indicated by "taking place
with a view to probation." See above.

13. Inasmuch as ye are partakers. Compare Romans 8:17.

Be glad with exceeding joy (carh~te ajgalliw>menoi). Lit., ye may rejoice exulting. See on 1 Peter 1:6.

14. The spirit of glory and of God (toxhv kai). Lit., the spirit of glory and that of God. The repetition of the article identifies the spirit of God with the spirit of glory: the
spirit of glory, and therefore the spirit of God: who is none other than the spirit of God himself. Hence Rev., better, the spirit of glory and the spirit of God.

Resteth (ajnapau>etai). Compare Isaiah 11:2; Luke 10:6; Numbers 11:25, 26; Mark 6:31; Matthew 26:45; Revelation 14:13. Also, Matthew 11:28 where the word is
used in the active voice, to give rest or refreshment.

15. A busybody in other men's matters (ajllotrioepi>skopov). Only here in New Testament. Lit., the overseer of another's matters. One who usurps authority in matters
not within his province. Rev., meddler. Compare Luke 12:13, 14; 1 Thessalonians 4:11; 2 Thessalonians 3:11. It may refer to the officious interference of Christians in
the affairs of their Gentile neighbors, through excess of zeal to conform them to the Christian standard.

16. A Christian. Only three times in the New Testament, and never as a name used by Christians themselves, but as a nickname or a term of reproach. See on Acts
11:26. Hence Peter's idea is, if any man suffer from the contumely of those who contemptuously style him Christian.

19. Commit (paratiqe>sqwsan). Give in charge as a deposit. Compare Luke 12:48; Acts 20:32; 1 Timothy 1:18. The word is used by Christ in commending his soul to
God (Luke 23:46).

Well-doing (ajgaqopoii>a|). Only here in New Testament. Compare 1 Peter 2:14. The surrender to God is to be coupled with the active practice of good.

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1. Also an elder (sumpresbu>terov). Only here in New Testament. Better, as Rev., fellow-elder. The expression is decisive against the primacy of Peter.
God (Luke 23:46).

Well-doing (ajgaqopoii>a|). Only here in New Testament. Compare 1 Peter 2:14. The surrender to God is to be coupled with the active practice of good.

CHAPTER 5

1. Also an elder (sumpresbu>terov). Only here in New Testament. Better, as Rev., fellow-elder. The expression is decisive against the primacy of Peter.

Witness (ma>rtuv). The word is used in the New Testament to denote:

(a)a spectator or eye-witness (Acts 10:39; 6;13).

(b)One who testifies to what he has seen (Acts 1:8; 5:32).

(c)In the forensic sense, a witness in court (Matthew 26:65; Mark 14:63).

(d)One who vindicates his testimony by suffering: a martyr (Acts 22:20; Hebrews 12:1; Revelation 2:13; 17:6).

The first three meetings run into each other. The eye-witness, as a spectator, is always such with a view to giving testimony. Hence this expression of Peter cannot be
limited to the mere fact of his having seen what he preached; especially since, when he wishes to emphasize this fact, he employs another word, ejpo>pothv (2 Peter
1:16). Therefore he speaks of himself as a witness, especially in the sense of being called to testify of what he has seen.

Partaker (koinwno>v). This use of the word, expressing a present realization of something not yet attained, occurs in no other writer in the New Testament. See on 2
Peter 1:4.

2. Feed (poima>nate). Better, Rev., tend, since the verb denotes all that is included in the office of a shepherd - guiding, guarding, folding, no less than feeding, which
latter is expressed by bo>skw. There is, doubtless, a reminiscence in the word of Christ's charge to Peter (John 21:15-17. Both words are used there: "Feed (bo>ske)
my lambs" (ver. 15); "tend (poi>maine) my sheep" (ver. 16); "feed (bo>ske) my sheep" (ver. 17). The A.V. obliterates the distinction by rendering all three feed.
Bengel rightly remarks, "Feeding is part of tending." See on Matthew 2:6.

Taking the oversight. The best texts omit. Rev. retains.

By constraint (ajnagkastw~v). Only here in New Testament.

Willingly (eJkousi>wv). Only here and Hebrews 10:26.

For filthy lucre (eijscrokerdw~v). From aijscro>v, disgraceful, and ke>rdov, gain. Only here in New Testament. The word filthy is intended to convey the idea which
lies in aijscro>v, base or dishonorable; becoming such if it is made the motive of the minister's service. Compare 2 Corinthians 12:14.

Willingly (proqu>mwv). Not strong enough. The word is compounded of pro>, forward, and qumo>v, heart or spirit. Hence Rev., with a ready mind; a forward spirit;
denoting not mere willingness, but zeal. Only here in New Testament. Compare the kindred adjective pro>qumov, ready (Romans 1:15; Matthew 26:41; Mark 14:38),
and the kindred noun proqumi>a, readiness (2 Corinthians 8:11, 12, 19; 9:2).

3. As lording it (katakurieu>ontev). See Matthew 20;25; Acts 19:16. Other words are used for the exercise of legitimate authority in the church; proi`>stamai, to be
over (1 Thessalonians 5:12; 1 Timothy 5:17); poimai>nw, as ver. 2, tend. But this carries the idea of high-handed rule.

Heritage (klh>rwn). Plural. Klh~rov means a lot. See on inheritance, 1 Peter 1:4. From the kindred adjective klhriko>v comes the English cleric, contracted into clerk,
which in ecclesiastical writings originally signified a minister; either as being chosen by lot like Matthias, or as being the lot or inheritance of God. Hence Wycliffe
translates the passage, "neither as having lordship in the clergie." As in the Middle Ages the clergy were almost the only persons who could write, the word clerk came
to have one of its common modern meanings. The word here, though its interpretation is somewhat disputed, seems to refer to the several congregations - the lots or
charges assigned to the elders. Compare proseklhrw>qhsan, were added as disciples; A.V., consorted with (Acts 17:4). Rev. renders charge. Why not charges?

Examples (tu>poi). Peter uses three different terms for a pattern or model: uJpogrammo>v, a writing-copy (1 Peter 2:21); uJpo>deigma, for which classical writers
prefer para>deigma, an architect's plan or a sculptor's or painter's model (2 Peter 2:6); tu>pov (see on 1 Peter 3:21), of which our word type is nearly a transcript. The
word primarily means the impression left by a stroke (tu>ptw, to strike). Thus John 20:25"the print of the nails." Used of the stamp on coin; the impression of any
engraving or hewn work of art; a monument or statue; the figures of the tabernacle of Moloch and of the star Remphan (Acts 7:43). Generally, an image or form,
always with a statement of the object; and hence the kindred meaning of a pattern or model. See Acts 23:25; Romans 5:14; Philippians 3:17; Hebrews 8:5.

4. The chief Shepherd (ajrcipoi>menov). Only here in New Testament. In harmony with ver. 2. "The last thing Peter could have dreamed of as possible would be its
misapplication to himself or his so-called successors" (Cook). Compare Hebrews 13:20great Shepherd; and John 10:11, 14good Shepherd. Also, Ezekiel 34:15, 16,
23.

Ye shall receive. See on receiving, 1 Peter 1:9.

Crown (ste>fanon). From ste>fw, to put round, encircle. It is the crown of victory in the games; of military valor; the marriage wreath, or the festal garland, woven of
leaves or made of gold in imitation of leaves. Thus it is distinguished from the royal crown, which is dia>dhma, of which diadem is a transcript. In Paul, ste>fanov is
always used of the conqueror's crown, not of the king's (1 Corinthians 9:24-26; 2 Timothy 2:5). Though it is urged that Peter would not have employed a reference to
the crown of the victors in the games, because of the abhorrence of the Palestinian Jews for heathen spectacles, yet the reference to the crown of leaves seems to be
determined by the epithet unfading, as compared with garlands of earthly leaves. The crown of thorns woven for Jesus is called ste>fanov, with reference rather to its
being twined than to its being a caricature of a kingly crown.

5. Be clothed with humility (thnhn ejgkombw>sasqe). The last word is a very peculiar one, occurring only here. It is derived from ko>mbov, a roll, band, or girth: a
knot or roll of cloth, made in tying or tucking up any part of the dress. The kindred word ejgko>mbwma, from which the verb is directly formed, means a slave's apron,
under which the loose garments were girt up. Compare Horace's "puer alte cinctus," a slave girt high. Hence the figure carries an exhortation to put on humility as a
working virtue employed in ministry. This is apparent from the evident reminiscence of that scene in which Peter figured so prominently - the washing of the disciple's
feet by the Lord, when he girded himself with a towel as a servant, and gave them the lesson of ministry both by word and act. Bengel paraphrases, "Put on and wrap
yourselves about with humility, so that the covering of humility cannot possibly be stripped from you."
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Resisteth (ajntita>ssetai). A strong and graphic word. Lit., setteth himself in array against, as one draws out a host for battle. Pride calls out God's armies. No wonder,
therefore, that it "goeth before destruction."
under which the loose garments were girt up. Compare Horace's "puer alte cinctus," a slave girt high. Hence the figure carries an exhortation to put on humility as a
working virtue employed in ministry. This is apparent from the evident reminiscence of that scene in which Peter figured so prominently - the washing of the disciple's
feet by the Lord, when he girded himself with a towel as a servant, and gave them the lesson of ministry both by word and act. Bengel paraphrases, "Put on and wrap
yourselves about with humility, so that the covering of humility cannot possibly be stripped from you."

Resisteth (ajntita>ssetai). A strong and graphic word. Lit., setteth himself in array against, as one draws out a host for battle. Pride calls out God's armies. No wonder,
therefore, that it "goeth before destruction."

The proud (uJperhfa>noiv). See on pride, Mark 7:22. Compare James 4:6.

To the humble. See on Matthew 11:29.

6. Mighty hand (krataia). A phrase found nowhere else in the New Testament, but occurring in the Septuagint, Exodus 3:19; Deuteronomy 3:24; Job 30:21. The
adjective kratria, mighty, is, moreover, used only here. Compare Luke 1:51, 52.

7. Casting (ejpirjrJi>yantev). The aorist participle denoting an act once for all; throwing the whole life with its care on him.

All your care (pa~san thrimnan). The whole of your care. "Not every anxiety as it arises, for none will arise if this transference has been effectually made." Care. See on
Matthew 6:25take no thought. Rev., rightly, anxiety.

He careth (me>lei). Meaning the watchful care of interest and affection. The sixth and seventh verses should be taken together: Humble yourselves and cast all your
anxiety. Pride is at the root of most of our anxiety. To human pride it is humiliating to cast everything upon another and be cared for. See James 4:6, 7.

8. Be sober (nh>yate). See on 1 Peter 4:7.

Be vigilant (grhgorh>sate). Rev., be watchful. See on Mark 13:35; and 1 Thessalonians 5:6 where both verbs occur: watch and be sober. A reminiscence of the scene
in Gethsemane: Could ye not watch with me? (Matthew 26:40, 41).

Adversary (oJ anti>dikov). The article points to a well-known adversary. From ajnti>, against, and di>kh, a lawsuit. Strictly, an adversary in a lawsuit. Here an
adversary in general. Compare Zechariah 3:1-5. Only here, in New Testament, of Satan.

The devil. See on Matthew 4:1.

Roaring (wjruo>menov). Only here in New Testament. The word conveys somewhat of the sense by the sound (oruomenos). It denotes especially the howl of a beast
in fierce hunger.

Lion. Augustine says, "Christ is called 'a lion' (Revelation 5:5) because of his courage: the devil, because of his ferocity. The one lion comes to conquer, the other to
hurt." Seven Hebrew words are used for this animal; six to describe his movements and four to describe his roar. He is mentioned in the Bible about one hundred and
thirty times. In Job 4:10, 11 give different words are used for him. In Judges 14:5; Psalms 21:13; 103:21 (Sept.), the same word as here is used for the roaring of the
lion as a translation of the Hebrew word for the thunder in Job 37:4.

Walketh about (peripatei~). Compare Job 1:7; 2:2. This word gave name to that sect of Greek philosophers known as Peripatetics, because they walked about while
teaching or disputing. "St. Peter calls Satan the Peripatetic" (Cox, on Job). The Arabs call him the Busy One. It was to Peter that Christ said, "Satan hath desired to
have you," etc. (Luke 22:31).

Devour (katapi>h|). Lit., swallow down. See on Matthew 23:24.

9. Resist (ajnti>sthte). The Rev., very judiciously, substitutes withstand; resist having been already used in ver. 5 for ajntita>ssetai. Withstand is, moreover, the more
accurate rendering; as the verb means rather to be firm against onset than to strive against it. With in withstand is the Saxon wid, against, which appears in the German
wider.

Steadfast (stereoi). Compare 2 Timothy 2:19; and the kindred verb stereo>w, to strengthen (Acts 3:7, 16; 16:5). Paul, in Colossians 2:5 uses a cognate noun,
stere>wma, evidently as a military metaphor: "Beholding your order (ta>xin, compare ajntita>ssetai, ver. 5) and your solid front or close phalanx" (stere>wma). It might
be difficult to find, on the whole, a better rendering than steadfast, yet it falls a little short of the meaning. Steadfast is Anglo-Saxon, stede, a place, and faest, fast; and
hence means firm in its place; but stereoi conveys also the sense of compactness, compact solidity, and is appropriate, since a number of individuals are addressed and
exhorted to withstand the onset of Satan as one compacted body. Stereo>v implies solidity in the very mass and body of the thing itself; steadfastness, mere holding of
place. A rock is stereo>v, firm, solid; but a flexible weed with its tough root resisting all efforts to pull it up, may be steadfast. The exhortation is appropriate from
Peter, the Rock.

The same afflictions (tatwn). Rev., better, sufferings. A very peculiar construction, occurring nowhere else in the New Testament. Lit., the same things of sufferings,
emphasizing the idea of identity.

Are accomplished (ejpitelei~sqai). More correctly, are being accomplished. The present infinitive denotes something in process of accomplishment.

Brethren (ajdelfo>thti). Lit., brotherhood. Only here and 1 Peter 2:17.

10. Who hath called us (oJ kale>sav hJma~v). But the tense is the aorist, and the true reading is uJma~v, you, instead of us. Render, therefore, as Rev., who called
you; before the foundation of the world. See Romans 8:29, 30 and compare unto his eternal glory and them he also glorified.

By Christ Jesus (ejn Cristw|~ 'Ihsou~). The best texts omit Jesus. So Rev., which also renders, better, in Christ, denoting the sphere or element in which the calling and
its results take place: "Christ as the life, head, and very principle of all existence to the Christian" (Cook).

Awhile (ojli>fon). Rev., more literally, a little while. See on 1 Peter 1:6.

Make you perfect, etc. The Tex. Rec. makes this and the three following verbs in the optative mood, expressing a wish. So the A.V. But the best texts make them all
indicative future, and thus convert the wish or prayer into an assurance. Thus, then,

Shall himself
 Copyright  (c)perfect (aujtosei).
                2005-2009,         The A.V.
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                                        Media  Corp. the aujto, himself, which is very significant as indicating God's personal interest and energy in the
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confirming his children.

Shall perfect. Rev. reads restore, in margin. The root of this word appears in a]rw or ajrari>skw, to fit or join together. So a]rqron means a joint. The radical notion of
Make you perfect, etc. The Tex. Rec. makes this and the three following verbs in the optative mood, expressing a wish. So the A.V. But the best texts make them all
indicative future, and thus convert the wish or prayer into an assurance. Thus, then,

Shall himself perfect (aujtosei). The A.V. overlooks the aujto, himself, which is very significant as indicating God's personal interest and energy in the work of
confirming his children.

Shall perfect. Rev. reads restore, in margin. The root of this word appears in a]rw or ajrari>skw, to fit or join together. So a]rqron means a joint. The radical notion of
the verb is, therefore, adjustment - the putting of all the parts into right relation and connection. We find it used of mending the nets (Matthew 4:21), and of restoring an
erring brother (Galatians 6:1); of framing the body and the worlds (Hebrews 10:5; 11:3); of the union of members in the church (1 Corinthians 1:10; 2 Corinthians
13:11). Out of this comes the general sense of perfecting (Matthew 21:16; Luke 6:40; 1 Thessalonians 3:10).

Shall stablish (sthri>xei). The word is akin at the root to stereo>v, steadfast (ver. 9), and is the very word used by Christ in his exhortation to Peter, "strengthen thy
brethren" (Luke 22:32). Possibly there is a reminiscence of this in Peter's use of the word here. Compare 1 Thessalonians 3:13; 2 Thessalonians 2:17; James 5:8;
Revelation 3:2.

Shall strengthen (sqenw>sei). Only here in New Testament. Compare Ephesians 3:16.

Shall settle (qemeliw>sei). Omitted by some texts, and by Rev. From qeme>liov, a foundation. The radical notion of the word is, therefore, to ground securely. It
occurs in Matthew 7:25 of the house founded on a rock; in Hebrews 1:10 of laying the foundations of the earth. In Ephesians 3:18 it is joined with rooted. The
massings of these expressions, unconnected by conjunctions, indicates strong feeling. Bengel thus sums up the whole: "Shall perfect, that no defect remain in you: shall
stablish, that nothing may shake you: shall strengthen, that you may overcome every adverse force. A saying worthy of Peter. He is strengthening his brethren."

12. Silvanus. Probably the companion of Paul known in the Acts as Silas (Acts 15:22, 27, 32, 34, 40 etc.), and called Silvanus by Paul in 2 Corinthians 1:19; 1
Thessalonians 1:1; 2 Thessalonians 1:1.

A faithful brother. Brother has the definite article, the faithful brother, designating him as one well known for his fidelity. Rev. renders our, with the in margin.

Unto you. Construe, not as A.V., a brother unto you, but I have written unto you. So Rev.

As I suppose (wJv logi>zomai). Too feeble, since the verb denotes a settled persuasion or assurance. See Romans 3:28"we conclude" or reckon, as the result of our
reasoning. Compare Romans 8:18; Hebrews 11:19. Rev., as I account him.

I have written (e]graya). Lit., I wrote. An example of what is known as the epistolary aorist. The writer regards the time of writing as his correspondent will do when he
shall have received the letter. We say in a letter, I write. Paul, writing to Philemon, says ajne>pemya, I sent; since to Philemon the act of sending would be already past.
Therefore in using this form of expression Peter does not refer to the second epistle, not to another now lost, but to the present epistle.

Briefly (dij ojli>gw). Lit., through few (words). Compare Hebrews 13:22 where the expression is diawn, through brief words.

Testifying (ejpimarturw~n). Only here in New Testament. See on ver. 1.

Wherein ye stand (eijv h{n eJsth>kate). The best texts read sth~te, imperative. So Rev., stand ye fast therein. Lit., "into which stand," the preposition with the verb
having the pregnant force of entering into and standing fast in.

13. The church. The word is not in the Greek, but is supplied with the feminine definite article hJ. There is, however, a difference of opinion as to the meaning of this
feminine article. Some suppose a reference to Peter's own wife; others, to some prominent Christian woman in the church. Compare 2 John 1. The majority of
interpreters, however, refer it to the church.

Babylon. Some understand in a figurative sense, as meaning Rome; others, literally, of Babylon on the Euphrates. In favor of the former view are the drift of ancient
opinion and the Roman Catholic interpreters, with Luther and several noted modern expositors, as Ewald and Hoffmann. This, too, is the view of Canon Cook in the
"Speaker's Commentary." In favor of the literal interpretation are the weighty names of Alford, Huther, Calvin, Neander, Weiss, and Reuss. Professor Salmond, in his
admirable commentary on this epistle, has so forcibly summed up the testimony that we cannot do better than to give his comment entire: "In favor of this allegorical
interpretation it is urged that there are other occurrences of Babylon in the New Testament as a mystical name for Rome (Revelation 14:8; 18:2, 10); that it is in the
highest degree unlikely that Peter should have made the Assyrian Babylon his residence or missionary center, especially in view of a statement by Josephus indicating
that the Emperor Claudius had expelled the Jews from that city and neighborhood; and that tradition connects Peter with Rome, but not with Babylon. The fact,
however, that the word is mystically used in a mystical book like the Apocalypse - a book, too, which is steeped in the spirit and terminology of the Old Testament - is
no argument for the mystical use of the word in writings of a different type. The allegorical interpretation becomes still less likely when it is observed that other
geographical designations in this epistle (1 Peter 1:1) have undoubtedly the literal meaning. The tradition itself, too, is uncertain. The statement in Josephus does not
bear all that it is made to bear. There is no reason to suppose that, at the time when this epistle was written, the city of Rome was currently known among Christians as
Babylon. On the contrary, wherever it is mentioned in the New Testament, with the single exception of Revelation (and even there it is distinguished as 'Babylon, the
great'), it gets its usual name, Rome. So far, too, from the Assyrian Babylon being practically in a deserted state at this date, there is very good ground for believing that
the Jewish population (not to speak of the heathen) of the city and vicinity was very considerable. For these and other reasons a succession of distinguished interpreters
and historians, from Erasmus and Calvin, on to Neander, Weiss, Reuss, Huther, etc., have rightly held by the literal sense."

Marcus. Rev., Mark. John Mark, the author of the gospel. See Introduction to Mark, on his relations to Peter.

My son. Probably in a spiritual sense, though some, as Bengel, think that Peter's own son is referred to.

14. Kiss of charity. Compare 1 Corinthians 16:20.

THE SECOND GENERAL EPISTLE OF PETER

CHAPTER 1

1. Simon Peter. Note the addition of Simon, and see on 1 Peter 1:1. The best-attested orthography is Symeon, which is the form of his name in Acts 15:14 where the
account probably came from him. This also is the Hebraic form of the name found in the Septuagint, Genesis 29:33 and elsewhere. Compare Revelation 7:7; Luke
2:25, 34; 3:30; Acts 13:1. The combined name, Simon Peter, is found Luke 5:8; John 13:6; 20:2; 21:15 and elsewhere, though in these instances it is given as Simon;
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Symeon      (c) 2005-2009,
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                                                                                                                                                              fuller. This
combination, servant and apostle, occurs in no other apostolic salutation. The nearest approach to it is Titus 1:1.
1. Simon Peter. Note the addition of Simon, and see on 1 Peter 1:1. The best-attested orthography is Symeon, which is the form of his name in Acts 15:14 where the
account probably came from him. This also is the Hebraic form of the name found in the Septuagint, Genesis 29:33 and elsewhere. Compare Revelation 7:7; Luke
2:25, 34; 3:30; Acts 13:1. The combined name, Simon Peter, is found Luke 5:8; John 13:6; 20:2; 21:15 and elsewhere, though in these instances it is given as Simon;
Symeon occurring only in Acts 15:14. While his name is given with greater familiarity than in the first epistle, his official title, servant and apostle, is fuller. This
combination, servant and apostle, occurs in no other apostolic salutation. The nearest approach to it is Titus 1:1.

Of Jesus Christ. The word Christ never occurs in the second epistle without Jesus; and only in this instance without some predicate, such as Lord, Savior.

To them that have obtained (toi~v lacou~sin). Lit., obtained by lot. So Luke 1:9; John 19:24. In the sense which it has here it is used by Peter (Acts 1:17) of Judas,
who had obtained part of this ministry. In this sense it occurs only in that passage and here.

Like precious (ijso>timon). Only here in New Testament. The word should be written like-precious. Compare precious in 1 Peter 1:7, 19; 2:4, 6, 7. Not the same in
measure to all, but having an equal value and honor to those who receive it, as admitting them to the same Christian privileges.

With us. Most probably the Jewish Christians, of whom Peter was one. Professor Salmond remarks, "There is much to show how alien it was to primitive Christian
thought to regard Gentile Christians as occupying in grace the self-same platform with Christians gathered out of the ancient church of God." See Acts 11:17; 15:9-11.

Savior. Frequently applied to Christ in this epistle, but never in the first.

2. In the knowledge (ejn ejpignw>sei). The compound expressing full knowledge, and so common in Paul's writings.

Our Lord (kuri>ou hJmw~n). The word Lord in the second epistle is always used of God, unless Christ or Savior is added.

3. Hath granted (dedwrhme>nhv). This is the only word which Peter and Mark alone have in common in the New Testament; a somewhat singular fact in view of their
intimate relations, and of the impress of Peter upon Mark's gospel: yet it tells very strongly against the theory of a forgery of this epistle. The word is stronger than the
simple di>dwmi, to give, meaning to grant or bestow as a gift. Compare Mark 15:45.

Godliness (eujse>beian). Used only by Peter (Acts 3:12), and in the Pastoral Epistles. It is from euj, well, and se>bomai, to worship, so that the radical idea is worship
rightly directed. Worship, however, is to be understood in it etymological sense, worth-ship, or reverence paid to worth, whether in God or man. So Wycliffe's
rendering of Matthew 6:2"that they be worshipped of men;" and "worship thy father and thy mother," Matthew 19:19. In classical Greek the word is not confined to
religion, but means also piety in the fulfilment of human relations, like the Latin pietas. Even in classical Greek, however, it is a standing word for piety in the religious
sense, showing itself in right reverence; and is opposed to dusse>beia, ungodliness, and ajnosio>thv, profaneness. "The recognition of dependence upon the gods, the
confession of human dependence, the tribute of homage which man renders in the certainty that he needs their favor - all this is eujse>beia, manifest in conduct and
conversation, in sacrifice and prayer." (Nagelsbach, cited by Cremer). This definition may be almost literally transferred to the Christian word. It embraces the
confession of the one living and true God, and life corresponding to this knowledge. See on ver. 2.

Called (kale>santov). Also used of the divine invitation, 1 Peter 2:9, 21; 3:9; 5:10.

To glory and virtue (ijdi>a| do>xh| kai). Lit., and properly, by his own glory and virtue, though some read diaxhv kai, through glory and virtue. Rev. adopts the former.
The meaning is much the same in either case.

His own (ijdi>a|). Of frequent occurrence in Peter, and not necessarily with an emphatic force, since the adjective is sometimes used merely as a possessive pronoun,
and mostly so in Peter (1 Peter 3:1, 5; 2 Peter 2:16, 22 etc.).

Virtue. See on 1 Peter 2:9. Used by Peter only, with the exception of Philippians 4:8. The original classical sense of the word had no special moral import, but denoted
excellence of any kind - bravery, rank, nobility; also, excellence of land, animals, things, classes of persons. Paul seems to avoid the term, using it only once.

On glory and virtue Bengel says, "the former indicates his natural, the latter his moral, attributes."

4. Whereby (dij w=n). Lit., through which; viz., his glory and virtue. Note the three occurrences of dia>, through, in vv. 3, 4.

Are given (dedw>rhtai). Middle voice; not passive, as A.V. Hence Rev., correctly, he hath granted. See on ver. 3.

Exceeding great and precious promises. Rev., his exceeding great, etc., by way of rendering the definite article, ta.

Precious (ti>mia). The word occurs fourteen times in the New Testament. In eight instances it is used of material things, as stones, fruit, wood. In Peter it occurs three
times: 1 Peter 1:7 of tried faith; 1 Peter 1:19 of the blood of Christ; and here, of God's promises.

Promises (ejpagge>lmata). Only in this epistle. In classical Greek the distinction is made between ejpagge>lmata, promises voluntarily or spontaneously made, and
uJposce>seiv, promises made in response to a petition.

Might be partakers (ge>nhsqe koinwnoi). Rev., more correctly, may become, conveying the idea of a growth. See note on koinwno, partaker, 1 Peter 5:1; and
compare Hebrews 12:10.

Having escaped (ajpofugo>ntev). Only in this epistle. To escape by flight.

Through lust (ejn ejpiqumi>a|). Rev. renders by lust, as the instrument of the corruption. Others, in lust, as the sphere of the corruption, or as that in which it is
grounded.

5. Beside this (aujto). Wrong. Render, for this very cause, as Rev. Lit., this very thing. Just as ti>, what? has come to mean why? So the strengthened demonstrative
acquires the meaning of wherefore, for this very cause.

Giving all diligence (spoudhgkantev). The verb occurs only here in New Testament, and means, literally, to bring in by the side of: adding your diligence to the divine
promises. So Rev., adding on your part.

Add to your faith, etc. The A.V. is entirely wrong. The verb rendered add (ejpicorhgh>sate) is derived from coro>v, a chorus, such as was employed in the
representation
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to defray all the expenses of training and maintenance. In the New Testament the word has lost this technical sense, and is used in the general sense of supplying or
providing. The verb is used by Paul (2 Corinthians 9:10; Galatians 3:5; Colossians 2:19), and is rendered minister (A.V.), supply (Rev.); and the simple verb
corhge>w, minister, occurs 1 Peter 4:11; 2 Corinthians 9:10. Here the Rev., properly, renders supply.
promises. So Rev., adding on your part.

Add to your faith, etc. The A.V. is entirely wrong. The verb rendered add (ejpicorhgh>sate) is derived from coro>v, a chorus, such as was employed in the
representation of the Greek tragedies. The verb originally means to bear the expense of a chorus, which was done by a person selected by the state, who was obliged
to defray all the expenses of training and maintenance. In the New Testament the word has lost this technical sense, and is used in the general sense of supplying or
providing. The verb is used by Paul (2 Corinthians 9:10; Galatians 3:5; Colossians 2:19), and is rendered minister (A.V.), supply (Rev.); and the simple verb
corhge>w, minister, occurs 1 Peter 4:11; 2 Corinthians 9:10. Here the Rev., properly, renders supply.

To your faith (ejn th|~ pi>stei). The A.V. exhorts to add one virtue to another; but the Greek, to develop one virtue in the exercise of another: "an increase by growth,
not by external junction; each new grace springing out of, attempting, and perfecting the other." Render, therefore, as Rev. In your faith supply virtue, and in your virtue
knowledge, etc.

Virtue. See on ver. 3, and 1 Peter 2:9. Not in the sense of moral excellence, but of the energy which Christians are to exhibit, as God exerts his energy upon them. As
God calls us by his own virtue (ver. 3), so Christians are to exhibit virtue or energy in the exercise of their faith, translating it into vigorous action.

6. Temperance (ejgkratei>a). Self-control; holding the passions and desires in hand. See 1 Corinthians 9:25.

Patience (ujpomonh>n). Lit., remaining behind or staying, from me>nw, to wait. Not merely endurance of the inevitable, for Christ could have relieved himself of his
sufferings (Hebrews 12:2, 3; compare Matthew 26:53); but the heroic, brave patience with which a Christian not only bears but contends. Speaking of Christ's
patience, Barrow remarks, "Neither was it out of a stupid insensibility or stubborn resolution that he did thus behave himself; for he had a most vigorous sense of all
those grievances, and a strong (natural) aversation from under going them;... but from a perfect submission to the divine will, and entire command over his passions, an
excessive charity toward mankind, this patient and meek behavior did spring." The same writer defines patience as follows: "That virtue which qualifieth us to bear all
conditions and all events, by God's disposal incident to us, with such apprehensions and persuasions of mind, such dispositions and affections of heart, such external
deportment and practices of life as God requireth and good reason directeth (Sermon XLII., "On Patience").

Godliness. See on ver. 3. The quality is never ascribed to God.

Brotherly kindness (filadelfi>an). Rev. renders, literally, love of the brethren.

Charity (ajga>phn). There seems at first an infelicity in the rendering of the Rev., in your love of the brethren love. But this is only apparent. In the former word Peter
contemplates Christian fellow-believers as naturally and properly holding the first place in our affections (compare Galatians 6:10"Especially unto them which are of the
household of faith"). But he follows this with the broader affection which should characterize Christians, and which Paul lauds in 1 Corinthians 13, the love of men as
men. It may be remarked here that the entire rejection by the Rev. of charity as the rendering of ajga>ph is wholesome and defensible. Charity has acquired two
peculiar meanings, both of which are indeed included or implied in love, but neither of which expresses more than a single phase of love - tolerance or beneficence. The
A.V. in the great majority of cases translates love; always in the Gospels, and mostly elsewhere. There is no more reason for saying "charity suffereth long," than for
saying, "the charity of God is shed abroad in our hearts," or "God is charity."

8. Be in you (uJpa>rconta). Rev., are yours; following the sense of possession which legitimately belongs to the verb; as Matthew 19:21that thou hast; 1 Corinthians
13:3goods. In the sense of being the verb is stronger than the simple ei+nai, to be; denoting being which is from the beginning, and therefore attaching to a person as a
proper characteristic; something belonging to him, and so running into the idea of rightful possession as above.

Barren (ajrgou). From aj, not, and e]rgon, work. Hence, more correctly, as Rev., idle. Compare "idle word" (Matthew 12:36); "standing idle" (Matthew 20:3, 6); also,
1 Timothy 5:13. The tautology, barren and unfruitful, is thus avoided.

In the knowledge (eijv). Rev., more correctly, unto. The idea is not idleness in the knowledge, but idleness is pressing on and developing toward and finally reaching the
knowledge. With this agrees the compound ejpi>gnwsin, the constantly increasing and finally full knowledge.

9. But (ga). Wrong. Render as Rev., for.

He that lacketh these things (w+| mhrestin tau~ta). Lit., to whom these things are not present. Note that a different word is used here from that in ver. 8, are yours, to
convey the idea of possession. Instead of speaking of the gifts as belonging to the Christian by habitual, settled possession, he denotes them now as merely present with
him.

Blind (tuflo>v). Illustrating Peter's emphasis on sight as a medium of instruction. See Introduction.

And cannot see afar off (muwpa>zw). Only here in New Testament. From mu>w, to close, and w]y, the eye. Closing or contracting the eyes like short-sighted people.
Hence, to be short-sighted. The participle being short-sighted is added to the adjective blind, defining it; as if he had said, is blind, that is, short-sighted spiritually;
seeing only things present and not heavenly things. Compare John 9:41. Rev. renders, seeing only what is near.

And hath forgotten (lh>qhn labw). Lit., having taken forgetfulness. A unique expression, the noun occurring only here in the New Testament. Compare a similar phrase,
2 Timothy 1:5uJpo>mnhsin labw, having taken remembrance: A.V., when I call to remembrance: Rev., having been reminded of. Some expositors find in the
expression a suggestion of a voluntary acceptance of a darkened condition. This doubtful, however. Lumby thinks that it marks the advanced years of the writer, since
he adds to failure of sight the failure of memory, that faculty on which the aged dwell more than on sight.

That he was purged (tou~ kaqarismou~). Rev., more literally, the cleansing.

10. The rather (ma~llon). The adverb belongs rather with the verb give diligence. Render, as Rev., give the more diligence.

Brethren (ajdelfoi>). The only instance of this form of address in Peter, who commonly uses beloved.

Fall (ptai>shte). Lit., stumble, and so Rev. Compare James 3:2.

11. Shall be ministered abundantly (plousi>wv ejpicorhghqh>setai). On the verb see ver. 5. Rev., shall be richly supplied. We are to furnish in our faith: the reward shall
be furnished unto us. Richly, indicating the fulness of future blessedness. Professor Salmond observes that it is the reverse of "saved, yet so as by fire" (1 Corinthians
3:15).

Everlasting kingdom (aijw>nion basilei>an). In the first epistle, Peter designated the believer's future as an inheritance; here he calls it a kingdom. Eternal, as Rev., is
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12. I will not be negligent. The A.V. follows the reading oujk ajmelh>sw, which it renders correctly. The better reading, however, is mellh>sw, I intend, or, as often in
3:15).

Everlasting kingdom (aijw>nion basilei>an). In the first epistle, Peter designated the believer's future as an inheritance; here he calls it a kingdom. Eternal, as Rev., is
better than everlasting, since the word includes more than duration of time.

12. I will not be negligent. The A.V. follows the reading oujk ajmelh>sw, which it renders correctly. The better reading, however, is mellh>sw, I intend, or, as often in
classical Greek, with a sense of certainty - I shall be sure, which Rev. adopts, rendering I shall be ready. The formula occurs in but one other passage, Matthew 24:6
where it is translated by the simple future, ye shall hear, with an implied sense, as ye surely will hear.

Ye know (eijdo>tav). Lit., knowing. Compare 1 Peter 1:18.

Established (ejsthrigme>nouv). See on 1 Peter 5:10. Perhaps the exhortation, "strengthen thy brethren," may account for his repeated used of this word and its
derivatives. Thus, unstable (ajsth>riktoi); steadfastness (sthrigmou~), 2 Peter 3:16, 17.

In the present truth (ejn th|~ parou>sh| ajlhqei>a|). I.e., the truth which is present with you through the instruction of your teachers; not the truth at present under
consideration. See on ver. 9; and compare the same phrase in Colossians 1:6 rendered, is come unto you.

13. Tabernacle (skhnw>mati). A figurative expression for the body, used also by Paul, 2 Corinthians 5:1, 4 though he employs the shorter kindred word skh~nov.
Peter also has the same mixture of metaphors which Paul employs in that passage, viz., building and clothing. See next verse. Peter's use of tabernacle is significant in
connection with his words at the transfiguration, "Let us make three tabernacles (Matthew 17:4). The word, as well as the entire phrase, carries the idea of brief
duration - a frail tent, erected for a night. Compare ver. 14.

To stir you up by putting you in remembrance (diegei>rein uJma~v ejn uJpomnh>sei). Lit., to stir you up in reminding. See the same phrase in 2 Peter 3:1.

14. Shortly I must put off this my tabernacle (tacinh> ejstin hJ ajpo>qwsiv tou~ skhnw>matov mou). Lit., quick is the putting off of my tabernacle. Rev., the putting off
of my tabernacle cometh swiftly. Possibly in allusion to his advanced age. Putting off is a metaphor, from putting off a garment. So Paul, 2 Corinthians 5:3, 4 being
clothed, unclothed, clothed upon. The word occurs, also, 1 Peter 3:21 and is used by Peter only. Cometh swiftly, implying the speedy approach of death; though others
understand it of the quick, violent death which Christ prophesied he should die. "Even as our Lord Jesus Christ hath showed me." See John 21:18, 19. Compare, also,
John 13:36 and note the word follow in both passages. "Peter had now learnt the full force of Christ's sayings, and to what end the following of Jesus was to bring
him" (Lumby).

Hath shewed (ejdh>lwsen). But the tense is the aorist, pointing back to a definite act at a past time (John 21:18). Hence, shewed me, or, as Rev., signified. Compare 1
Peter 1:11did signify.

15. Ye may be able (e]cein uJma~v). Lit., that you may have it. A similar use of have, in the sense of to be able, occurs Mark 14:8. The same meaning is also
foreshadowed in Matthew 18:25had not to pay; and John 8:6have to accuse.

Decease (e]xodon). Exodus is a literal transcript of the word, and is the term used by Luke in his account of the transfiguration. "They spake of his decease." It occurs
only once elsewhere, Hebrews 11:22 in the literal sense, the departing or exodus of the children of Israel. "It is at least remarkable," says Dean Alford, "that, with the
recollection of the scene on the mount of transfiguration floating in his mind, the apostle should use so close together the words which were there also associated,
tabernacle and decease. The coincidence should not be forgotten in treating of the question of the genuineness of the epistle."

Call to remembrance (mnh>mnh poiei~sqai). The phrase occurs nowhere else in the New Testament. In classical Greek, to make mention of. An analogous expression
is found, Romans 1:9mnei>an poiou~mai, I make mention. See, also, Ephesians 1:16; 1 Thessalonians 1:2; Philemon 1:4. Some render it thus here, as expressing
Peter's desire to make it possible for his readers to report these things to others. Rev., to call these things to remembrance.

16. We have not followed (ouj ejxakolouqh>santev). A strong compound, used only here and 2 Peter 2:2, 15. The ejx gives the force of following out; in pursuance of;
closely.

Cunningly devised (sesofisme>noiv). Only here and 2 Timothy 3:15 in which latter passage it has a good sense, to make thee wise. Here, in a bad sense, artfully framed
by human cleverness (sofi>a). Compare feigned words, 2 Peter 2:3.

Fables (mu>qoiv). This word, which occurs only here and in the Pastoral Epistles, is transcribed in the word myth. The reference here may be to the Jewish myths,
rabbinical embellishments of Old-Testament history; or to the heathen myths about the descent of the gods to earth, which might be suggested by his remembrance of
the transfiguration; or to the Gnostic speculations about aeons or emanations, which rose from the eternal abyss, the source of all spiritual existence, and were named
Mind, Wisdom, Power, Truth, etc.

Coming (parousi>an). Or presence. Compare 2 Peter 3:4. Another word, ajpoka>luyiv, revelation, is used in 1 Peter 1:7, 13; 4:13 to describe the appearing of Christ.

Eye-witnesses (ejpo>ptai). See on behold, 1 Peter 2:12. Only here in New Testament. Compare the different word in Luke 1:2aujto>ptai, eye-witnesses.

Majesty (megaleio>thtov). Used in only two passages besides this: Luke 9:43 of the mighty power (Rev., majesty) of God, as manifested in the healing of the epileptic
child; and Acts 19:27 of the magnificence of Diana.

17. When there came (ejnecqei>shv). Lit., having been born. Compare come (Rev., ver. 18); moved (ver. 21); and rushing wind, lit., a wind born along (Acts 2:2).

From (uJpo). Lit., by.

Excellent (megaloprepou~v). Or sublime. Only here in New Testament. In Septuagint (Deuteronomy 33:26), as an epithet of God, excellency. The phrase excellent
glory refers to the bright cloud which overshadowed the company on the transfiguration mount, like the shekinah above the mercy-seat.

18. Voice (fwnh). Note the same word in the account of Pentecost (Acts 2:6), where the A.V. obscures the meaning by rendering, when this was noised abroad;
whereas it should be when this voice was heard.

Which came (ejnecqei~san). Lit., having been born. See on ver. 17. Rev., This voice we ourselves (hJmei~v, we, emphatic) heard come (better, born) out of heaven.

Holy  mount.(c)It 2005-2009,
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                                                Davidson's remark that this expression points to a time when superstitious reverence for places had sprung up in
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Palestine. "Of all places to which special sanctity would be ascribed by Christ's followers, surely that would be the first to be so marked where the most solemn
testimony was given to the divinity of Jesus. To the Jewish Christian this would rank with Sinai, and no name would be more fitly applied to it than that which had so
constantly been given to a place on which God first revealed himself in his glory. The 'holy mount of God' (Ezekiel 28:14) would now receive another application, and
whereas it should be when this voice was heard.

Which came (ejnecqei~san). Lit., having been born. See on ver. 17. Rev., This voice we ourselves (hJmei~v, we, emphatic) heard come (better, born) out of heaven.

Holy mount. It is scarcely necessary to notice Davidson's remark that this expression points to a time when superstitious reverence for places had sprung up in
Palestine. "Of all places to which special sanctity would be ascribed by Christ's followers, surely that would be the first to be so marked where the most solemn
testimony was given to the divinity of Jesus. To the Jewish Christian this would rank with Sinai, and no name would be more fitly applied to it than that which had so
constantly been given to a place on which God first revealed himself in his glory. The 'holy mount of God' (Ezekiel 28:14) would now receive another application, and
he would see little of the true continuity of God's revelation who did not connect readily the old and the new covenants, and give to the place where the glory of Christ
was most eminently shown forth the same name which was applied so oft to Sinai" (Lumby).

19. We have also a more sure word of prophecy (kaiteron togon). The A.V. is wrong, since more sure is used predicatively, and word has the definite article. We may
explain either

(a)as Rev., we have the word of prophecy made more sure, i.e., we are better certified than before as to the prophetic word by reason of this voice; or

(b)we have the word of prophecy as a surer confirmation of God's truth than what we ourselves saw, i.e., Old-Testament testimony is more convincing than even the
voice heard at the transfiguration.

The latter seems to accord better with the words which follow. "To appreciate this we must put ourselves somewhat in the place of those for whom St. Peter wrote.
The New Testament, as we have it, was to them non-existent. Therefore we can readily understand how the long line of prophetic scriptures, fulfilled in so many ways
in the life of Jesus, would be a mightier form of evidence than the narrative of one single event in Peter's life" (Lumby). "Peter knew a sounder basis for faith than that of
signs and wonders. He had seen our Lord Jesus Christ receive honor and glory from God the Father in the holy mount; he had been dazzled and carried out of himself
by visions and voices from heaven; but, nevertheless, even when his memory and heart are throbbing with recollections of that sublime scene, he says, 'we have
something surer still in the prophetic word.'... It was not the miracles of Christ by which he came to know Jesus, but the word of Christ as interpreted by the spirit of
Christ" (Samuel Cox).

Unto a light (lu>cnw|). More correctly, as Rev., a lamp.

In a dark place (ejn aujcmhrw|~ to>pw|). A peculiar expression. Lit., a dry place. Only here in New Testament. Rev. gives squalid, in margin. Aristotle opposes it to
bright or glistering. It is a subtle association of the idea of darkness with squalor, dryness, and general neglect.

Dawn (diauga>sh|). Only here in New Testament. Compare the different word in Matthew 28:1 and Luke 23:54ejpifw>skw. The verb is compounded of dia>,
through, and aujgh>, sunlight, thus carrying the picture of light breaking through the gloom.

The day-star (fwsfo>rov). Of which our word phosphorus is a transcript. Lit., light-bearer, like Lucifer, from lux, light, and fero, to bear. See Aeschylus,
"Agamemnon," 245.

20. Is (gi>netai). More literally, arises or originates.

Private (ijdi>av). See on ver. 3. His own. Rev., special, in margin.

Interpretation (ejpilu>sewv). Only here in New Testament. Compare the cognate verb expounded (Mark 4:34) and determined (Acts 19:39). The usual word is
eJrmhnei>a (1 Corinthians 12:10; 14:26). Literally, it means loosening, untying, as of hard knots of scripture.

21. Came (hjne>cqh). Lit., was born or brought. See on vv. 17, 18.

Holy men of God (a[gioi qeou~ a]nqrwpoi). The best texts omit holy, and read ajpo, from God. Render, as Rev., men spake from God.

Moved (fero>menoi). The same verb as came. Lit., being born along. It seems to be a favorite word with Peter, occurring six times in the two epistles.

CHAPTER 2

1. But. Introducing a contrast with those who spake by the Holy Ghost (2 Peter 1:21).

There were (ejge>nonto). Rev., better, there arose.

There shall be. Note that Peter speaks of them as future, and Jude (ver. 4) as present.

False teachers (yeudodida>skaloi). Only here in New Testament.

Who (oi[tinev). Of that kind or class which, etc.

Privily shall bring in (pareisa>xousin). Only here in New Testament. The kindred adjective occurs in Galatians 2:4"false brethren privily brought in" (pareisa>ktouv).
The metaphor is of spies or traitors introducing themselves into an enemy's camp. Compare Jude 1:4crept in unawares. The verb means, literally, to bring (a]gein) into
(eijv) by the side of (para>).

Damnable heresies (aiJre>seiv ajpwlei>av). Lit., heresies of destruction. Rev., destructive heresies. Heresy is a transcript of ai[resiv, the primary meaning of which is
choice; so that a heresy is, strictly, the choice of an opinion contrary to that usually received; thence transferred to the body of those who profess such opinions, and
therefore a sect. So Rev., in margin, sects of perdition. Commonly in this sense in the New Testament (Acts 5:17; 15:5; 28:22), though the Rev. has an odd variety in
its marginal renderings. See Acts 24:14; 1 Corinthians 11:19; Galatians 5:20. The rendering heretical doctrines seems to agree better with the context; false teachers
bringing in sects is awkward.

Denying. A significant word from Peter.

The Lord (despo>thn). In most cases in the New Testament the word is rendered master, the Rev. changing Lord to master in every case but two - Luke 2:29; Acts
4:24; and in both instances putting master in margin, and reserving Lord for the rendering of ku>riov. In three of these instances the word is used in direct address to
God;   and it (c)
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                               Infobase    changes
                                        Media      Lord to Master in the text of Revelation 6:10 and retains Lord in Luke 2:29; Acts 4:24. In five out
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occurrences of the word in the New Testament it means master of the household. Originally, it indicates absolute, unrestricted authority, so that the Greeks refused the
title to any but the gods. In the New Testament despo>thv and ku>riov are used interchangeably of God, and of masters of servants.
Denying. A significant word from Peter.

The Lord (despo>thn). In most cases in the New Testament the word is rendered master, the Rev. changing Lord to master in every case but two - Luke 2:29; Acts
4:24; and in both instances putting master in margin, and reserving Lord for the rendering of ku>riov. In three of these instances the word is used in direct address to
God; and it may be asked why the Rev. changes Lord to Master in the text of Revelation 6:10 and retains Lord in Luke 2:29; Acts 4:24. In five out of the ten
occurrences of the word in the New Testament it means master of the household. Originally, it indicates absolute, unrestricted authority, so that the Greeks refused the
title to any but the gods. In the New Testament despo>thv and ku>riov are used interchangeably of God, and of masters of servants.

Swift (tacinh). Used by Peter only. See on 2 Peter 1:14.

2. Shall follow. See on 2 Peter 1:16.

Pernicious ways (ajpwlei>aiv). The true reading is ajselgei>aiv, lascivious doings. So Rev. See on 1 Peter 4:3. The use of the plural is rare. Compare Jude 1:4.

3. Through covetousness (ejn pleonexi>a|). Lit., in covetousness; denoting the element or sphere in which the evil is wrought.

Feigned (plastoi~v). Only here in New Testament. From pla>ssw, to mould, as in clay or wax. The idea is, therefore, of words molded at will to suit their vain
imaginations.

Make merchandise (ejmporeu>sontai). Only here and James 4:13. Compare Jude 1:16for the sake of advantage; their glory being in having a multitude of followers.

Judgment (kri>ma). Rev., sentence. So, commonly, in New Testament; the process or act of judging being expressed by kri>siv.

Of a long time (e]kpalai). Rev., better, from of old, bringing out thus more sharply the force of ejk. Only here and 2 Peter 3:5. Construe with lingereth.

Lingereth (ajrgei~). Only here in New Testament. Compare on the kindred adjective idle, 2 Peter 1:8. There is a graphic picture in the sentence. The judgment is not
idle. It is "represented as a living thing, awake and expectant. Long ago that judgment started on its destroying path, and the fate of sinning angels, and the deluge, and
the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah were but incidental illustrations of its power; nor has it even since lingered.... It advances still, strong and vigilant as when first it
sprang from the bosom of God, and will not fail to reach the mark to which it was pointed from of old" (Salmond and Lillie).

Damnation (ajpw>leia). More literally, Rev., destruction. The word occurs three times in vv. 1-3.

Slumbereth (nusta>xei). See on Matthew 25:5 the only other passage where it occurs.

4. The angels. No article. Angels. So Rev. Compare Jude 1:6.

Cast them down to hell (tartarw>sav). Only here in New Testament. From Ta>rtarov, Tartarus. It is strange to find Peter using this Pagan term, which represents the
Greek hell, though treated here not as equivalent to Gehenna, but as the place of detention until the judgment.

Chains of darkness (seirai~v zo>fou). Seira> is a cord or band, sometimes of metal. Compare Septuagint, Proverbs 5:22; Wisd. of Sol. xvii. 2, 18. The best texts,
however, substitute siroi~v or seiroi~v, pits or caverns. Siro>v originally is a place for storing corn. Rev., pits of darkness.

Of darkness (zofou). Peculiar to Peter and Jude. Originally of the gloom of the nether world, So Homer:

"These halls are full

Of shadows hastening down to Erebus

Amid the gloom (uJpofon)."

Odyssey, xx., 355.

When Ulysses meets his mother in the shades, she says to him:

"How didst thou come, my child, a living man,

Into this place of darkness? (uJpofon)."

Odyssey, xi., 155.

Compare Jude 1:13. So Milton:

"Here their prison ordained

In utter darkness, and their portion set

As far removed from God and light of heaven

As from the center thrice to the utmost pole."

Paradise Lost, i., 71-74.

And Dante:

"That air forever black."

Inferno, iii., 329.
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"Upon the verge I found me

Of the abysmal valley dolorous
"That air forever black."

Inferno, iii., 329.

"Upon the verge I found me

Of the abysmal valley dolorous

That gather thunder of infinite ululations.

Obscure, profound it was, and nebulous,

So that by fixing on its depths my sight

Nothing whatever I discerned therein."

Inferno, iv., 7, 12.

"I came unto a place mute of all light."

Inferno, v., 28.

To be reserved (throume>nouv). Lit., being reserved. See on 1 Peter 1:4"reserved in heaven."

5. Saved (ejfu>laxen). Rev., preserved. See on 1 Peter 1:4 and compare "the Lord shut him in" (Genesis 7:16).

Noah the eighth person. So the A.V., literally. Rev. is more perspicuous however: Noah with seven others. Compare 1 Peter 3:20.

A preacher (kh>ruka). Lit., a herald. Compare the kindred verb khru>ssw, to preach, everywhere in New Testament. The word herald is beautifully suggestive, at
many points, of the office of a gospel minister. In the Homeric age the herald partook of the character of an ambassador. He summoned the assembly and kept order in
it, and had charge of arrangements at sacrifices and festivals. The office of the heralds was sacred, and their persons inviolable; hence they were employed to bear
messages between enemies. The symbol of their office was the herald's staff, or caduceus, born by Mercury, the herald-God. This was originally an olive-branch with
fillets, which were afterward formed into snakes, according to the legend that Mercury found two snakes fighting and separated them with his wand, from which
circumstances they were used as an emblem of peace. Plato ("Laws," xii., 941) thus speaks of the fidelity entailed by the office: "If any herald or ambassador carry a
false message to any other city, or bring back a false message from the city to which he is sent, or be proved to have brought back, whether from friends or enemies, in
his capacity of herald or ambassador, what they have never said - let him be indicted for having offended, contrary to the law, in the sacred office and appointment of
Hermes and Zeus, and let there be a penalty fixed which he shall suffer or pay if he be convicted." In later times, their position as messengers between nations at war
was emphasized. In Herodotus (i., 21), the word herald is used as synonymous with apostle. "Alyattes sent a herald (kh>ruka) to Miletus in hopes of concluding a
truce, etc. The herald (ajpo>stolov) went on his way to Miletus." A priestly house at Athens bore the name of kh>rukev, heralds.

Bringing in (ejpa>xav). The verb may be said to be used by Peter only. Besides this passage and ver. 1, it occurs only at Acts 5:28 where Luke probably received the
account from Peter as the principal actor: "ye intend to bring upon us (ejpagagei~n) this man's blood."

6. Turning into ashes (tefrw>sav). Only here in New Testament.

Having made them an example (uJpo>deigma teqeikw>v). Compare 1 Peter 2:21. The word for example is condemned as unclassical by the Attic grammarians, and
para>deigma is substituted, which means, properly, a sculptor's or a painter's model, or an architect's plan.

7. Just (di>kaion). Occurring three times in vv. 7, 8.

Vexed (kataponou>menon). Only here and Acts 7:24. Kata> gives the force of worn down. So Rev., sore distressed.

With the filthy conversation of the wicked (uJposmwn ejn ajselgei>a| ajnastrofh~v). Lit., by the behavior of the lawless in wantonness. Rev., the lascivious life of the
wicked. Life or behavior (ajnastrofh~v). See on 1 Peter 1:15. Wicked (ajqe>smwn), lit., lawless. Only here and 2 Peter 3:17. Wantonness (ajselgei>a|), see on Mark
7:22.

8. Dwelling (ejgkatoikw~n). Only here in New Testament. Dwelling, and therefore suffering continually, from day to day.

In seeing (ble>mmati). Only here in New Testament. Usually of the look of a man from without, through which the vexation comes to the soul. "Vexed his righteous
soul."

Vexed (ejbasani>zen). See on Matthew 4:24torments. The original sense is to test by touchstone or by torture. See on toiling, Mark 6:48. Rev. gives tormented, in
margin.

Unlawful (ajno>moiv). Rev., lawless. Only here in New Testament with things. In all other cases it is applied to persons.

9. Godly (eujsebei~v). Used by Peter only. Compare Acts 10:2, 7. The reading at Acts 22:12 is eujlabh>v, devout. See on 2 Peter 1:3.

Temptation (peirasmou~). See on 1 Peter 1:6.

To reserve (threi~n). See on 1 Peter 1:4. Rev., keep, is not an improvement.

To be punished (kolazome>nouv). Only here and Acts 4:21 where the narrative probably came from Peter. The participle here is, lit., being punished, and therefore the
A.V. is wrong. Rev., rightly, under punishment. Compare Matthew 25:46.

10. Go after the flesh. Compare Jude 1:7.
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Despise government. Rev., dominion. Compare Jude 1:8.
A.V. is wrong. Rev., rightly, under punishment. Compare Matthew 25:46.

10. Go after the flesh. Compare Jude 1:7.

Of uncleanness (miasmou~). Only here in New Testament. See on defilements, ver. 20. Compare Jude 1:8.

Despise government. Rev., dominion. Compare Jude 1:8.

Presumptuous (tolmhtai>). Only here in New Testament. Lit., darers. Rev., daring.

Self-willed (aujqa>deiv). Only here and Titus 1:7. From aujto>v, self, and h[domai, to delight in. Therefore a self-loving spirit.

They tremble (tre>mousin). Compare Mark 5:33. An uncommon word in the New Testament. Luke 8:47; Acts 9:6.

Dignities (do>xav). Lit., glories. Compare Jude 1:8. Probably angelic powers: note the reference to the angels immediately following, as in Jude 1:9 to Michael. They
defy the spiritual powers though knowing their might.

11. Power and might (ijscu>i` kaimei). Rev., might and power. The radical idea of ijscu>v, might, is that of indwelling strength, especially as embodied: might which
inheres in physical powers organized and working under individual direction, as an army: which appears in the resistance of physical organisms, as the earth, against
which one dashes himself in vain: which dwells in persons or things, and gives them influence or value: which resides in laws or punishments to make them irresistible.
This sense comes out clearly in the New Testament in the use of the word and of its cognates. Thus, "Love the Lord thy God with all thy strength" (Mark 12:30):
"according to the working of his mighty power" (Ephesians 1:19). So the kindred adjective ijscuro>v. "A strong man" (Matthew 12:29): a mighty famine (Luke 15:14):
his letters are powerful (2 Corinthians 10:10): a strong consolation (Hebrews 6:18): a mighty angel (Revelation 18:21). Also the verb iJscu>w. "It is good for
nothing" (Matthew 5:13): "shall not be able" (Luke 13:24): "I can do all things" (Philippians 4:13): "availeth much" (James 5:16).

Du>namiv is rather ability, faculty: not necessarily manifest, as ijscu>v: power residing in one by nature. Thus ability (Matthew 25:15): virtue (Mark 5:30): power (Luke
24:29; Acts 1:8; 1 Corinthians 2:4): "strengthen of sin" (1 Corinthians 15:56). So of moral vigor. "Strengthened with might in the inner man" (Ephesians 3:16): "with all
might (Colossians 1:11). It is, however, mostly power in action, as in the frequent use of duna>meiv for miracles, mighty works, they being exhibitions of divine virtue.
Thus "power unto salvation" (Romans 1:16): the kingdom coming in power" (Mark 9:1): God himself called power - "the right hand of the power" (Matthew 26:64),
and so in classical Greek used to denote the magistrates or authorities. Also of the angelic powers (Ephesians 1:21; Romans 8:38; 1 Peter 3:22). Generally, then, it may
be said that while both words include the idea of manifestation or of power in action, ijscu>v emphasizes the outward, physical manifestations, and du>namiv the
inward, spiritual or moral virtue. Plato ("Protagoras," 350) draws the distinction thus: "I should not have admitted that the able (dunatou) are strong (ijscurou), though I
have admitted that the strong are able. For there is a difference between ability (du>namin) and strength (ijscu). The former is given by knowledge as well as by
madness or rage; but strength comes from nature and a healthy state of the body. Aristotle ("Rhet.," i., 5) says "strength (ijscu) is the power of moving another as one
wills; and that other is to be moved either by drawing or pushing or carrying or pressing or compressing; so that the strong (oJ ijscuro) is strong for all or for some of
these things."

Railing judgment. Compare Jude 1:9; Zechariah 3:1, 2.

12. As natural brute beasts made to be taken and destroyed. This massing of epithets is characteristic of Peter. Natural (fusika), Rev., mere animals, should be
construed with made, or as Rev., born (gegennhme>na). Brute (a]loga), lit., unreasoning or irrational. Rev., without reason. Compare Acts 25:27. Beasts (zw~a). Lit.,
living creatures, from za>w, to live. More general and inclusive than beasts, since it denotes strictly all creatures that live, including man. Plato even applies it to God
himself. Hence Rev., properly, creatures. To be taken and destroyed (eijv a[lwsin kai, fqora>n). Lit., for capture and destruction. Destruction twice in this verse, and
with a cognate verb. Render the whole, as Rev., But these, as creatures without reason, born mere animals to be taken and destroyed.

Speak evil (blasfemou~ntev). Participle. Rev., rightly, railing. Compare vv. 10, 11.

And shall utterly perish in their own corruption (ejn th|~ fqora|~ aujtw~n kaisontai). There is a play upon the words, which the Rev. reproduces by rendering, "shall in
their destroying surely be destroyed." The and, which in the A.V. connects this and the preceding sentence, is rather to be taken with shall be destroyed, as emphasizing
it, and should be rendered, as Rev., surely, or as others, even or also. Compare on the whole verse Jude 1:10.

13. And shall receive (komiou>menoi). Lit., being about or destined to receive. See on 1 Peter 1:9 and compare 1 Peter 5:4. Some good texts read ajdikou>menoi,
suffering wrong. So Rev., suffering wrong as the hire of wrong-doing.

Reward of unrighteousness (misqoav). Misqo is hire, and so is rendered in Rev. Compare Matthew 20:8; Luke 10:7; John 4:36. It also has in classical Greek the
general sense of reward, and so very often in the New Testament, in passages where hire or wages would be inappropriate. Thus Matthew 5:12; 6:1; 10:41. Hire
would seem to be better here, because of the reference to Balaam in ver. 15, where the word occurs again and requires that rendering. The phrase misqo>v, reward or
wages of iniquity, occurs only here and in Peter's speech concerning Judas (Acts 1:18), where the Rev. retains the rendering of the A.V., reward of iniquity. It would
have been better to render wages of iniquity in both places. Iniquity and unrighteousness are used in English almost synonymously; though, etymologically, iniquity
emphasizes the idea of injustice (inaequus), while unrighteousness (non-rightness) is more general, implying all deviation from right, whether involving another's interests
or not. This distinction is not, however, observed in the Rev., where the rendering of a]diki>a, and of the kindred adjective a]dikov, varies unaccountably, if not
capriciously, between unrighteous and unjust.

As they that count it pleasure to riot (hJdonhmenoi trufh>n). The as of the A.V. is needless. The discourse proceeds from ver. 13 by a series of participles, as far as
following (ver. 15). Literally the passage runs, counting riot a pleasure.

Riot (trufh>n). Meaning rather daintiness, delicacy, luxuriousness. Even the Rev. revel is almost too strong. Compare Luke 7:25 the only other passage where the word
occurs, and where the Rev. retains the A.V., live delicately. So, also, Rev. substitutes, in James 5:5lived delicately for lived in pleasure.

In the daytime. Compare Peter's words Acts 2:15; also, 1 Thessalonians 5:7.

Spots (spi>loi). Only here and Ephesians 5:27. Compare the kindred participle spotted (Jude 1:23), and defileth (James 3:6).

Blemishes (mw~moi). Only here in New Testament. The negatives of the two terms spots and blemishes occur at 1 Peter 1:19.

Sporting themselves (ejntrufw~ntev). From trufh>, luxuriousness. See on riot. Rev., revelling.

With  their own
 Copyright       deceivings (ejn
             (c) 2005-2009,       tai~v ajpa>taiv
                              Infobase            auJtw~n). The Rev., however, follows another reading, which occurs in the parallel passage Jude 1:12:
                                         Media Corp.                                                                                                   Page ajga>paiv,
                                                                                                                                                               272 / love-
                                                                                                                                                                        567
feasts, the public banquets instituted by the early Christians, and connected with the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Rev. renders revelling in their love-feasts, though
the American Committee insist on deceivings. On the abuses at these feasts, see 1 Corinthians 11:20-22. For auJtw~n, their own, the best texts read aujtw~n, their.
Blemishes (mw~moi). Only here in New Testament. The negatives of the two terms spots and blemishes occur at 1 Peter 1:19.

Sporting themselves (ejntrufw~ntev). From trufh>, luxuriousness. See on riot. Rev., revelling.

With their own deceivings (ejn tai~v ajpa>taiv auJtw~n). The Rev., however, follows another reading, which occurs in the parallel passage Jude 1:12: ajga>paiv, love-
feasts, the public banquets instituted by the early Christians, and connected with the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Rev. renders revelling in their love-feasts, though
the American Committee insist on deceivings. On the abuses at these feasts, see 1 Corinthians 11:20-22. For auJtw~n, their own, the best texts read aujtw~n, their.

While they feast with you (suneuwcou>menoi). The word originally conveys the idea of sumptuous feasting, and is appropriate in view of the fact to which Peter
alludes, that these sensualists converted the love-feast into a revel. Compare Paul's words, 1 Corinthians 11:21"one is hungry and another drunken." This seems to
favor the reading ajga>paiv. The word occurs only here and Jude 1:12.

14. Eyes. Another illustration of Peter's emphasis on sight. It is the instrument of evil no less than of good. Compare Matthew 5:28.

Adultery (moicali>dov). Lit., an adulteress, but used as an adjective Matthew 12:39; 16:4.

That cannot cease (ajkataoau>stouv). Only here, in New Testament. Compare hath ceased (1 Peter 4:1).

Beguiling (delea>zontev). Only here, ver. 18, and James 1:14. From de>lear, a bait. An appropriate word from Peter the fisherman. Rev., enticing.

Unstable (ajsthri>ktouv). A compound of the word at 1 Peter 5:10stablish. See note there, and on 2 Peter 1:12.

An heart they have exercised (kardi>an gegumnasme>nhn e]contev). The A.V. is awkward. Better, Rev., having a heart exercised. Exercised is the word used for
gymnastic training, from which gymnastic is derived.

With covetous practices. The A.V. follows the old reading, pleonexi>aiv. The best texts read pleonexi>av, covetousness. Rev., therefore, rightly, in covetousness.

Cursed children (kata>rav te>kna). Lit., children of cursing; and so Rev. See on Mark 3:17 and 1 Peter 1:14.

15. Right (eujqei~an). Lit., straight, which is the radical meaning of right.

Are gone astray (ajplanh>qhsan). See on Mark 12:24.

Following (ejxakolouqh>santev). See on 2 Peter 1:16; 2:2. Compare Jude 1:11.

The way. Note the frequent occurrence of the word way in the story of Balaam (Numbers 22), and Peter's use of the same phrase, as here, the right ways of the Lord,
in Acts 13:10.

Bosor. Rev. gives Beor, the Old Testament form of the name.

Wages of unrighteousness. See on ver. 13.

16. Was rebuked (e]legxin e]scen). Lit., had a rebuke. The word for rebuke only here in New Testament.

For his iniquity (ijdi>av paranomi>av). Rev., his own transgression. His own, see on 2 Peter 1:3. Transgression, from para>, contrary to, and no>mov, law. Only here
in New Testament. Compare the kindred verb paranome>w, also occurring but once, Acts 23:3 where see note on contrary to the law.

The dumb ass. Inserting an article not in the text, and omitted by Rev.

Ass (uJpozu>gion). Lit., beast of burden. An animal subjected to the yoke. From uJpo>, beneath, and zugo>n, a yoke. See on Matthew 21:5.

Speaking (fqegxa>menon). The verb is found in Peter only, here and ver. 18, and in Acts 4:18 a Petrine narrative. It is well chosen, however. The verb denotes the
utterance of a sound or voice, not only by man, but by any animal having lungs. Hence, not only of men's articulate cries, such as a battle-shout, but of the neigh of the
horse, the scream of the eagle, the croak of a raven. It is also applied to sounds made by inanimate things, such as thunder, a trumpet, a lyre, the ring of an earthen
vessel, showing whether it is cracked or not. Schmidt ("Synonymik") says that it does not indicate any physical capability on the part of the man, but describes the
sound only from the hearer's stand-point. In view of this general sense of the verb, the propriety is apparent of the defining phrase, with man's voice.

Forbad (ejkw>lusen). Rather, hindered, or, as Rev., stayed. Compare Acts 8:36; Romans 1:13 Rev.

Madness (parafroni>an). Only here in New Testament. But compare the kindred verb parafrone>w (2 Corinthians 11:23), in the phrase, "I speak as a fool." From
para>, beside, and frh>n, the mind; and so equivalent to the phrase, beside one's self.

17. Wells (phgai). Better, as Rev., springs; yet the Rev. has retained well at John 4:14 where the change would have given more vividness to Christ's metaphor, which
is that of an ever upleaping, living fountain.

Without water. As so often in the East, where the verdure excites the traveler's hope of water. Compare Jeremiah 2:13 and the contrast presented in Isaiah 48:11;
Proverbs 10:11; 13:14.

Clouds. The A.V. has followed the Tex. Rec., nefe>lai, as in Jude 1:12. The correct reading is oJmi>clai, mists, found only here in New Testament. So Rev.

With a tempest (uJpolapov). Rev., by a storm. The word occurs only twice elsewhere - Mark 4:37; Luke 7:23 - in the parallel accounts of the storm on the lake, which
Jesus calmed by his word. There on the lake Peter was at home, as well as with the Lord on that occasion; and the peculiar word describing a whirlwind - one of those
sudden storms so frequent on that lake (see note on the word, Mark 4:37) - would be the first to occur to him. Compare Paul's similar figure, Ephesians 4:14.

Blackness (zo>fov). See on ver. 4, and compare Jude 1:13.

Of darkness (tou~ sko>touv). Lit., the darkness, denoting a well-understood doom.
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Is reserved (teth>rhtai). Lit., hath been reserved, as Rev. See on 1 Peter 1:4; 2 Peter 2:4.

Forever. The best texts omit.
Blackness (zo>fov). See on ver. 4, and compare Jude 1:13.

Of darkness (tou~ sko>touv). Lit., the darkness, denoting a well-understood doom.

Is reserved (teth>rhtai). Lit., hath been reserved, as Rev. See on 1 Peter 1:4; 2 Peter 2:4.

Forever. The best texts omit.

18. When they speak (fqeggo>menoi). Rev., better, uttering. See on ver. 16.

Great swelling (uJpe>rogka). Only here and Jude 1:16. The word means of excessive bulk. It accords well with the peculiar word uttering, since it denotes a kind of
speech full of high-sounding verbosity without substance. Fqeggo>menoi, uttering, is significantly applied alike to Balaam's beast and to these empty declaimers.

Entice. See ver. 14.

Where clean escaped. The A.V. follows the Tex. Rec., o]ntwv ajpofugo>ntav; o]ntwv meaning really, actually, as Luke 24:34; and the participle being the aorist, and
so meaning were escaped. But the best texts all read ojli>gwv, in a little degree, or just, or scarcely; and ajpofeu>gontav, the present participle, are escaping; and
denoting those who are in the early stage of their escape from error, and are not safe from it and confirmed in the truth. Hence, Rev., correctly, who are just escaping.
'Oli>gwv, only here.

19. Is overcome (h[tthtai). Lit., is worsted; from h[sswn, inferior. Only here, ver. 20, and 2 Corinthians 12:13.

Brought into bondage (dedou>lwtai). Enslaved. Compare Romans 6:16.

20. Pollutions (mia>smata). Only here in New Testament. Compare ver. 10. The word is transcribed in miasma.

Entangled (ejmplake>ntev). Only here and 2 Timothy 2:4. The same metaphor occurs in Aeschylus ("Prometheus"): "For not on a sudden or in ignorance will ye be
entangled (ejmplecqh>sesqe) by your folly in an impervious net of Ate (destruction)."

22. According to the true proverb (toav). Lit., that of the true proverb, or the matter of the proverb. For a similar construction see Matthew 21:21that of the fig-tree;
Matthew 8:33the things of those possessed. On proverb, see notes on Matthew 13:3.

Vomit (ejxe>rama). Only here in New Testament.

Wallowing (kulismo). Only here in New Testament.

Mire (borbo>rou). Only here in New Testament. This use of dogs and swine together recalls Matthew 7:6.

CHAPTER 3

1. Beloved. Occurring four times in this chapter.

Second - I write. An incidental testimony to the authorship of the second epistle.

Pure minds (eijlikrinh~ dia>noian). The latter word is singular, not plural. Hence, as Rev., mind. The word rendered pure is often explained tested by the sunlight; but
this is very doubtful, since ei[lh, to which this meaning is traced, means the heat, and not the light of the sun. Others derive it from the root of the verb eiJli>ssw, to roll,
and explain it as that which is separated or sifted by rolling, as in a sieve. In favor of this etymology is its association in classical Greek with different words meaning
unmixed. The word occurs only here and Philippians 1:10. The kindred noun eijlikri>neia, sincerity, is found 1 Corinthians 5:8; 2 Corinthians 1:12; 2:17. Rev., here,
sincere.

Mind (dia>noian). Compare 1 Peter 1:13; and see on Mark 12:30.

3. Scoffers walking (ejmpai~ktai poreu>omenoi). This is the reading followed by A.V. But the later texts have added ejmpaigmonh|~, in mockery, occurring only here,
though a kindred word for mockings (ejmpaigmw~n) is found Hebrews 11:36. This addition gives a play upon the words; and so Rev., "Mockers shall come with
mockery, walking," etc.

4. From the beginning of the creation (ajp' ajrch~v kti>sewv). Not a common phrase. It occurs only Mark 10:6; 13:19; Revelation 3:14.

Fell asleep (ejkoimh>qhsan). A literal and correct translation of the word, which occurs frequently in the New Testament, but only here in Peter. Some have supposed
that the peculiarly Christian sense of the word is emphasized ironically by these mockers. It is used, however, in classical Greek to denote death. The difference
between the pagan and the Christian usage lies in the fact that, in the latter, it was defined by the hope of the resurrection, and therefore was used literally of a sleep,
which, though long, was to have an awaking. See on Acts 7:60.

5. This they willingly are ignorant of (lanqa>nei aujtoulontav). Lit., this escapes them of their own will. Rev., this they wilfully forget.

The heavens were. But the Greek has not article. Render, there were heavens. So, too, not the earth, but an earth, as Rev.

Standing (sunestw~sa). Incorrect; for the word is, literally, standing together; i.e., compacted or formed. Compare Colossians 1:17consist. Rev., compacted.

Out of the water. Again no article. Render out of water; denoting not the position of the earth, but the material or mediating element in the creation; the waters being
gathered together in one place, and the dry land appearing. Or, possibly, with reference to the original liquid condition of the earth - without form and void.

In the water (dij u[datov). Omit the article. Dia> has its usual sense here, not as Rev., amidst, but by means of. Bengel: "The water served that the earth should consist."
Expositors are much divided as to the meaning. This is the view of Huther, Salmond, and, substantially, Alford.

6. The world that then was (oJ to>te ko>smov). Lit., the then world. The word for world is literally order, and denotes the perfect system of the material universe.
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7. The heavens - which now are (oiJ nu~n oujranoi). A construction similar to the then world (ver. 6). The now heavens, or the present heavens.
Expositors are much divided as to the meaning. This is the view of Huther, Salmond, and, substantially, Alford.

6. The world that then was (oJ to>te ko>smov). Lit., the then world. The word for world is literally order, and denotes the perfect system of the material universe.

Being overflowed (kataklusqei). Only here in New Testament. Cataclysm is derived from it.

7. The heavens - which now are (oiJ nu~n oujranoi). A construction similar to the then world (ver. 6). The now heavens, or the present heavens.

Kept in store (teqhsaurisme>noi). Rev., stored up. Lit., treasured up. The same word which is used in Luke 12:21layeth up treasure. Sometimes with the kindred noun
qhsaurou, treasures, as Matthew 6:19; lit., treasure treasures.

Unto fire. Some construe this with treasured up; as Rev., stored up for fire; others with reserved, as A.V.; others again give the sense stored with fire, indicating that the
agent for the final destruction is already prepared.

9. Is not slack (ouj bradu>nei). Only here and 1 Timothy 3:15. The word is literally to delay or loiter. So Septuagint, Genesis 43:10"except we had lingered." Alford's
rendering, is not tardy, would be an improvement. The word implies, besides delay, the idea of lateness with reference to an appointed time.

Come (cwrh~sai). Move on, or advance to.

10. The day of the Lord. Compare the same phrase in Peter's sermon, Acts 2:20. It occurs only in these two passages and 1 Thessalonians 5:2. See 1 Corinthians 1:8;
2 Corinthians 1:14.

As a thief. Omit in the night. Compare Matthew 24:43; 1 Thessalonians 4:2, 4; Revelation 3:3; 16:15.

With a great noise (rJoizhdo). An adverb peculiar to Peter, and occurring only here. It is a word in which the sound suggest the sense (rhoizedon); and the kindred
noun, rJoi~zov, is used in classical Greek of the whistling of an arrow; the sound of a shepherd's pipe; the rush of wings; the plash of water; the hissing of a serpent; and
the sound of filing.

The elements (stoicei~a). Derived from stoi~cov, a row, and meaning originally one of a row or series; hence a component or element. The name for the letters of the
alphabet, as being set in rows. Applied to the four elements - fire, air, earth, water; and in later times to the planets and signs of the zodiac. It is used in an ethical sense
in other passages; as in Galatians 4:3"elements or rudiments of the world." Also of elementary teaching, such as the law, which was fitted for an earlier stage in the
world's history; and of the first principles of religious knowledge among men. In Colossians 2:8 of formal ordinances. Compare Hebrews 5:12. The kindred verb
stoice>w, to walk, carries the idea of keeping in line, according to the radical sense. Thus, walk according to rule (Galatians 6:16); walkest orderly (Acts 21:24). So,
too, the compound sustoice>w, only in Galatians 4:25answereth to, lit., belongs to the same row or column with. The Greek grammarians called the categories of
letters arranged according to the organs of speech sustoici>ai. Here the word is of course used in a physical sense, meaning the parts of which this system of things is
composed. Some take it as meaning the heavenly bodies, but the term is too late and technical in that sense. Compare Matthew 24:29the powers of the heaven.

Shall melt (luqh>sontai). More literally, as Rev., shall be dissolved.

With fervent heat (kausou>mena). Lit., being scorched up.

11. To be dissolved (luome>nwn). So Rev. But the participle is present; and the idea is rather, are in process of dissolution. The word and all therein is essentially
transitory.

Ought ye to be (uJpa>rcein). See on 2 Peter 1:8.

Conversation (ajnastrofai~v). See on 1 Peter 1:15. Rev., living.

Godliness (eujsebei>aiv). See on 2 Peter 1:3. Both words are plural; holy things and godliness.

12. Looking for (prosdokw~ntav). The same verb as in Luke 1:21 of waiting for Zacharias. Cornelius waited (Acts 10:24); the cripple expecting to receive something
(Acts 3:5).

Hasting unto (speu>dontav). Wrong. Rev., earnestly desiring, for which there is authority. I am inclined to adopt, with Alford, Huther, Salmond, and Trench, the
transitive meaning, hastening on; i.e., "causing the day of the Lord to come more quickly by helping to fulfil those conditions without which it cannot come; that day
being no day inexorably fixed, but one the arrival of which it is free to the church to hasten on by faith and by prayer" (Trench, on "The Authorized Version of the New
Testament"). See Matthew 24:14: the gospel shall be preached in the whole world, "and then shall the end come." Compare the words of Peter, Acts 3:19: "Repent
and be converted," etc., "that so there may come seasons of refreshing" (so Rev., rightly); and the prayer, "Thy kingdom come." Salmond quotes a rabbincal saying, "If
thou keepest this precept thou hastenest the day of Messiah." This meaning is given in margin of Rev.

Wherein (dij h{n). Wrong. Rev., correctly, by reason of which.

Melt (th>ketai). Literal. Stronger than the word in vv. 10, 11. Not only the resolving, but the wasting away of nature. Only here in New Testament.

13. We look for. The same verb as in ver. 12. It occurs three times in 12-14.

New (kainou). See on Matthew 26:29.

14. Without spot and blameless. See on 2 Peter 2:13.

16. Hard to be understood (dusno>hta). Only here in New Testament.

They that are unlearned and unstable (oiJ ajmaqei~v kairiktoi). Both words are peculiar to Peter. On the latter, see on 2 Peter 2:14.

Wrest (streblou~sin). Only here in New Testament. Meaning, originally, to hoist with a windless or screw; to twist or dislocate the limbs on a rack. It is a singularly
graphic word applied to the perversion of scripture.

The other scriptures
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17. Being led away (sunapacqe>ntev). Better, Rev., carried away. It is the word used by Paul of Barnabas, when he dissembled with Peter at Antioch. "Barnabas was
carried away with their dissimulation" (Galatians 2:13).
Wrest (streblou~sin). Only here in New Testament. Meaning, originally, to hoist with a windless or screw; to twist or dislocate the limbs on a rack. It is a singularly
graphic word applied to the perversion of scripture.

The other scriptures (ta). Showing that Paul's epistles were ranked as scripture. See on Mark 12:10.

17. Being led away (sunapacqe>ntev). Better, Rev., carried away. It is the word used by Paul of Barnabas, when he dissembled with Peter at Antioch. "Barnabas was
carried away with their dissimulation" (Galatians 2:13).

Of the wicked (ajqe>smwn). See on 2 Peter 2:7.

Fall from (ejkpe>shte). Lit., "fall out of." Compare Galatians 5:4.

Steadfastness (sthrigmou~). Only here in New Testament. See on 2 Peter 1:12.

LIST OF GREEK WORDS USED BY PETER ONLY

ajgaqopoii`>a, well-doing, 1 Peter 4:19

ajgaqopoi>ov, a well-doer, 1 Peter 2:14

ajdelfo>thv, brotherhood, 1 Peter 2:17; 5:9

a]dolov, without guile, 1 Peter 2:2

a]qesmov, wicked, 2 Peter 2:7; 3:17

aijscrokerdw~v, for filthy lucre, 1 Peter 5:2

ajkata>pastov, that cannot cease, 1 Peter 2:11, 14

ajllotrioepi>skopov, a busy-body in other men's matters 1 Peter 4:15

a[lwsiv, capture, 2 Peter 2:12

ajmaqh>v, unlearned, 2 Peter 3:16

ajma>rantinov, unfading, 1 Peter 5:4

ajmara>ntov, unfading, 1 Peter 1:4

ajmw>mhtov, blameless, 2 Peter 3:14

ajnagenna>w to beget again, 1 Peter 1:3, 23

ajnagkastw~v, by constraint, 1 Peter 5:2

ajnazw>nnumi, gird up, 1 Peter 1:13

ajna>cusiv, excess, 1 Peter 4;4

ajnekla>lhtov, unspeakable, 1 Peter 1:8

ajntiloidore>w, to revile again, 1 Peter 2:23

ajpogi>nomai, to be dead, 1 Peter 2:24

ajpo>qesiv, putting away, 1 Peter 3:21; 2, 1:14

ajpone>mw, assign, impart, 1 Peter 3:7

ajpofeu>gw, to escape, 2 Peter 1:4; 2:18, 20

ajproswpolh>mptwv, without respect of persons, 1 Peter 1:17

ajrge>w, linger, 2 Peter 2:3

ajrtige>nnhtov, new-born, 1 Peter 2:2

ajrcipoi>mhn, chief sheperd, 1 Peter 5:4

ajsth>riktov, unsteadfast, 2 Peter 2;14; 3;16

aujcmhro>v, dry, dark, 2 Peter 1:19

bio>w, live, 1 Peter 4:2

ble>mma,
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bo>rborov, mire, 2 Peter 2:22
aujcmhro>v, dry, dark, 2 Peter 1:19

bio>w, live, 1 Peter 4:2

ble>mma, seeing, 2 Peter 2:8

bo>rborov, mire, 2 Peter 2:22

braduth>v, slackness, 2 Peter 3:9

gunaikei~ov, female (adj.), 1 Peter 3:7

diauga>zw, to dawn, 2 Peter 1:19

dusno>htov, hard to be understood, 2 Peter 3:16

ejgkatoike>w, dwell among, 2 Peter 2:8

ejgkombo>omai, gird, 1 Peter 5:5

eJka>stote, always, 2 Peter 1;15

e]kpalai, from of old, 2 Peter 2:3; 3;5

ejktenh>v, intense, 1 Peter 4:8

e]legxiv, rebuke, 2 Peter 2:16

ejmpaigmonh>, mockery, 2 Peter 3:3

ejmplokh>, plaiting, 1 Peter 3:3

e]ndusiv, putting on, 1 Peter 3:3

ejntrufa>w, revel, 2 Peter 2:13

ejxakolouqe>w, follow (out), 2 Peter 1:16; 2:2, 15

ejxe>rama, vomit, 2 Peter 2:22

ejxerauna>w, search diligently, 1 Peter 10;

ejpa>ggelma, promise, 2 Peter 1:4; 3:13

ejperw>thma, inquiry, appeal, 1 Peter 3:21

ejpika>lumma, cloke, 1 Peter 2:16

ejpi>loipov, remaining, 1 Peter 4:2

ejpi>lusiv, interpretation, 2 Peter 1:20

ejpimarture>w, testify, 1 Peter 5:12

ejpo>pthv, eye-witness

ejpopteu>w, behold, 1 Peter 2:12; 3:2

iJera>teuma, priesthood, 1 Peter 2:5, 9

ijso>timov, like-precious, 2 Peter 1:1

kataklu>zomai, to be overflowed, 2 Peter 3:6

kauso>w, to burn with intense heat, 2 Peter 3:10, 12

kle>ov, glory, 1 Peter 2:20

krataio>v, mighty, 1 Peter 5:6

ktisth>v, creator, 1 Peter 4:19

kulismo>v, wallowing, 2 Peter 2:22

lh>qh, forgetfullness, 2 Peter 1:9

megalopreph>v, excellent, 2 Peter 1:17
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mi>asma, defilement, 2 Peter 2:20; 2:10

miasmo>v,
lh>qh, forgetfullness, 2 Peter 1:9

megalopreph>v, excellent, 2 Peter 1:17

mi>asma, defilement, 2 Peter 2:20; 2:10

miasmo>v,

mnh>mh, remembrance, 2 Peter 1:15

muwpa>zw, to be shortsighted, 2 Peter 1;9

mw>lwy, stripe, weal, 1 Peter 2:24

mw~mov, blemish, 2 Peter 2:13

ojinoflugi>a, wine-bibbing, 1 Peter 4:3

ojli>gwv, but a little, just, 2 Peter 2:18

oJmi>clh, mist, 2 Peter 2:17

oJmo>frwn, like-minded, 1 Peter 3:8

oJpli>zomai, arm one's self, 1 Peter 4:1

paranomi>a, transgression, 2 Peter 2:16

parafroni>a, madness, 2 Peter 2:16

pareisa>gw, bring in privily, 2 Peter 2:1

pareisfe>rw, add, 2 Peter 1:5

patropara>dotov, handed down from the fathers, 1 Peter 1:18

peri>qesiv, wearing, 1 Peter 3:3

plasto>v, feigned, 2 Peter 2:3

po>tov, carousing, 1 Peter 4:3

proqu>mwv, willingly, 1 Peter 5:2

promartu>romai, testify beforehand, 1 Peter 1:11

pto>hsiv, terror, 1 Peter 3:6

rJoizhdo>n, with a great noise, 2 Peter 3:10

rJu>pov, filth, 1 Peter 3:21

sqeno>w, strengthen, 1 Peter 5:10

seiro>v, a pit, 2 Peter 2:4

spora>, seed, 1 Peter 1:23

sthrigmo>v, steadfastness, 2 Peter 3:17

streblo>w, wrest, 2 Peter 3:16

sumpaqh>v, compassionate, 1 Peter 3:8

sumpresbu>terov, fellow-elder, 1 Peter 5:1

suneklekto>v, elected together, 1 Peter 5;13

sunoike>w, dwell with, 1 Peter 3:7

tapeino>frwn, humble-minded, 1 Peter 3:8

tartaro>w, cast down to hell, 2 Peter 2:4

tacino>v, quick, swift, 2 Peter 1:14; 2:1

telei>wv, perfectly, 1 Peter 1:13
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tefro>w, turn to ashes, 2 Peter 2:6
tacino>v, quick, swift, 2 Peter 1:14; 2:1

telei>wv, perfectly, 1 Peter 1:13

tefro>w, turn to ashes, 2 Peter 2:6

th>komai, melt, 2 Peter 3:12

toio>sde, such, 2 Peter 1:17

tolmhth>v, daring, 2 Peter 2:10

uJpogrammo>v, example, 1 Peter 2:21

uJpozu>gion, beast of burden, 2 Peter 2:16

uJpolimpa>nw, leave, 1 Peter 2:21

u=v, sow, 2 Peter 2:22

fila>delfov, loving as a brother, 1 Peter 3:8

fwsfo>rov, day-star, 2 Peter 1:19

yeudodida>skalov, false teacher, 2 Peter 2:1

wjru>omai, roar, 1 Peter 5:8

Of these, fifty-five are peculiar to the second epistle, and only one, ajpo>qesiv, putting off, is common to the two epistles.

THE EPISTLE OF JUDE

1. Jude. Rev., Judas. One of the brethren of Jesus; not the brother of James the Apostle, the son of Alphaeus, but of James the superintendent of the church at
Jerusalem. He is named among the brethren of the Lord. Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3.

Servant. He does not call himself an apostle, as Paul and Peter in their introductions, and seems to distinguish himself from the apostles in Jude 1:17, 18: "The apostles
of our Lord Jesus Christ, how that they said," etc. We are told that Christ's brethren did not believe on him (John 7:5); and in Acts the brethren of Jesus (Acts 1:14) are
mentioned in a way which seems to separate them from the apostles. Dou~lov, bond-servant, occurs in the introductions to Romans, Philippians, Titus, James, and 2
Peter.

Brother of James. That Jude does not allude to his relationship to the Lord may be explained by the fact that the natural relationship in his mind would be subordinate to
the spiritual (see Luke 11:27, 28), and that such a designation would, as Dean Alford remarks, "have been in harmony with those later and superstitious feelings with
which the next and following ages regarded the Lord's earthly relatives." He would shrink from emphasizing a distinction to which none of the other disciples or apostles
could have a claim, the more so because of his former unbelief in Christ's authority and mission. It is noticeable that James likewise avoids such a designation.

Kept. See on 1 Peter 1:4. Compare John 17:6,12.

In Jesus Christ ('Ihsou~ Cristw|~). The simple dative without preposition. Therefore for Jesus Christ; by the Father to whom Christ committed them (John 17:11).
Compare 1 Thessalonians 5:23; Philippians 1:6, 10.

Called (klhtoi~v). At the end of the verse, for emphasis.

2. Love. Peculiar to Jude in salutation.

3. Beloved. Occurring at the beginning of an epistle only here and 3 John 1:2.

When I gave all diligence (pa~san spoudhmenov). Lit., making all diligence; the phrase found only here. In Hebrews 6:11 we find "shew diligence" (ejndei>knusqai);
and in 2 Peter 1:5"adding diligence." See note there.

The common salvation. The best texts add hJmw~n, of us. So Rev., "our common salvation."

It was needful (ajna>gkhn e]scon). Lit., I had necessity. Alford, I found it necessary. Rev., I was constrained.

Earnestly contend (ejpagwni>zesqai). Only here in New Testament.

The faith. The sum of what Christians believe. See on Acts 6:7.

Once (a[pax). Nor formerly, but once for all. So Rev., "No other faith will be given," says Bengel.

4. With the whole verse compare 2 Peter 2:1.

Crept in unawares (pareise>dusan). Rev., privily. See on 2 Peter 2:1. The verb means to get in by the side (para>), to slip in by a side-door. Only here in New
Testament.

Ordained (progegramme>noi). The meaning is in dispute. The word occurs four times in New Testament. In two of these instances pro> has clearly the temporal sense
before (Romans 15:4; Ephesians 3:3). In Galatians 3:1 it is taken by some in the sense of openly, publicly (see note there). It seems better, on the whole, to take it here
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Lasciviousness. See on 1 Peter 4:3.
Testament.

Ordained (progegramme>noi). The meaning is in dispute. The word occurs four times in New Testament. In two of these instances pro> has clearly the temporal sense
before (Romans 15:4; Ephesians 3:3). In Galatians 3:1 it is taken by some in the sense of openly, publicly (see note there). It seems better, on the whole, to take it here
in the temporal sense, and to render written of beforehand, i.e., in prophecy as referred to in Jude 1:14, 15. So the American Rev.

Lasciviousness. See on 1 Peter 4:3.

Lord God. God is omitted in the best texts. On Lord (despo>thn), see on 2 Peter 2:1.

5. Ye once knew (eijdo>tav a[pax). Entirely wrong. The participle is to be rendered as present, and the once is not formerly, but once for all, as ver. 3. So Rev.,
rightly, though ye know all things once for all.

6. First estate (ajrch). The word originally signifies beginning, and so frequently in New Testament, mostly in the Gospels, Acts, Hebrews, Catholic Epistles, and
Revelation. From this comes a secondary meaning of sovereignty, dominion, magistracy, as being the beginning or first place of power. So mostly by Paul, as
principalities (Romans 8:38); rule (1 Corinthians 15:24). Compare Luke 12:11magistrates; Rev., rulers; and Luke 20:20power. Rev., rule. A peculiar use of the word
occurs at Acts 10:1"the sheet knit at the four corners (ajrcai~v); "the corners being the beginnings of the sheet. In this passage the A.V. has adopted the first meaning,
beginning, in its rendering first estate. Rev. adopts the second, rendering principality. The Jews regarded the angels as having dominion over earthly creatures; and the
angels are often spoken of in the New Testament as ajrcai>, principalities; as Romans 8:38; Ephesians 1:21; so that this term would be appropriate to designate their
dignity, which they forsook.

Habitation (oijkhth>rion). Only here and 2 Corinthians 5:2.

Everlasting (aji`di>oiv). Only here and Romans 1:20. For a longer form ajei>diov, from ajei>, always.

Under darkness (u[po zo>fon). under carries the sense of the darkness brooking over the fallen spirits. On darkness, see on 2 Peter 2:4. Compare Heriod:

"There the Titanian gods, to murky gloom

Condemned by will of cloud-collecting Jove,

Lie hid in region foul."

Theogony, v., 729.

7. The cities about them. Admah and Zeboim. Deuteronomy 29:23; Hosea 11:8.

Giving themselves over to fornication (ejkporeu>sasai). Rev., more strictly, having given, etc. Only here in New Testament. The force of ejk is out and out; giving
themselves up utterly. See on followed, 2 Peter 1:16.

Going after (ajpelqou~sai ojpi>sw). The aorist participle. Rev., having gone. The phrase occurs Mark 1:20; James and John leaving their father and going after Jesus.
"The world is gone after him" (John 12:19). Here metaphorical. The force of ajpo> is away; turning away from purity, and going after strange flesh.

Strange flesh. Compare 2 Peter 2:10; and see Romans 1:27; Leviticus 18:22, 23. Also Jowett's introduction to Plato's "Symposium;" Plato's "Laws," viii., 836, 841;
Dollinger, "The Gentile and the Jew," Darnell's trans., ii., 238 sq.

Are set forth (pro>keintai). The verb means, literally, to lie exposed. Used of meats on the table ready for the guests; of a corpse laid out for burial; of a question under
discussion. Thus the corruption and punishment of the cities of the plain are laid out in plain sight.

As an example (dei~gma). Only here in New Testament. From dei>knumai, to display or exhibit; something, therefore, which is held up to view as a warning.

Suffering the vengeance of eternal fire (puroou di>khn uJpe>cousai). Rev., rightly, substitutes punishment for vengeance, since di>kh carries the underlying idea of right
or justice, which is not necessarily implied in vengeance. Some of the best modern expositors render are set forth as an example of eternal fire, suffering punishment.
This meaning seems, on the whole, more natural, though the Greek construction favors the others, since eternal fire is the standing term for the finally condemned in the
last judgment, and could hardly be correctly said of Sodom and Gomorrah. Those cities are most truly an example of eternal fire. "A destruction so utter and so
permanent as theirs has been, is the nearest approach that can be found in this world to the destruction which awaits those who are kept under darkness to the
judgment of the great day" (Lumby). Suffering (uJpe>cousai). Only here in New Testament. The participle is present, indicating that they are suffering to this day the
punishment which came upon them in Lot's time. The verb means, literally, to hold under; thence to uphold or support, and so to suffer or undergo.

8. Yet (me>ntoi). Not rendered by A.V., but expressing that though they have these fearful examples before them, yet they persist in their sin.

Dominion - dignities (kurio>thta - do>xav). It is not easy to determine the exact meaning of these two terms. Kurio>thv, dominion, occurs in three other passages,
Ephesians 1:21; Colossians 1:16; 2 Peter 2:10. In the first two, and probably in the third, the reference is to angelic dignities. Some explain this passage and the one in
Peter, of evil angels. In Colossians the term is used with thrones, principalities, and powers, with reference to the orders of the celestial hierarchy as conceived by
Gnostic teachers, and with a view to exalt Christ above all these. Glories or dignities is used in this concrete sense only here and at 2 Peter 2:10.

9. Michael the archangel. Here we strike a peculiarity of this epistle which caused its authority to be impugned in very early times, viz., the apparent citations of
apocryphal writings. The passages are Jude 1:9,14, 15. This reference to Michael was said by Origen to be founded on a Jewish work called "The Assumption of
Moses," the first part of which was lately found in an old Latin translation at Milan; and this is the view of Davidson, so far at least as the words "the Lord rebuke thee"
are concerned. Others refer it to Zechariah 3:1; but there is nothing there about Moses' body, or Michael, or a dispute about the body. Others, again, to a rabbinical
comment on Deuteronomy 34:6 where Michael is said to have been made guardian of Moses' grave. Doubtless Jude was referring to some accepted story or tradition,
probably based on Deuteronomy 34:6. For a similar reference to tradition compare 2 Timothy 3:8; Acts 7:22.

Michael. Angels are described in scripture as forming a society with different orders and dignities. This conception is developed in the books written during and after
the exile, especially Daniel and Zechariah. Michael (Who is like God?) is one of the seven archangels, and was regarded as the special protector of the Hebrew nation.
He is mentioned three times in the Old Testament (Daniel 10:13, 21; 12:1), and twice in the New Testament (Jude 1:9; Revelation 12:7). He is adored as a saint in the
Romish Church. For legends, see Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art," i., 94 sq.
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A railing accusation (kri>sin blasfhmi>av). Lit., a judgment of railing; a sentence savoring of impugning his dignity. Michael remembered the high estate from which he
fell, and left his sentence to God.
Michael. Angels are described in scripture as forming a society with different orders and dignities. This conception is developed in the books written during and after
the exile, especially Daniel and Zechariah. Michael (Who is like God?) is one of the seven archangels, and was regarded as the special protector of the Hebrew nation.
He is mentioned three times in the Old Testament (Daniel 10:13, 21; 12:1), and twice in the New Testament (Jude 1:9; Revelation 12:7). He is adored as a saint in the
Romish Church. For legends, see Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art," i., 94 sq.

A railing accusation (kri>sin blasfhmi>av). Lit., a judgment of railing; a sentence savoring of impugning his dignity. Michael remembered the high estate from which he
fell, and left his sentence to God.

10. Compare 2 Peter 2:12.

They know not (oujk oi]dasin). Mental comprehension and knowledge, and referring to the whole range of invisible things; while the other verb in this verse, also
translated by A.V. know (ejpi>stantai, originally of skill in handicraft), refers to palpable things; objects of sense; the circumstances of sensual enjoyment. Rev. marks
the distinction by rendering the latter verb understand.

Naturally (fusikw~v). Only here in New Testament. Compare fusika, natural, 2 Peter 2:12.

11. Woe (oujai). Often used by our Lord, but never elsewhere except here and in Revelation. The expression in 1 Corinthians 9:16 is different. There the word is not
used as an imprecation, but almost as a noun: "Woe is unto me" So Hosea 9:12 (Sept.).

Ran greedily (ejxecu>qhsan). Lit., were poured out. Rev., ran riotously. A strong expression, indicating a reckless, abandoned devotion of the energies, like the Latin
effundi. So Tacitus says of Maecenas, "he was given up to love for Bathyllus;" lit., poured out into love.

After. Better, as Rev., in; as, "in the way of Cain." The error was their sphere of action. Similarly,

In the gainsaying (th|~ ajntilogi>a|). In the practice of gainsaying like Korah's.'Antilogi>a is from ajnti>, against, and le>gw, to speak. Hence, literally, contradiction.
Gainsay is a literal translation, being compounded of the Anglo-Saxon gegn, which reappears in the German gegen, against, and say.

Korah. Who spake against Moses (Numbers 16:3). The water which Moses brought from the rock at Kadesh was called the water of Meribah (Strife), or, in
Septuagint, Greek, the water of contradiction.

12. Spots (spila>dev). Only here in New Testament. So rendered in A.V., because understood as kindred to spi~loi (2 Peter 2:13); but rightly, as Rev., hidden rocks.
So Homer, ("Odyssey," iii., 298), "the waves dashed the ship against the rocks (spila>dessin)." See on deceivings, 2 Peter 2:13. These men were no longer mere blots,
but elements of danger and wreck.

When they feast with you. See on 2 Peter 2:13.

Feeding (poimai>nontev). See on 1 Peter 5:2. Lit., shepherding themselves; and so Rev., shepherds that feed themselves; further their own schemes and lusts instead of
tending the flock of God. Compare Isaiah 56:11.

Without fear (ajfo>bwv). Of such judgments as visited Ananias and Sapphira. Possibly, as Lumby suggests, implying a rebuke to the Christian congregations for having
suffered such practices.

Clouds without water. Compare 2 Peter 2:17springs without water. As clouds which seem to be charged with refreshing showers, but are born past (parafero>menai)
and yield no rain.

Whose fruit withereth (fqinopwrina). From fqi>nw or fqi>w, to waste away, pine, and ojpw>ra, autumn. Hence, literally, pertaining to the late autumn, and rightly
rendered by Rev., autumn (trees). The A.V. is entirely wrong. Wyc., harvest trees. Tynd., trees without fruit at gathering-time.

Twice dead. Not only the apparent death of winter, but a real death; so that it only remains to pluck them up by the roots.

13. Raging (a]gria). Rev., wild, which is better, as implying quality rather than act. Waves, by nature untamed. The act or expression of the nature is given by the next
word.

Foaming out (ejpafri>zonta). Only here in New Testament. Compare Isaiah 57:20.

Shame (aijscu>nav). Lit., shames or disgraces.

Wandering stars. Compare 2 Peter 2:17. Possibly referring to comets, which shine a while and then pass into darkness. "They belong, not to the system: they stray at
random and without law, and must at last be severed from the lights which rule while they are ruled" (Lumby).

Blackness (zo>fov). See on 2 Peter 2:4.

Of darkness (tou~ sko>touv). Lit., "the darkness," the article pointing back to the darkness already mentioned, ver. 6.

14. Enoch prophesied. This is the second of the apocryphal passages referred to in notes on ver. 9. It is quoted from the apocryphal book of Enoch, directly, or from a
tradition based upon it. The passage in Enoch is as follows: "Behold he comes with ten thousands of his saints, to execute judgment upon them, and to destroy the
wicked, and to strive (at law) with all the carnal for everything which the sinful and ungodly have done and committed against him." The Book of Enoch, which was
known to the fathers of the second century, was lost for some centuries with the exception of a few fragments, and was found entire in a copy of the Ethiopic Bible, in
1773, by Bruce. It became known to modern students through a translation from this into English by Archbishop Lawrence, in 1821. It was probably written in
Hebrew. It consists of revelations purporting to have been given to Enoch and Noah, and its object is to vindicate the ways of divine providence, to set forth the
retribution reserved for sinners, angelic or human, and "to repeat in every form the great principle that the world - natural, moral, and spiritual - is under the immediate
government of God." Besides an introduction it embraces five parts:

1.A narrative of the fall of the angels, and of a tour of Enoch in company with an angel through heaven and earth, and of the mysteries seen by him.

2.Parables concerning the kingdom of God, the Messiah, and the Messianic future.

3.Astronomical  and physicalInfobase
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4.Two visions, representing symbolically the history of the world to the Messianic completion.
1.A narrative of the fall of the angels, and of a tour of Enoch in company with an angel through heaven and earth, and of the mysteries seen by him.

2.Parables concerning the kingdom of God, the Messiah, and the Messianic future.

3.Astronomical and physical matter; attempting to reduce the images of the Old Testament to a physical system.

4.Two visions, representing symbolically the history of the world to the Messianic completion.

5.Exhortations of Enoch to Methuselah and his descendants. The book shows no Christian influence, is highly moral in tone, and imitates the Old Testament myths.

With ten thousands of his saints (ejn ajgi>aiv muria>sin). Lit., in or among holy myriads. Compare Deuteronomy 33:2; Zechariah 14:5.

Ungodly (ajsebei~v) ungodly deeds (e]rgwn ajsebei>av, lit., works of ungodliness) which they have ungodly committed (hjse>bhsan), and of all their hard speeches
which ungodly (ajsebei~v) sinners, etc. The evident play upon the word ungodly can be rendered but clumsily into English. Rev., translates, All the ungodly, of all their
works of ungodliness which they have ungodly wrought, and of all the hard things which ungodly sinners have spoken against him. The words ungodly sinners are
placed in an unusual position, at the end of the sentence, for emphasis; ungodliness being the key-note of the writer's thought.

Hard (tw~n sklhrw~n). Speeches is supplied. Lit., hard things. So Rev. The railing, gainsaying; the profane and vain babblings (2 Timothy 2:16). Compare John 6:60a
hard saying, where the word means not abusive but difficult. In James 3:4rough, used of the winds. In Acts 26:14 of Saul of Tarsus; "hard to kick against the pricks."

16. Murmurers (goggustai). Only here in New Testament. Doubtless, originally, with some adaptation of sound to sense, gongustai. It is used of the cooling of doves.

Complainers (memyi>moiroi). From me>mfomai, to find fault with, and moi~ra, a part or lot. Lit., blamers of their lot.

Great swelling words. See on 2 Peter 2:18.

Having men's persons in admiration (qauma>zontev pro>swpa). The Rev., shewing respect of persons, is neater, but the A.V. more literal: admiring the countenances.
Compare Genesis 19:21 Sept., "I have accepted thee:" lit., have admired thy face.

Because of advantage. See 2 Peter 2:3, 14.

Beloved. Compare Jude 1:3.

18. Mockers. See on 2 Peter 3:3.

Ungodly lusts (ejpiqumi>av tw~n ajsebeiw~n). Lit., lusts of ungodlinesses.

19. Separate themselves (ajpodiori>zontev). Only here in New Testament. Themselves is unnecessary. Better, as Rev., make separations; i.e., cause divisions in the
church. The verb is compounded with ajpo>, away; dia>, though; o[rov, a boundary line. Of those who draw a line through the church and set off one part from
another.

Sensual (yucikoi>). See on Mark 12:30. As yuch> denotes life in the distinctness of individual existence, "the center of the personal being, the I of each individual," so
this adjective derived from it denotes what pertains to man as man, the natural personality as distinguished from the renewed man. So 1 Corinthians 2:14; 15:44. The
rendering sensual, here and James 3:15 is inferential: sensual because natural and unrenewed. In contrast with this is

The spirit. The higher spiritual life. So the adjective pneumatiko>v, spiritual, is everywhere in the New Testament opposed to yuciko>v, natural. See 1 Corinthians
15:44, 46.

22. And of some have compassion, making a difference. This follows the reading, kai (ejlea~te) diakrino>menoi. The best texts, however, read diakrinome>nouv,
which would require, "On some have mercy who are in doubt. So Rev. Others, again, for ejleei~te, have mercy, read ejle>gcete, reprove, and render
diakrinome>nouv, who are contentious: "Some who are contentious rebuke." The Rev. rendering better suits what follows.

23. Snatching them out of the fire. The writer has in mind Zechariah 3:2 a brand plucked from the burning. Compare Amos. iv. 11.

With fear (ejn fo>bw|). Lit., in fear; i.e., of the contagion of sin while we are rescuing them.

Spotted (ejspilwme>non). Only here and James 3:6. See on 2 Peter 2:13.

24. To keep you from falling (fula>xai uJma~v ajptai>stouv). Lit., "to keep you without stumbling. Only here in New Testament. See the kindred word offend. Rev.,
stumble, James 2:10; 3:2.

Exceeding joy (ajgallia>sei). See on 1 Peter 1:6.

25. Both now and ever (kaintav tou,v aijw~nav). Lit., both now and unto all the ages. The best texts add pro, before all time.

LIST OF GREEK WORDS USED BY JUDE ONLY

ajpodiori>zw, to separate, Jude 1:19

a]ptaistov, without falling, Jude 1:24

goggusth>v, murmurer, Jude 1:16

dei~gma, example, Jude 1:7

ejkporneu>w, to give over to fornication, Jude 1:7

ejnupnia>zw,
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ejpagwni>zomai, earnestly contend, Jude 1:3
dei~gma, example, Jude 1:7

ejkporneu>w, to give over to fornication, Jude 1:7

ejnupnia>zw, to dream, Jude 1:8

ejpagwni>zomai, earnestly contend, Jude 1:3

ejpafri>zw to foam out, Jude 1:13

memyi>moirov, complainer, Jude 1:16

pareisdu>w to creep in unawares, Jude 1:4

planh`>thv a wanderer, Jude 1:13

spila>v, rock, Jude 1:12

uJpe>cw, to suffer, undergo, Jude 1:7

fqinopwrino>v autumnal, Jude 1:12

fusikw~v, naturally, Jude 1:10

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES

CHAPTER 1

1. Jesus Christ. Only here and in James 2:1; nowhere in the speeches of James (Acts 15:14,15; 21:20 sq.). Had he used Jesus' name it might have been supposed to
arise from vanity, because he was the Lord's brother. In all the addresses of epistles the full name, Jesus Christ, is given.

Servant (dou~lov). Properly, hired servant. Compare Philippians 1:1; Jude 1:1.

That are scattered abroad (ejn th|~ diaspora|~). Lit., in the dispersion; on which see on 1 Pet 1:1. Rev., which are of the dispersions.

Greeting (cai>rein). Lit., rejoice. The ordinary Greek salutation, hail! welcome! Also used at parting: joy be with you. Compare the same expression in the letter from
the church at Jerusalem, Acts 15:23; one of the very few peculiarities of style which connect this epistle with the James of the Acts. It does not occur in the address of
any other of the Apostolic Epistles.

2. All joy (pa~san cara). Joy follows up the rejoice of the greeting. The all has the sense of wholly. Count it a thing wholly joyful, without admixture of sorrow. Perhaps,
as Bengel suggests, the all applies to all kinds of temptations.

When (o[tan). Lit., whenever: better, because it implies that temptation may be expected all along the Christian course.

Ye fall into (peripe>shte). The preposition peri>, around, suggests falling into something which surrounds. Thus Thucydides, speaking of the plague at Athens, says,
"The Athenians, having fallen into (peripeso>ntev) such affliction, were pressed by it."

Divers (poiki>loiv). Rev., manifold. See on 1 Peter 1:6.

Temptations (peirasmoi~v). In the general sense of trials. See on Matthew 6:13; 1 Peter 1:6.

3. Trying (doki>mion). Rev., proof; but the American Revisers insist on proving, and rightly. See on 1 Peter 1:7.

Worketh (katerga>zetai). The compound verb with kata>, down through, indicates accomplishment. The proving will work successfully and thoroughly. This
harmonizes with a perfect work, ver. 4.

Patience (uJpomonh>n). See on 2 Peter 1:6 and James 5:7.

4. Perfect work (e]rgon te>leion). "This is followed by a perfect man. The man himself is characterized from his condition and work" (Bengel). Work (e]rgon) is the
word with which katerga>zetai, worketh, is compounded. It is the accomplished result of patience in moral purification and ennobling. Compare work of faith, 1
Thessalonians 1:3.

Perfect and entire (te>leioi kaiklhroi). The two words express different shades of thought. Te>leioi, perfect, from te>lov, fulfillment or completion (perfect, from
perfectus, per factus, made throughout), denotes that which has reached its maturity or fulfilled the end contemplated. 'Olo>klhroi, from o[lov, entire, and klh~rov, a lot
or allotment; that which has all which properly belongs to it; its entire allotment, and is, therefore, intact in all its parts. Thus Peter (Acts 3:16) says of the restored
cripple, "faith has given him this perfect soundness (oJloklhri>an). Compare the familiar phrase, an accomplished man. Note, also, James' repetition of the key-words
of his discourse, rejoice, joy, patience, perfect.

Wanting nothing (ejn mhdenimenoi). Rev., more literally, lacking in nothing. Note James' characteristic corroboration of a positive statement by a negative clause: entire,
lacking in nothing; God that giveth and upbraideth not; in faith, nothing doubting. The conditional negative mhdeni, nothing, is used, rather than the absolute negative
oujdeni, as implying nothing which may be supposed; no possible thing.

5. But. Omitted in A.V. In pursuing this perfection you will find yourselves lacking in wisdom. One may say, "I know not how to become perfect;" but, if any man, etc.

Lack. Note the repetition.

Of God that giveth (tou~ dido>ntov Qeou~). The Greek puts it so that giving is emphasized as an attribute of God. Lit., " Ask of the giving God," or of "God the giver."
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Liberally (aJplw~v). Only here in New Testament. Literally the word means simply, and this accords with the following negative clause, upbraiding not. It is pure,
simple giving of good, without admixture of evil or bitterness. Compare Romans 12:8 where a kindred noun is used: "He that giveth let him do it with simplicity (ejn
Lack. Note the repetition.

Of God that giveth (tou~ dido>ntov Qeou~). The Greek puts it so that giving is emphasized as an attribute of God. Lit., " Ask of the giving God," or of "God the giver."

Liberally (aJplw~v). Only here in New Testament. Literally the word means simply, and this accords with the following negative clause, upbraiding not. It is pure,
simple giving of good, without admixture of evil or bitterness. Compare Romans 12:8 where a kindred noun is used: "He that giveth let him do it with simplicity (ejn
aJplo>thti) Compare, also, Proverbs 10:22. Men often complicate and mar their giving with reproach, or by an assumption of superiority.

6. Doubting (diakrino>menov). Compare Matthew 21:21. Not equivalent to unbelief, but expressing the hesitation which balances between faith and unbelief, and
inclines toward the latter. This idea is brought out in the next sentence.

A wave (klu>dwni). Rev., surge. Only here and Luke 8:24; though the kindred verb occurs at Ephesians 4:14. The word is admirably chosen, as by a writer who lived
near the sea and was familiar with its aspects. The general distinction between this and the more common ku~ma, wave, is that klu>dwn describes the long ridges of
water as they are propelled in horizontal lines over the vast surface of the sea; while ku~ma denotes the pointed masses which toss themselves up from these under the
action of the wind. Hence the word klu>dwn here is explained, and the picture completed by what follows: a billow or surge, driven by the wind in lines, and tossed
into waves. Both here and in the passage in Luke the word is used in connection with the wind. It emphasizes the idea of extension, while the other word throws
forward the idea of concentrating into a crest at a given point. Hence, in the figure, the emphasis falls on the tossing; not only moving before the impulse of the wind, but
not even moving in regular lines; tossed into rising and falling peaks.

Driven by the wind (ajnemizome>nw|). Only here in New Testament.

Tossed (rJipizome>nw|). Only here in New Testament. From rJipi>v, a fan. Anyone who has watched the great ocean-swell throwing itself up into pointed waves, the
tops of which are caught by the wind and fanned off into spray, will appreciate the vividness of the figure.

7. That man (ejkei~nov). Emphatic, and with a slightly contemptuous force.

Anything. i.e. which he asks for.

8. A double-minded man is unstable, etc. The A.V. puts this as an independent apophthegm, which is wrong. The sentence is a comment and enlargement upon that
man. " Let not that man think," etc., "a doubleminded man, unstable in all his ways." So Rev.

Double-minded (di>yucov). Peculiar to James, here and James 4:8. Not deceitful, but dubious and undecided.

Unstable (ajkata>statov). Only here in New Testament. The kindred ajkatastasi>a, confusion, is found James 3:16, and elsewhere.

9. But. Omitted in A.V. Introducing a contrast with the double-minded.

The brother of low degree (oJ ajdelfo). Lit., the brother, the lowly one. Not in the higher Christian sense of tapeino (see on Matthew 11:29), but, rather, poor and
afflicted, as contrasted with rich.

Rejoice (a]nqov). Not strong enough. It is, rather, boast. So Rev., glory. Compare Romans 5:3; Philippians 3:3.

In that he is exalted (ejn tw|~ u[yei aujtou~). Lit., in his exaltation. Rev., in his high estate.

10. In that he is made low (ejn th|~ tapeinw>sei aujtou~). A form of expression similar to the preceding. Lit., in his humiliation. Both the A.V. and Rev. preserve the
kinship between tapeino and tapeinw>sei, by the word low.

Flower (a]nqov). Only here, ver. 11, and 1 Peter 1:24.

11. For the sun is no sooner risen, etc. (ajne>teilen ga). By the use of the aorist tense James graphically throws his illustration into the narrative form: "For the sun arose
and withered," etc.

With a burning heat (tw|~ kau>swni). Rev., with the scorching wind. The article denotes something familiar; and the reference may be to the scorching east-wind (Job
1:19 Sept.; Ezekiel 17:10), which withers vegetation. Some of the best authorities, however, prefer the rendering of the A.V.

Falleth (ejxe>pesen). Aorist tense. Lit., fell off.

The grace of the fashion (eujpre>peia tou~ prosw>pou). Lit., the beauty of its face or appearance. Eujpre>peia only here in New Testament.

Fade away (maranqh>setai). See on 1 Peter 1:4.

Ways (porei>aiv). Rev., goings. Only here and Luke 13:22. His goings to and fro in acquiring riches.

12. Is tried (do>kimov geno>menov). Lit., having become approved. See on trial, 1 Peter 1:7. The meaning is not, as the A.V. suggests, when his trial is finished, but
when he has been approved by trial. Rev., rightly, when he hath been approved.

The crown (ste>fanon). See on 1 Peter 5:4.

Of life (th~v zwh~v). Lit., the life: the article pointing to the well-known eternal life. The figure is not that of the athlete's crown, for an image from the Grecian games,
which the Jews despised, would be foreign to James' thought and displeasing to his readers. Rather the kingly crown, the proper word for which is dia>dhma, diadem.
In Psalms 20:3 (Sept.), ste>fanov is used of the royal crown. In Zechariah 6:11, 14 the reference seems to be to a priestly crown, forming part of the high priest's mitre.

13. Of God (ajpo). Lit., from God. Not by God, as the direct agent, but by agency proceeding from God. Compare Matthew 4:1 where the direct agency, "by the
spirit," "by the devil," is expressed by uJpo>.

Cannot be tempted (ajpei>rastov ejsti). Lit., is incapable of being tempted. But some of the best expositors render is unversed in evil things, as better according both
with the usage of the word and with the context, since the question is not of God's being tempting, but of God's tempting. Rev. gives this in margin. 'Apei>rastov only
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here in New Testament.

Neither tempteth he (peira>zei de). The A.V. fails to render aujto: "He himself tempteth no man." So rev.
spirit," "by the devil," is expressed by uJpo>.

Cannot be tempted (ajpei>rastov ejsti). Lit., is incapable of being tempted. But some of the best expositors render is unversed in evil things, as better according both
with the usage of the word and with the context, since the question is not of God's being tempting, but of God's tempting. Rev. gives this in margin. 'Apei>rastov only
here in New Testament.

Neither tempteth he (peira>zei de). The A.V. fails to render aujto: "He himself tempteth no man." So rev.

14. Drawn away (ejxelko>menov). Only here in New Testament. This and the following word are metaphors from hunting and fishing. Drawn away, as beasts are
enticed from a safe covert into a place beset with snares. Note the present participle, as indicating the progress of the temptation: "is being drawn away."

Enticed (deleazo>menov). As a fish with bait. Also the present participle. See on 2 Peter 2:14.

15. The lust. Note the article, omitted in A.V. The peculiar lust of his own.

Hath conceived (sullabou~sa). Lit., having conceived.

Bringeth forth (ti>ktei). Metaphor of the mother. Rev. beareth.

When it is finished (ajpotelesqei~sa). Better, Rev., when it is full grown. Not when the course of a sinful life is completed; but when sin has reached its full development.

Bringeth forth (ajpoku>ei). A different verb from the preceding, bringeth forth. Rev. has rendered ti>ktei, beareth, in order to avoid the repetition of bringeth forth. The
verb is used by James only, here and at ver. 18. The image is interpreted in two ways. Either (1) Sin, figured as female, is already pregnant with death and, when full
grown, bringeth forth death (so Rev., and the majority of commentators). "The harlot, Lust, draws away and entices the man. The guilty union is committed by the will
embracing the temptress: the consequence is that she beareth sin.... Then the sin, that particular sin, when grown up, herself, as if all along pregnant with it, bringeth forth
death" (Alford). Or (2) Sin, figured as male, when it has reached maturity, becomes the begetter of death. So the Vulgate, generat, and Wyc., gendereth. I am inclined
to prefer this, since the other seems somewhat forced. It has the high endorsement of Bishop Lightfoot. There is a suggestive parallel passage in the "Agamemnon" of
Aeschylus, 751-771:

"There is a saying old,

Uttered in ancient days,

That human bliss, full grown,

Genders, and dies not childless:

And, for the coming race,

Springs woe insatiate from prosperity.

But I alone

Cherish within my breast another thought.

The impious deed

Begets a numerous brood alike in kind;

While households ruled by right inflexible

Blossom with offspring fair.

Insolence old

In men depraved begetteth insolence,

Which springs afresh from time to time

As comes the day of doom, and fresh creates

In Ate's dismal halls

Fierce wrath from light,

Unhallowed Daring, fiend invincible,

Unconquered, with its parents' likeness stamped."

The magnificent passage in Milton's "Paradise Lost," ii., 760-801, is elaborated from these verses of James.

17. The first words of this verse form a hexameter line, thus

Pa`sa do>|siv ajga|qh|pan dw~|rhma te>|leion

Such verses, or parts of verses, occur occasionally in the New Testament. Sometimes they are quotations from the Greek poets; sometimes the writer's words
unconsciously fall into metrical form. Poetical quotations are confined to Paul, Acts 17:28; 1 Corinthians 15:33; Titus 1:12.
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Every good gift and every perfect gift (see Greek above). The statement that these gifts are from God is in pursuance of the idea that God does not tempt men to evil.
The gifts of God are contrasted with the evil springing from man's lust. Two words are used for gift. Do>siv occurs only here and Philippians 4:15; there in an active
sense; but here passive, as in Proverbs 21:14 (Sept.). Dw~rhma is found Romans 5:16. It enlarges slightly upon the other word in emphasizing the gift as free, large,
Pa`sa do>|siv ajga|qh|pan dw~|rhma te>|leion

Such verses, or parts of verses, occur occasionally in the New Testament. Sometimes they are quotations from the Greek poets; sometimes the writer's words
unconsciously fall into metrical form. Poetical quotations are confined to Paul, Acts 17:28; 1 Corinthians 15:33; Titus 1:12.

Every good gift and every perfect gift (see Greek above). The statement that these gifts are from God is in pursuance of the idea that God does not tempt men to evil.
The gifts of God are contrasted with the evil springing from man's lust. Two words are used for gift. Do>siv occurs only here and Philippians 4:15; there in an active
sense; but here passive, as in Proverbs 21:14 (Sept.). Dw~rhma is found Romans 5:16. It enlarges slightly upon the other word in emphasizing the gift as free, large,
full; an idea which is further developed in ver. 18, of his own will. The Rev., rather awkwardly, endeavors to bring out the distinction by the word boon, for which the
American Revisers insist on retaining gift. Boon originally means a petition; favor being a secondary and later sense, as of something given in response to a petition. The
word is of Scandinavian origin, and the meaning favor seems to indicate a confusion with the Latin bonus, good; French, bon.

Perfect. Enlarges upon good, bringing out more distinctly the moral quality of the gift.

And cometh down (katabai~non). A present participle, to be construed with a]nwqen ejstin, is from above. Lit., is coming down from above. As usual, this union of the
participle with the finite verb denotes something habitual. Render, descendeth from above. Compare James 3:15.

Father of lights (tou~ patrotwn). Lit., the lights, by which are meant the heavenly bodies. Compare Psalms 135:7 (Sept.); and Jeremiah 4:23 (Sept.). God is called "the
Father of the lights," as being their creator and maintainer. Compare Job 38:28; Psalms 8: 3; Amos 5:8.

Is no variableness (e]ni). Abbreviated from e]nesti is in. Stronger than the simple is, and denoting inherence or indwelling. Rev., can be.

Variableness (parallagh). Better, Rev., variation. The word is not used, as some suppose, in a technical, astronomical sense, which James' readers would not have
understood, but in the simple sense of change in the degree or intensity of light, such as is manifested by the heavenly bodies. Compare Plato, "Republic," vii., 530: "
Will he (the astronomer) not think that the heaven and the things in heaven are framed by the Creator in the most perfect manner? But when he reflects that the
proportions of night and day, or of both, to the month, or of the month to the year, or of the other stars to these and to one another, are of the visible and material, he
will never fall into the error of supposing that they are eternal and liable to no deviation (oujdettein) - that would be monstrous."

Shadow of turning (troph~v ajposki>asma). This is popularly understood to mean that there is in God not the faintest hint or shade of change, like the phrase, a shadow
of suspicion. But the Greek has no such idiom, and that is not James' meaning. Rev., rightly, renders, shadow that is cast by turning; referring still to the heavenly orbs,
which cast shadows in their revolution, as when the moon turns her dark side to us, or the sun is eclipsed by the body of the moon.

18. Begat (ajpeku>hsen). Rev., brought forth. See on ver. 15, and compare 1 John 3:9; 1 Peter 1:23.

A kind of first fruits (ajparch>n tina). A kind of indicates the figurative nature of the term. The figure is taken from the requirement of the Jewish law that the first-born
of men and cattle, and the first growth of fruits and grain should be consecrated to the Lord. The point of the illustration is that Christians, like first-fruits, should be
consecrated to God. The expression "first-fruits" is common in the New Testament. See Romans 8:23; 16:5; 1 Corinthians 15:20, 23; Revelation 14:4.

19. Wherefore. The A.V. follows the reading w[ste. But the correct reading is i]ste, ye know, and so Rev. Others render it as imperative, know ye, as calling attention
to what follows.

21. Filthiness (rJupari>an). Only here in New Testament, but James uses the kindred adjective (James 2:2), "vile raiment."'Ru>pov, filth, occurs in 1 Peter 3:21 - on
which see notes; and the verb rJupo>w, to be filthy, is found in Revelation 22:11.

Superfluity of naughtiness (perissei>an kaki>av). A translation which may be commended to the attention of indiscriminate panegyrists of the A.V. Perissei>a is an
unclassical word, and occurs in three other New-Testament passages - Romans 5:17; 2 Corinthians 8:2; 10:15. In all these it is rendered abundance, both by A.V. and
Rev. There seems to be no need of departing from this meaning here, as Rev., overflowing. The sense is abounding or abundant wickedness. For naughtiness Rev.
gives wickedness, as in 1 Peter 2:1, 16 where it changes malice to wickedness. It is most]y rendered malice in both A.V. and Rev. In this passage, as in the two from
Peter, Rev. gives malice, in margin. Malice is an adequate translation, the word denoting a malevolent disposition toward one's neighbor. Hence it is not a general term
for moral evil, but a special form of vice. Compare the wrath of man, ver. 20. Naughtiness has acquired a petty sense in popular usage, as of the mischievous pranks of
children, which renders it out of the question here.

With meekness (ejn prau`>thti). Lit., "in meekness;" opposed to malice.

Engrafted (e]mfuton). Only here in New Testament. Better, and more literally, as Rev., implanted. It marks a characteristic of the word of truth (ver. 18). It is
implanted; divinely given, in contrast with something acquired by study. Compare Matthew 13:19"the word of the kingdom - sown in his heart." Grafted or graffed is
expressed by a peculiar word, employed by Paul only, ejgkentri>zw, from ke>ntron, a sharp point, thus emphasizing the fact of the incision required in grafting. See
Romans 11:17, 19, 23, 24.

Which is able to save (tomenon sw~sai). Compare Romans 1:16"the power of God unto salvation."

22. Hearers (ajkroatai). Used by James only.

Deceiving (paralogizo>menoi). From para>, beside, contrary to, and logi>zomai, to reckon, and hence to conclude by reasoning. The deception referred to is,
therefore, that into which one betrays himself by false reasoning - reasoning beside the truth.

23. Beholding (katanoou~nti). With the notion of attentively considering (kata>, down into, or through; compare eijv, into, ver. 25). Compare Luke 12:24, 27;
Hebrews 3:1. So that the contrast is not between a hasty look and a careful contemplation (ver. 25, looketh). It is not mere careless hearing of the word which James
rebukes, but the neglect to carry into practice what is heard. One may be an attentive and critical hearer of the word, yet not a doer.

His natural face (toswpon th~v gene>sewv). Lit., the countenance of his birth; the face he was born with.

In a glass (ejn ejso>ptrw|). Better, Rev., a mirror; a metallic mirror. The word occurs only here and 1 Corinthians 13:12.

24. He beholdeth (kateno>hsen). The aorist tense, throwing the sentence into a lively, narrative form: he beheld himself and forgot. Compare ver. 11.

25. Whoso looketh (oJ paraku>yav). Rev., more strictly, he that looketh. See on 1 Peter 1:12. The verb is used of one who stoops sideways (para>) to look
attentively.
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also hearken at her doors." Coleridge remarks: "A more happy or forcible word could not have been chosen to express the nature and ultimate object of reflection, and
to enforce the necessity of it, in order to discover the living fountain and spring-head of the evidence of the Christian faith in the believer himself, and at the same time to
point out the seat and region where alone it is to be found" ("Aphorisms").
24. He beholdeth (kateno>hsen). The aorist tense, throwing the sentence into a lively, narrative form: he beheld himself and forgot. Compare ver. 11.

25. Whoso looketh (oJ paraku>yav). Rev., more strictly, he that looketh. See on 1 Peter 1:12. The verb is used of one who stoops sideways (para>) to look
attentively. The mirror is conceived as placed on a table or on the ground. Bengel quotes Wisdom of Sirach 14:23: "He that prieth in at her (Wisdom's) windows shall
also hearken at her doors." Coleridge remarks: "A more happy or forcible word could not have been chosen to express the nature and ultimate object of reflection, and
to enforce the necessity of it, in order to discover the living fountain and spring-head of the evidence of the Christian faith in the believer himself, and at the same time to
point out the seat and region where alone it is to be found" ("Aphorisms").

Into (eijv). Denoting the penetration of the look into the very essence of the law.

The perfect law of liberty (no>mon te>leion toav). Lit., the perfect law, the law of liberty. So Rev. The law of liberty is added as defining the perfect law.

Continueth therein. Better, Rev., so continueth; i.e. continues looking.

Forgetful hearer (ajkroath). The latter word only here in New Testament. Lit., a hearer of forgetfulness; whom forgetfulness characterizes. Rev., very happily, a hearer
that forgetteth; a rendering which gives the proper sense of forgetfulness as a characteristic better than A.V., a forgetful hearer.

Doer of the work. Lit., of work, as the noun has no article. Rev., a doer that worketh.

In his deed (ejn th|~ poih>sei aujtou~). More correctly, as Rev., in his doing. Only here in New Testament. The preposition ejn (in) marks the inner connection
between doing and blessedness. "The life of obedience is the element wherein the blessedness is found and consists" (Alford).

26. Seem to be (dokei~). Rev., correctly, thinketh himself to be. A man can scarcely seem to be religious, when, as Trench observes, "his religious pretensions are
belied and refuted by the allowance of an unbridled tongue."

Religious (qrh~skov). Only here in New Testament, and nowhere in classical Greek. The kindred noun qrhskei>a, religion, occurs Acts 26:5; Colossians 2:18; James
1:26, 27; and means the ceremonial service of religion. Herodotus (ii., 37) uses it of various observances practiced by the Egyptian priests such as wearing linen,
circumcision, shaving, etc. The derivation is uncertain. Qre>omai, to mutter forms of prayer, has been suggested, as the followers of Wycliffe were called Lollards, from
the old Dutch lullen or lollen, to sing. Hence the adjective here refers to a zealous and diligent performance of religious services.

Bridleth (calinagwgw~n). Used by James only. See James 3:2. Lit., to guide with a bridle. So Plato, "Laws," 701: "I think that the argument ought to be pulled up from
time to time, and not to be allowed to run away, but held with bit and bridle."

27. Undefiled (ajmi>antov). See on 1 Peter 1:4. The two adjectives, pure and undefiled, present the positive and negative sides of purity.

To visit (ejpiske>ptesqai). See on Matthew 25:36. James strikes a downright blow here at ministry by proxy, or by mere gifts of money. Pure and undefiled religion
demands personal contact with the world's sorrow: to visit the afflicted, and to visit them in their affliction. "The rich man, prodigal of money, which is to him of little
value, but altogether incapable of devoting any personal attention to the object of his alms, often injures society by his donations; but this is rarely the case with that far
nobler charity which makes men familiar with the haunts of wretchedness, and follows the object of its care through all the phases of his life" (Lecky, "History of
European Morals," ii., 98).

To keep (phrei~n). See on 1 Peter 1:4.

Unspotted (a]spilon). See on 1 Peter 1:19.

CHAPTER 2

1. Have (e]cete). Rev., hold, not in the sense of hold fast, cleave to, but of possessing, occupying, and practicing, as a matter of habit. Thus we say that a man holds his
property by a certain tenure. A rented estate is a holding. So of an opinion, or set of opinions, with which one is publicly identified. We say that he holds thus and so.

With respect of persons (ejn proswpolhmyi>aiv). From pro>swpon, the countenance, and lamba>nw, to receive. To receive the countenance is a Hebrew phrase.
Thus Leviticus 19:15 (Sept.): Ouj lh>yh| proswpon ptwcou~: Thou shalt not respect the person (receive the countenance) of the poor. Compare Luke 20:21; Romans
2:11; and Jude 1:16.

The Lord of glory. Compare 1 Corinthians 2:8; Acts 7:2; Ephesians 1:17.

2. Assembly (sunagwgh). The word synagogue is a transcript of this. From su>n, together, and a]gw, to bring. Hence, literally, a gathering or congregation, in which
sense the word is common in the Septuagint, not only of assemblies for worship, but of gatherings for other public purposes. From the meeting itself the transition is
easy to the place of meeting, the synagogue; and in this sense the term is used throughout the New Testament, with the following exceptions: In Acts 13:43 it is
rendered congregation by the A.V., though Rev. gives synagogue; and in Revelation 2:9; 3:9, the unbelieving Jews, as a body, are called synagogue of Satan. As a
designation of a distinctively Jewish assembly or place of worship it was more sharply emphasized by the adoption of the word ejkklhsi>a, ecclesia, to denote the
Christian church. In this passage alone the word is distinctly applied to a Christian assembly or place of worship. The simplest explanation appears to be that the word
designates the place of meeting for the Christian body, James using the word most familiar to the Jewish Christians; an explanation which receives countenance from the
fact that, as Huther observes, "the Jewish Christians regarded themselves as still an integral part of the Jewish nation, as the chosen people of God." As such a portion
they had their special synagogue. From Acts 6:9 we learn that there were numerous synagogues in Jerusalem, representing different bodies, such as the descendants of
Jewish freedmen at Rome, and the Alexandrian or Hellenistic Jews. Among these would be the synagogue of the Christians, and such would be the case in all large
cities where the dispersed Jews congregated. Alford quotes a phrase from the "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs:" the synagogue of the Gentiles. Compare
Hebrews 10:25"the assembling together (ejpisunagwgh) of yourselves."

With a gold ring (crusodaktu>liov). Only here in New Testament. Not a man wearing a single gold ring (as A.V. and Rev.), which would not attract attention in an
assembly where most persons wore a ring, but a gold-ringed man, having his hands conspicuously loaded with rings and jewels. The ring was regarded as an
indispensable article of a Hebrew's attire, since it contained his signet; and the name of the ring, tabbath, was derived from a root signifying to impress a seal. It was a
proverbial expression for a most valued object. See Isaiah 22:24; Haggai 2:23. The Greeks and Romans wore them in great profusion. Hannibal, after the battle of
Cannae, sent as a trophy to Carthage, three bushels of gold rings from the fingers of the Roman knights slain in battle. To wear rings on the right hand was regarded as
a mark of effeminacy; but they were worn profusely on the left. Martial says of one Charinus that he wore six on each finger, and never laid them aside, either at night
or when bathing. The fops had rings of different sizes for summer and winter. Aristophanes distinguishes between the populace and those who wear rings, and in his
comedy of "The Clouds" uses the formidable word sfragidonucargokomh~tai, lazy, long-haired fops, with rings and well-trimmed nails. Demosthenes was so
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                                                                                                                                                                   cost. They
were of gold and silver, sometimes of both; sometimes of iron inlaid with gold. The possible beauty of these latter will be appreciated by those who have seen the
elegant gold and iron jewelry made at Toledo, in Spain. Sometimes they were of amber, ivory, or porcelain. The practice of wearing rings was adopted by the early
Cannae, sent as a trophy to Carthage, three bushels of gold rings from the fingers of the Roman knights slain in battle. To wear rings on the right hand was regarded as
a mark of effeminacy; but they were worn profusely on the left. Martial says of one Charinus that he wore six on each finger, and never laid them aside, either at night
or when bathing. The fops had rings of different sizes for summer and winter. Aristophanes distinguishes between the populace and those who wear rings, and in his
comedy of "The Clouds" uses the formidable word sfragidonucargokomh~tai, lazy, long-haired fops, with rings and well-trimmed nails. Demosthenes was so
conspicuous for this kind of ornament that, at a time of public disaster, it was stigmatized as unbecoming vanity. Frequent mention is made of their enormous cost. They
were of gold and silver, sometimes of both; sometimes of iron inlaid with gold. The possible beauty of these latter will be appreciated by those who have seen the
elegant gold and iron jewelry made at Toledo, in Spain. Sometimes they were of amber, ivory, or porcelain. The practice of wearing rings was adopted by the early
Christians. Many of their rings were adorned with the symbols of the faith - the cross, the anchor, the monogram of Christ, etc. Among the rings found in the catacombs
are some with a key, and some with both a key and a seal, for both locking and sealing a casket.

Goodly apparel (ejsqh~ti lampra|~). Lit., bright or shining clothes. Rev., fine clothing.

Vile (rJupara|~). Compare James 1:21; and see on 1 Peter 3:21.

3. Ye have respect (ejpible>yhte). Lit., ye look upon, with the idea of respectful consideration; ye regard. Compare Luke 1:48; 9:38.

In a good place (kalw~v). Lit., honorably; in a seat of honor.

Under. Not literally underneath, but down on the ground beside. Compare Matthew 23:6 on the fondness of the Jews for the chief places in the synagogue.

4. Are ye not partial in yourselves? (ouj diekri>qhte ejn eJautoi~v). Wrong. The constant sense of the verb in the New Testament is doubt, except Acts 11:2; Jude 1:9
where it means dispute. Compare James 1:6. The meaning here is, therefore, that, in making a distinction between the rich and the poor, they expressed a doubt
concerning the faith which they professed, and which abolished such distinctions. Hence, Rev., rightly, Are ye not divided in your own mind?

Judges of evil thoughts (kritiai). Better, as Rev., "judges with evil thoughts." The form of expression is the same as in Luke 18:6krithav, the judge of injustice, i.e., the
unjust judge. So James 1:25 a hearer of forgetfulness. The word thoughts is, rather, reasonings. See on deceiving yourselves (James 1:22). Compare Luke 5:21. Their
evil processes of thought lead to these unjust discriminations.

5. Hearken, my beloved brethren. Alford cites this phrase as one of the very few links which connect this epistle with the speech of James in Acts 15:13.

The poor of this world (tousmou). But the correct reading is tw|~ ko>smw|, to the world; and the expression is to be explained in the same way as ajstei~ov tw|~
Qew|~, fair unto God, Acts 7:20 and dunata, mighty through (Rev., before) God, 2 Corinthians 10:4. So Rev., poor as to the world, in the world's esteem. Poor, see
on Matthew 5:3.

Rich in faith. The Rev., properly, inserts to be, since the words are not in apposition with poor, but express the object for which God has chosen them. Faith is not the
quality in which they are to be rich, but the sphere or element; rich in their position as believers. "Not the measure of faith, in virtue of which one man is richer than
another, is before the writer's mind, but the substance of the faith, by virtue of which every believer is rich" (Wiesinger, cited by Alford).

6. Despised (hjtima>sate). Not strong enough. They had manifested their contempt; had done despite to them. Rev., correctly, dishonored. From the use of the aorist
tense, ye dishonored, which the A.V. and Rev. render as a perfect, ye have dishonored, the reference would appear to be to a specific act like that described in vv. 2,
3.

Oppress (katadunasteu`>ousin). Only here and Acts 10:38. The preposition kata>, against, implies a power exercised for harm. Compare being lords over, 1 Peter 5:3
and exercise dominion, Matthew 20:25 both compounded with this preposition.

Draw (e[lkousin). Not strong enough. The word implies violence. Hence, better, as Rev., drag. Compare Livy's phrase, "a lictoribus trahi, to be dragged by the lictors
to judgment;" Acts 8:3 of Saul haling or hauling men and women to prison; and Luke 12:58.

Judgment-seats (krith>ria). Only here and 1 Corinthians 6:24.

7. They (aujtoi). Emphatic. "Is it not they who blaspheme?"

Worthy (kalo). Rev., better, because stronger, honorable. By this epithet the disgracefulness of the blasphemy is emphasized.

By the which ye are called (to' uJma~v). Lit., which is called upon you; the name of Christ, invoked in baptism. The phrase is an Old-Testament one. See Deuteronomy
28:10 where the Septuagint reads that the name of the Lord has been called upon thee. Also, 2 Chronicles 7:14; Isaiah 4:1. Compare Acts 15:17.

8. Fulfill the royal law (no>mon telei~te basiliko). The phrase occurs only here and Romans 2:27. Telei~n, fulfill, is stronger than the more common word threi~n,
observe or keep, which appears in ver. 10. Compare, also, Matthew 19:17; 23:3; John 14:15 etc. James here speaks of a single commandment, the proper word for
which is ejntolh>, while no>mov is the body of commandments. It is appropriate here, however, since this special commandment sums up the entire law. See Romans
13:10; Galatians 5:14. It is the royal law; the king of all laws.

The phrase royal law is of Roman origin (lex regia). In the kingly period of Roman history it did not signify a law promulgated by the absolute authority of the king, but a
law passed by a popular assembly under the presidency of the king. In later times the term was applied to all laws the origin of which was attributed to the time of the
kings. Gradually the term came to represent less of the popular will, and to include all the rights and powers which the Roman people had formerly possessed, so that
the emperor became what formerly the people had been, sovereign. "It was not," says Gibbon, "before the ideas and even the language of the Romans had been
corrupted, that a royal law (lex regia) and an irrevocable gift of the people were created.... The pleasure of the emperor, according to Justinian, has the vigor and effect
of law, since the Roman people, by the royal law, have transferred to their prince the full extent of their own power and sovereignty. The will of a single man, of a child,
perhaps, was allowed to prevail over the wisdom of ages and the inclinations of millions; and the degenerate Greeks were proud to declare that in his hands alone the
arbitrary exercise of legislation could be safely deposited" ("Decline and Fall," ch. xliv.).

9. Ye have respect to persons (proswpolhmptei~te). Only here in New Testament. See on ver. 1.

Ye commit sin (aJmarti>an ejrga>zesqe). Lit., "work sin." Compare Matthew 7:23; Acts 10:35; Hebrews 11:33. The phrase is rather stronger than the more common
aJmarti>an poiei~n, to do sin, John 8:34; James 5:15; 1 Peter 2:29. The position of sin is emphatic: "it is sin that ye are working."

And are convinced (ejlegco>menoi). Rather, as Rev., convicted. The word, which is variously rendered in A.V. tell a fault, reprove, rebuke, convince, while it carries
the idea of rebuke,
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                                       Media    produces a conviction of the error or sin. See on John 8: 46. Compare John 3:20; 8:9; 1 Corinthians
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10. Keep (thrh>sh|). See on ver. 8.
aJmarti>an poiei~n, to do sin, John 8:34; James 5:15; 1 Peter 2:29. The position of sin is emphatic: "it is sin that ye are working."

And are convinced (ejlegco>menoi). Rather, as Rev., convicted. The word, which is variously rendered in A.V. tell a fault, reprove, rebuke, convince, while it carries
the idea of rebuke, implies also a rebuke which produces a conviction of the error or sin. See on John 8: 46. Compare John 3:20; 8:9; 1 Corinthians 14:24, 25.

10. Keep (thrh>sh|). See on ver. 8.

Offend (ptai>sh|). Lit., as Rev., stumble.

He is guilty (ge>gonen e]nocov). Lit., he is become guilty. &Enocov, guilty, is, strictly, holden; within the condemning power of. Compare Matthew 26:66; Mark 3:29;
1 Corinthians 11:27. Huther cites a Talmudic parallel: "But if he perform all, but omit one, he is guilty of every single one."

11. A transgressor (paraba>thv). From para>, beyond, and bai>nw, to go. A transgressor, therefore, is one who goes beyond the line. So, also, trespass, which is
trespass, from the Latin trans, across, and passus, a step. A similar word occurs in Homer, uJperbasi>a, a transgression or trespass, from uJpe>r, over, and bai>nw, to
go.

12. So. With reference to what follows, speak and do.

13. He shall have judgment without mercy that hath shewed no mercy (hJ gasiv ajni>lewv tw|~ mh> poih>santi e]leov). Lit., as Rev., judgment is without mercy to him
that hath shewed no mercy. Both A.V. and Rev. omit the article "the judgment," that, namely, which is coming. Hath shewed, or, lit., shewed (aorist tense). The writer
puts himself at the stand-point of the judgment, and looks backward.

Rejoiceth (katakauca~tai). The simple verb kauca>omai means to speak loud, to be loud-tongued; hence, to boast. Better, therefore, as Rev., glorieth. Judgment and
mercy are personified. While judgment threatens condemnation, mercy interposes and prevails over judgment. "Mercy is clothed with the divine glory, and stands by
the throne of God. When we are in danger of being condemned, she rises up and pleads for us, and covers us with her defense, and enfolds us with her
wings" (Chrysostom, cited by Gloag).

14. What doth it profit? (ti> to). Lit., what is the profit? &Ofelov, profit, only here, ver. 16, and 1 Corinthians 15:32.

15. Be (uJpa>rcwsin). The distinction between this word and the simple ei+nai, to be, is very subtle. The verb uJpa>rcw originally means to make a beginning; hence,
to begin or to come into being; and, though used substantially as a synonym of ei+nai, of a thing actually existing and at hand, it has a backward look to an antecedent
condition which has been protracted into the present. Thus we might paraphrase here, "If a brother or sister, having been in a destitute condition, be found by you in
that condition." Ei+nai, on the other hand, would simply state the present fact of destitution. See on 2 Peter 1:8.

Destitute (leipo>menoi). Lit., left behind; and hence lacking, as Rev. Compare James 1:4, 5. This usage of the word occurs in James only.

Daily (ejfhme>rou). Only here in New Testament.

16. Depart in peace (uJpa>gete ejn eijrh>nh|). Compare u[page or paoreu>ou eijv eijrhnh>n, go into peace, Mark 5:34; Luke 7:50.

Be filled (corta>zesqe). See on Matthew 5:6.

Those things which are needful (tadeia). Only here in New Testament.

17. Being alone (kaq' eJauth>n). Wrong. Rev., correctly, in itself. The phrase belongs to dead. It is dead, not merely in reference to something else, but absolutely.

18. Without (cwri). Rev., more literally, apart from.

And I will shew thee, etc. The Rev. brings out the antithesis more sharply by keeping more closely to the Greek order: I by my works will shew, etc.

19. Tremble (fri>ssousin). Only here in New Testament. It means, originally, to be rough on the surface; to bristle. Hence, used of the fields with ears of corn; of a line
of battle bristling with shields and spears; of a silver or golden vessel rough with embossed gold. Aeschylus, describing a crowd holding up their hands to vote, says, the
air bristled with right hands. Hence, of a horror which makes the hair stand on end and contracts the surface of the skin making "gooseflesh." Rev., much better,
shudder.

20. Vain (kene>). Lit., empty, without spiritual life.

Dead (nekra>). But the best texts read ajrgh>, idle; as of money which yields no interest, or of land lying fallow.

21. When he had offered (ajnene>gkav). Incorrect. For the participle states the ground of his justification. By works gives the general ground; offered, etc., the specific
work. Compare Genesis 22:16, 17. Rev., correctly, in that he offered. The word ajnene>gkav is, lit., brought up to; and means, not actually to offer up in sacrifice
(though Isaac was morally sacrificed in Abraham's will), but to bring to the altar as an offering. See on 1 Peter 2:5.

22. Wrought with his works (sunh>rgei toi~v e]rgoiv). There is a play on the words in the Greek: worked with his works.

23. Was fulfilled (ejplhrw>qh). Not was confirmed, which the word does not mean either in New-Testament or in classical usage, but was actually and fully realized.
James here uses the formula which in the Old Testament is employed of the realizing of a former utterance. See 1 Kings 2:27; 2 Chronicles 36:22 (Sept.).

Imputed (ejlogi>sqh). Lit., as Rev., reckoned.

He was called the friend of God. The term, however, does not occur either in the Hebrew or Septuagint, though it is found in the A.V. and retained in Rev. Old
Testament. In 2 Chronicles 20:7 (Sept.), thy friend tw|~ hjgaphme>nw|, thy beloved. In Isaiah 41:8 (Sept.), my friend is o{n hjga>phsa whom I loved. "The friend of
God" is still the favorite title of Abraham among the Jews and Mohammedans.

25. Rahab. Also referred to in Hebrews 11:31 among the examples of faith. Dante places her in the third heaven:

"Thou fain wouldst know who is within this light
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That here beside me thus is scintillating,
25. Rahab. Also referred to in Hebrews 11:31 among the examples of faith. Dante places her in the third heaven:

"Thou fain wouldst know who is within this light

That here beside me thus is scintillating,

Even as a sunbeam in the limpid water.

Then know thou, that within there is at rest

Rahab, and being to our order joined,

With her in its supremest grade 'tis sealed.

First of Christ's Triumph was she taken up.

Full meet it was to leave her in some heaven,

Even as a palm of the high victory

Which he acquired with one palm and the other,

Because she favored the first glorious deed

Of Joshua upon the Holy Land."

Paradise, ix., 112-125.

Rahab became the wife of Salmon, and the ancestress of Boaz, Jesse's grandfather. Some have supposed that Salmon was one of the spies whose life she saved. At
any rate, she became the mother of the line of David and of Christ, and is so recorded in Matthew's genealogy of our Lord, in which only four women are named.
There is a peculiar significance in this selection of Rahab with Abraham as an example of faith, by James the Lord's brother.

Sent them out (ejkbalou~sa). Better, thrust them forth, implying haste and fear. Compare Mark 1:12; Luke 4:29; Acts 16:37.

Another way. Than that by which they entered. Through the window. See Joshua 2:15.

26. Works (tw~n e]rgwn). Note the article: the works belonging or corresponding to faith; its works.

CHAPTER 3

1. Masters (dida>skaloi). Literally, and better, teachers, with a reference to the exhortation to be slow to speak (James 1:19). Compare 1 Corinthians 14:26-34.
James is warning against the too eager and general assumption of the privilege of teaching, which was not restricted to a particular class, but was exercised by believers
generally.

2. Offend (ptai>omen). Lit., stumble, as Rev. Compare James 2:10.

To bridle. See on James 1:26.

3. Behold. Following the old reading, i]de. All the best texts read eij de, now if. So Rev.

Bits (calinou). Only here and Revelation 14:20. It may be rendered either bit, as A.V., or bridle, as Rev., but bridle is preferable because it corresponds with the verb
to bridle (ver. 2) which is compounded with this noun.

Horses. The position in the sentence is emphatic.

We turn about (meta>gomen). Used by James only.

4. The ships. See Introduction, on James' local allusions. Dean Howson observes that "there is more imagery drawn from mere natural phenomena in the one short
epistle of James than in all St. Paul's epistles put together."

So great. As the ship which conveyed Paul to Malta, which contained two hundred and seventy-six persons (Acts 27:37).

Fierce (sklhrw~n). More literally, and better, as Rev., rough. The word primarily means hard, harsh.

Helm (phdali>ou). Better, rudder, as Rev. The rudder was an oar worked by a handle. Helm and rudder were thus one. The word occurs only here and Acts 27:40.

The governor listeth (hJ oJrmhnontov bou>letai). Lit., the impulse or desire of the steersman wisheth. 'Ormh, impulse, only here and Acts 14:5 of an assault, onset.

The governor (tou~ eujqu>nontov). Rev., steersman. Lit., of him who is guiding. Only here and John 1:23. From 'Ormh, straight.

5. Boasteth great things (megalaucei~). The best texts separate the compound, and read mega>la aujcei~, of course with the same meaning. Aujcei~, boasteth, only
here in New Testament.

How great a matter a little fire kindleth (hJli>kon pu~r hJli>khn u[lhn ajna>ptei). The word u[lh (only here in New Testament) means wood or a forest, and hence the
matter or raw material of which a thing is made. Later, it is used in the philosophical sense of matter - "the foundation of the manifold" - opposed to the intelligent or
formative principle nou~v, mind. The authorized version has taken the word in one of its secondary senses, hardly the philosophical sense it would seem; but any
departure
 Copyrightfrom  the earlier sense
            (c) 2005-2009,        was not
                              Infobase     only needless,
                                         Media  Corp. but impaired the vividness of the figure, the familiar and natural image of a forest on fire. So Homer:
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"As when a fire
How great a matter a little fire kindleth (hJli>kon pu~r hJli>khn u[lhn ajna>ptei). The word u[lh (only here in New Testament) means wood or a forest, and hence the
matter or raw material of which a thing is made. Later, it is used in the philosophical sense of matter - "the foundation of the manifold" - opposed to the intelligent or
formative principle nou~v, mind. The authorized version has taken the word in one of its secondary senses, hardly the philosophical sense it would seem; but any
departure from the earlier sense was not only needless, but impaired the vividness of the figure, the familiar and natural image of a forest on fire. So Homer:

"As when a fire

Seizes a thick-grown forest, and the wind

Drives it along in eddies, while the trunks

Fall with the boughs amid devouring flames."

Iliad, xi., 156.

Hence, Rev., rightly, "Behold how much wood or how great a forest is kindled by how small a fire.

This, too, is the rendering of the Vulgate: quam magnum silvam.

6. World of iniquity (ko>smov th~v ajdiki>av). Ko>smov, primarily, means order, and is applied to the world or universe as an orderly system. A world of iniquity is
an organism containing within itself all evil essence, which from it permeates the entire man. World is used in the same sense as in the latter part of Proverbs 17:6
(Sept.), which is not given in the A.V. "The trusty hath the whole world of things, but the faithless not a groat."

Is the tongue (kaqi>statai). This differs a little from the simple is, though it is not easy to render it accurately. The verb means to appoint, establish, institute, and is used
of the tongue as having an appointed and definite place in a system (among our members). It might be rendered hath its place.

Defileth (spilou~sa). Lit., defiling. Only here and Jude 1:23. See on 2 Peter 2:13.

Setteth on fire (flogi>zousa). Lit., setting on fire. Only in this verse in New Testament.

The course of nature (trocosewv). A very obscure passage. Troco>v (only here in New Testament), from tre>cw, to run, applies generally to anything round or circular
which runs or rolls, as a wheel or sphere. Hence, often a wheel. Used of the circuit of fortifications and of circles or zones of land or sea. From the radical sense, to run,
comes the meaning course, as the course of the sun; and from this a place for running, a race-course. Gene>sewv rendered nature, means origin, beginning, birth,
manner of birth, production, and is used by Plato for the creation, or the sum of created things. It also means a race, and a generation or age. In the New Testament it
occurs but twice outside of this epistle, viz., at Matthew 1:1"the book of the generation of Jesus Christ," where the meaning is origin or birth; the birth-book of Jesus
Christ. The other passage is Matthew 1:18 according to the best texts, also meaning birth. In James 1:23 as we have seen, pro>swpon th~v gene>sewv is the face of
his birth. We may then safely translate troco>v by wheel; and as birth is the meaning of ge>nesiv in every New Testament passage where it occurs, we may give it the
preference here and render the wheel of birth - i.e.., the wheel which is set in motion at birth and runs on to the close of life. It is thus a figurative description of human
life. So Anacreon:

"The chariot-wheel, like life, runs rolling round."

Tertullian says: "The whole revolving wheel of existence bears witness to the resurrection of the dead." The Rev., which gives nature, puts birth in margin. This revolving
wheel is kindled by the tongue, and rolls on in destructive blaze. The image is justified by the fact. The tongue works the chief mischief, kindles the most baleful fires in
the course of life.

7. Kind (fu>siv). Wrong. James is not speaking of the relation between individual men and individual beasts, but of the relation between the nature of man and that of
beasts, which may be different in different beasts. Hence, as Rev., in margin, nature.

Beasts (qhri>wn). Quadrupeds. Not beasts generally, nor wild beasts only. In Acts 28:4, 5 the word is used of the viper which fastened on Paul's hand. In Peter's
vision (Acts 10:12; 11:6) there is a different classification from the one here; quadrupeds being denoted by a specific term, tetra>poda, four-footed creatures. There
qhri>a includes fishes, which in this passage are classed as ejnali>wn, things in the sea.

By mankind (th|~ fu>sei th|~ ajnqrwpi>nh|). Rather, by the nature of man, fu>siv, as before, denoting the generic character. Every nature of beasts is tamed by the
nature of man. Compare the fine chorus in the "Antigone" of Sophocles, 343-352:

"The thoughtless tribe of birds,

The beasts that roam the fields,

The brood in sea-depths born,

He takes them all in nets,

Knotted in snaring mesh,

Man, wonderful in skill.

And by his subtle arts

He holds in sway the beasts

That roam the fields or tread the mountain's height;

And brings the binding yoke

Upon the neck
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Or bull on mountain crest,
That roam the fields or tread the mountain's height;

And brings the binding yoke

Upon the neck of horse with shaggy mane,

Or bull on mountain crest,

Untamable in strength."

8. No man (oujdeipwn). A strong expression. Lit., no one of men.

Unruly (ajkata>sceton). Lit., not to be held back. The proper reading, however, is ajkata>staton, unsettled. See on kaqi>statai, hath its place, ver. 6. Rev., correctly,
restless.

Deadly (qanathfo>rou). Lit., death-bearing, or bringing. Only here in New Testament.

Poison (ijou~). Rendered rust at James 5:3; and found only in these two passages and in Romans 3:13 in the citation of Psalms 140:3.

9. God, even the Father (tora). The proper reading, is torion, the Lord, and the kai, and, is simply connective. Read, therefore, as Rev., the Lord and Father. This
combination of terms for God is uncommon. See James 1:27.

Which. Not who, which would designate personally certain men; whereas James designates them generically.

11. Doth a fountain, etc. The interrogative particle, mh>ti, which begins the sentence, expects a negative answer. Fountain has the article, "the fountain," generic. See
Introduction, on James' local allusions. The Land of Promise was pictured to the Hebrew as a land of springs (Deuteronomy 8:7, 11:11). "Palestine," says Dean
Stanley, "was the only country where an Eastern could have been familiar with the language of the Psalmist: 'He sendeth the springs into the valleys which run among the
mountains.' Those springs, too, however short-lived, are remarkable for their copiousness and beauty. Not only not in the East, but hardly in the West, can any
fountains and sources of streams be seen, so clear, so full-grown even at their birth, as those which fall into the Jordan and its lakes throughout its whole course from
north to south" ("Sinai and Palestine"). The Hebrew word for a fountain or spring is ayin, meaning an eye. "The spring," says the same author, "is the bright, open
source, the eye of the landscape." 31

Send forth (bru>ei). An expressive word, found nowhere else in the New Testament, and denoting a full, copious discharge. Primarily it means to be full to bursting;
and is used therefore, of budding plants, teeming soil, etc., as in the charming picture of the sacred grove at the opening of the "Oedipus Coloneus" of Sophocles: "full
(bru>wn) of bay, olive, and vine." Hence, to burst forth or gush. Though generally intransitive, it is used transitively here.

Place (ojph~v). Rather, opening or hole in the earth or rock. Rev., opening. Compare caves, Hebrews 11:38. The word is pleasantly suggestive in connection with the
image of the eye of the landscape. See above.

Sweet water and bitter. The readers of the epistle would recall the bitter waters of Marah (Exodus 15:23), and the unwholesome spring at Jericho (2 Kings 2:19-21.

12. So can no fountain both yield salt water and fresh. The best texts omit so can no fountain, and the and between salt and fresh. Thus the text reads, ou]te aJluko.
Render, as Rev., neither can salt water yield sweet. Another of James' local allusions, salt waters. The Great Salt Sea was but sixteen miles from Jerusalem. Its shores
were lined with salt-pits, to be filled when the spring freshets should raise the waters of the lake. A salt marsh also terminated the valley through which the Jordan flows
from the Lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea, and the adjoining, plain was covered with salt streams and brackish springs. Warm springs impregnated with sulfur abound
in the volcanic valley of the Jordan. 'Aluko, salt, occurs only here in the New Testament.

13. Wise and endued with knowledge (sofo>v kaimwn). A rendering needlessly verbose, yet substantially correct. Probably no very nice distinction was intended by
the writer. It is somewhat difficult to fix the precise sense of sofo>v, since there is no uniformity in its usage in the New Testament. In classical Greek it primarily means
skilled in a handicraft or art. Thence it runs into the sense of clever, in matters of common life, worldly wise. Then, in the hands of the philosophers, it acquires the sense
of learned in the sciences, and, ironically, abstruse, subtle, obscure, like the English cunning, which originally meant knowing or skillful, and is often used in that sense in
the English Bible (see Genesis 25:27; 1 Samuel 16:16).

In the New Testament sofo>v is used - 1. In the original classical sense, skilled in handicraft (1 Corinthians 3:10). 2. Accomplished in letters, learned (Romans 1:14,
22; 1 Corinthians 1:19, 26; 3:18). So of the Jewish theologians and doctors (Matthew 11:25), and of Christian teachers (Matthew 23:34). 3. In a practical sense, of
the practice of the law of piety and honesty; so Ephesians 5:15 where it is joined with walking circumspectly, and 1 Corinthians 6:5 where it is represented as the
quality adapted to adjust differences in the church. 4. In the higher, philosophical sense, of devising the best counsels and employing the best means to carry them out.
So of God, Romans 16:27; 1 Timothy 1:17; Jude 1:25; 1 Corinthians 1:25. In this passage the word appears to be used in the sense of 3: practical wisdom in pious
living.

'Episth>mwn occurs only here in the New Testament. In classical Greek it is often used like sofo>v, in the sense of skilled, versed; and by the philosophers in the higher
sense of scientifically versed, in which sense it is opposed by Plato to doxasth>v, a mere conjecturer. In this passage sofo>v would seem to be the broader, more
general, and perhaps more dignified term of the two, as denoting the habit or quality, while ejpisth>mwn indicates the special development and intelligent application of
the quality to particular things. The Rev., wise and understanding, gives the distinction, on the whole, as nearly as is necessary.

Conversation (ajnastrofh~v). See on 1 Peter 1:15.

Meekness of wisdom. On meekness, see on Matthew 5:5. The meekness which is the proper attribute of wisdom.

"Knowledge is proud that she has learned so much,

Wisdom is humble that she knows no more."

14. Envying (zh~lon). The word is used in the New Testament both in a bad and a good sense. For the latter, see John 2:17; Romans 10:2; 2 Corinthians 9:2. From it
is our word zeal, which may be either good or bad, wise or foolish. The bad sense is predominant in the New Testament. See Acts 5:17; Romans 13:13; Galatians
5:20 and here, where the bad sense is defined and emphasized by the epithet bitter. It is often joined with e]riv, strife, as here with ejri>qeia, intriguing or faction. The
rendering envying, as A.V., more properly belongs to fqo>nov, which is never used in a good sense. Emulation is the better general rendering, which does not
necessarily
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                                      Media     spirit of self-devotion. Rev. renders jealousy.                                                          Page 292 / 567
Strife (ejriqei>an). A wrong rendering, founded on the mistaken derivation from e]riv, strife. It is derived from e]riqov, a hired servant, and means, primarily, labor for
hire. Compare Tobit 2:11: My wife did take women's work to do (hjriqeu>eto). Thus it comes to be applied to those who serve in official positions for their own selfish
14. Envying (zh~lon). The word is used in the New Testament both in a bad and a good sense. For the latter, see John 2:17; Romans 10:2; 2 Corinthians 9:2. From it
is our word zeal, which may be either good or bad, wise or foolish. The bad sense is predominant in the New Testament. See Acts 5:17; Romans 13:13; Galatians
5:20 and here, where the bad sense is defined and emphasized by the epithet bitter. It is often joined with e]riv, strife, as here with ejri>qeia, intriguing or faction. The
rendering envying, as A.V., more properly belongs to fqo>nov, which is never used in a good sense. Emulation is the better general rendering, which does not
necessarily include envy, but may be full of the spirit of self-devotion. Rev. renders jealousy.

Strife (ejriqei>an). A wrong rendering, founded on the mistaken derivation from e]riv, strife. It is derived from e]riqov, a hired servant, and means, primarily, labor for
hire. Compare Tobit 2:11: My wife did take women's work to do (hjriqeu>eto). Thus it comes to be applied to those who serve in official positions for their own selfish
interest, and who, to that end, promote party spirit and faction. So Romans 2:8: them that are contentious (ejx ejriqei>av), lit., of faction. Rev., factious. Also, 2
Corinthians 12:20. Rev., here, rightly, faction.

15. Wisdom (sofi>a). See on sofo>v, ver. 13.

From above. Compare James 1:17.

Sensual (yucikh>). See on Jude 1:19.

Devilish (daimoniw>dhv). Or demoniacal, according to the proper rendering of dai>mwn (see on Matthew 4:1). Only here in New Testament. Devilish, "such," says
Bengel, "as even devils have." Compare James 2:19.

16. Confusion (ajkatastasi>a). See on restless, ver. 8.

Evil (fau~lon). An inadequate rendering, because it fails to bring out the particular phase of evil which is dominant in the word: worthlessness, good-for-nothingness. In
classical Greek it has the meanings slight, trivial, paltry, which run into bad. In the New Testament it appears in this latest stage, and is set over against good. See John
3:20; 5:29; Titus 2:8. Rev., vile, which, according to its etymology, Lat., vilis, follows the same process of development from cheap, or paltry, to bad.

17. First. Emphasizing its inner quality, pure, as distinguished from its outward expressions. The idea is not first numerically, but first essentially. The other qualities are
secondary as outgrowths of this primary quality.

Gentle (ejpieikh>v). See on 1 Peter 2:18.

Easy to be intreated (eujpeiqh>v). Only here in New Testament.

Without partiality (ajdia>kritov). Only here in New Testament and very rare in classical Greek. Rev., without variance or doubting. See on James 1:6.

CHAPTER 4

1. Lusts (hJdonw~n). Lit., pleasures, as Rev. Properly, sensual pleasures. The sinful pleasures are the outgrowths of the lusts, ver. 2.

That war (strateuome>nwn). The thought of wars and fightings is carried into the figurative description of the sensuality which arrays its forces and carries on its
campaign in the members. The verb does not imply mere fighting, but all that is included in military service. A remarkable parallel occurs in Plato, "Phaedo," 66: "For
whence come wars and fightings and factions? Whence but from the body and the lusts of the body? "Compare 1 Peter 2:11; Romans 7:23.

2. Ye lust. See on desire, 1 Peter 1:12; Mark 4:19.

Desire to have (zhlou~te). Rev., covet, and are jealous, in margin. See on James 3:14.

3. Ye ask (aijtei~te). See on hjrw>twn, besought, Matthew 15:23.

Amiss (kakw~v). Lit., evilly: with evil intent, as explained by the following sentence.

Consume it upon (dapanhsh>te ejn). More correctly, as Rev., spend it in. The sense is not lay out expense upon your pleasures, but spend in the exercise of; under the
dominion of.

4. Ye adulterers (moicoi) All the best texts omit.

Adulteresses (moicali>dev). The feminine term is the general designation of all whom James here rebukes. The apostate members of the church are figuratively
regarded as unfaithful spouses; according to the common Old Testament figure, in which God is the bridegroom or husband to whom his people are wedded. See
Jeremiah 3; Hosea 2, 3, 4; Isaiah 54:5; 62:4, 5. Also, Matthew 12:39; 2 Corinthians 11:2; Revelation 19:7; 21:9.

Will be (boulhqh|~ ei+nai). More correctly, as Rev., would be. Lit., may have been minded to be.

Is the enemy (kaqi>statai). Thereby constitutes himself. Rev., maketh himself. See on James 3:6.

5. Do ye think (dokei~te). See on James 1:26.

The scripture (hJ grafh). See on Mark 12:10. Properly, a passage of scripture.

In vain (kenw~v). Only here in New Testament.

6. Resisteth. See on 1 Peter 5:5.

Proud. See on Mark 7:22.

Humble. See on Matthew 7:29.

7. Submit yourselves (uJpota>ghte). Rev., be subject. The verb means to place or arrange under; as resist (ver. 6) is to array against. God sets himself in array against
the proud; therefore,
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8. Purify (aJgni>sate). One of the three instances in the New Testament in which the word is not used of ceremonial purification. The others are 1 Peter 1:22; 1 John
3:3.
Humble. See on Matthew 7:29.

7. Submit yourselves (uJpota>ghte). Rev., be subject. The verb means to place or arrange under; as resist (ver. 6) is to array against. God sets himself in array against
the proud; therefore, array yourselves under God, that ye may withstand the devil.

8. Purify (aJgni>sate). One of the three instances in the New Testament in which the word is not used of ceremonial purification. The others are 1 Peter 1:22; 1 John
3:3.

Double minded (di>yucoi). Compare James 1:8.

9. Be afflicted (talaipw>rhsate). Only here in New Testament. The kindred noun talaipwri>a, misery, occurs James 5:1.

Mourn (penqh>sate). Used of grief that is manifested. So mostly in New Testament, and very commonly joined, as here, with weep. So Mark 16:10; Luke 6:25 etc. In
the next sentence occurs the kindred noun pe>nqov mourning, into which laughter, also something manifest, is to be changed.

Heaviness (kath>feian). Properly, a casting down of the eyes. Compare Luke 18:13. Only here in New Testament.

12. There is one lawgiver (ei+v ejstithv). The A.V. fails to note the emphatic position of one. Better, Rev., one only is the lawgiver. Nomoqe>thv, lawgiver, only here in
New Testament.

But who art thou? (suv ei+). According to the Greek order: but thou, who art tho?

13. Go to now (a]ge nu~n). Go to is an obsolete phrase, though retained in Rev. It is a formula for calling attention: come now.

Such a city (th>nde thlin). More accurately, as Rev., this city.

Continue there a year (toih>somen ejkei~ ejniauto). Lit., we will make a year. See, for the same form of expression, Acts 15:33; 18:23; 2 Corinthians 11:25. Better, as
Rev., spend a year there. (Compare the A.V., Acts 18:23 rightly retained by Rev.) The word poih>somen implies more than mere continuance; rather, a doing
something with the year.

And. The frequent use of the copulative gives a lively tone to the passage, expressive of the lightness and thoughtlessness of a careless spirit.

Buy and sell (ejmporeuso>meqa). Rev., more concisely, trade. Only here and 2 Peter 2:3.

14. Whereas ye know not (oi[tinev oujk ejpi>stasqe). The pronoun marking a class, as being of those who know not.

What shall be on the morrow (to). Lit., the thing of the morrow. The texts vary. Westcott and Hort read, Ye know not what your life shalt be on the morrow, for ye are
a vapor: thus throwing out the question.

What is your life? (poi>a). Lit., of what kind or nature.

It is even a vapor (ajtmir ejstin). But all the best texts read ejste, ye are. So Rev., which, however, retains the question, what is your life?

Appeareth - vanisheth. Both participles, appearing, vanishing.

And then (e]peita kai). The kai placed after the adverb then is not copulative, but expresses that the vapor vanishes even as it appeared.

15. For that ye ought to say (ajntigein uJma~v). Ver. 14 was parenthetical, so that at this point the thought is taken up from ver. 13: Ye who say we will go, etc. - for
that ye ought to say. The rendering in margin of Rev. is simpler: instead of your saying.

16. Ye rejoice (kauca~sqe). Rev., glory. See on James 2:13.

Boastings (ajlazonei>aiv). Only here and 1 John 2:16. The kindred word ajlazw>n a boaster, is derived from a]lh, a wandering or roaming; hence, primarily, a
vagabond, a quack, a mountebank. From the empty boasts of such concerning the cures and wonders they could perform, the word passed into the sense of boaster.
One may boast truthfully; but ajlazonei>a, is false and swaggering boasting. Rev. renders vauntings, and rightly, since vaunt is from the Latin vanus, empty, and
therefore expresses idle or vain boasting.

CHAPTER 5

1. Go to. See on James 4:13.

Weep and howl (klau>sate ojlolu>zontev). Lit., weep, howling. The latter is a descriptive word, ol-ol-uz-o. Only here in New Testament, and denoting a more
demonstrative and passionate expression of grief than weeping.

Miseries (talaipwri>aiv). Only here and Romans 3:16. See on be afflicted, James 4:9.

That shall come upon (ejpercome>naiv). Present participle. More correctly, as Rev., that are coming.

2. Are corrupted (se>shpen). Only here in New Testament.

Are moth-eaten (shto>brwta ge>gonen). Lit., have become moth-eaten. Only here in New Testament, but compare skwlhko>brwtov, eaten of worms, Acts 12:23;
and see Matthew 6:19, 20.

3. Is cankered (kati>wtai). Only here in New Testament, from ijo>v, rust, as in the following sentence. Also poison, as James 3:8. The preposition kata> indicates
thoroughness, completely rusted.

Flesh (tarkav). The noun is plural: the fleshy parts of the body. So Sept. (2 Kings 9:36): "the flesh (tarkav) of Jezebel. So Revelation 19:18.
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4. Reaped down (ajmhsa>ntwn). Only here in New Testament. The primary meaning is to reap corn; also in classical Greek of mowing down in battle. The secondary,
which some mistake for the primary sense, is to gather, as for harvest. Rev., mowed.
thoroughness, completely rusted.

Flesh (tarkav). The noun is plural: the fleshy parts of the body. So Sept. (2 Kings 9:36): "the flesh (tarkav) of Jezebel. So Revelation 19:18.

4. Reaped down (ajmhsa>ntwn). Only here in New Testament. The primary meaning is to reap corn; also in classical Greek of mowing down in battle. The secondary,
which some mistake for the primary sense, is to gather, as for harvest. Rev., mowed.

Fields (cw>rav). The more general word, place, for ajgro>v, the ordinary word for a field; though the usage is warranted by classical Greek, and occurs Luke 12:16;
John 4:35 the only two instances besides this in the New Testament. It implies a larger tract than ajgro>v, as is evident in all the New Testament passages cited. In two
cases it refers to a rich man's estates; and in John 4:35 the Lord directs the attention of the disciples to a broad area or series of fields.

Crieth (kra>zei). An inarticulate cry. Compare Genesis 4:10.

Lord of Sabaoth. Lord of hosts. The only instance in which the phrase is used by a New Testament writer. Romans 9:29 is quoted from Isaiah 1:9.

5. Ye have lived in pleasure (ejtrufh>sate). Only here in New Testament. See on 2 Peter 2:13 on the kindred noun trufh>, riot or revel. Rev., ye have lived delicately.

Been wanton (ejspatalh>sate). Only here and 1 Timothy 5:6. 'Etrufh>sate denotes dainty living: this word, luxurious or prodigal living. Rev., taken your pleasure, is
colorless, and is no improvement on the A.V.

As in a day of slaughter (wJv ejn hJme>ra| sfagh~v). All the best texts reject wJv, as. The meaning of the passage is disputed. Some find the key to it in the words last
days (ver. 3). The phrase day of slaughter is used for a day of judgment, Jeremiah 12:3; 25:34 (Sept.). According to this, the meaning is, the day of judgment, at the
supposed near coming of Christ. Others explain that these men are like beasts, which, on the very day of their slaughter, gorge themselves in unconscious security.

7. Be patient (makroqumh>sate). From makro>v, long, and qumo>v, soul or spirit but with the sense of strong passion, stronger even than ojrgh>, anger, as is
maintained by Schmidt ("Synonymik"), who describes qumo>v as a tumultuous welling of the whole spirit; a mighty emotion which seizes and moves the whole inner
man. Hence the restraint implied in,akroqumi>a is most correctly expressed by long-suffering, which is its usual rendering in the New Testament. It is a patient holding
out under trial; a long-protracted restraint of the soul from yielding to passion, especially the passion of anger. In the New Testament the word and its cognates are
sometimes rendered by patient or patience, which conceals the distinction from uJpomonh>, uniformly rendered patience, and signifying persistent endurance, whether
in action or suffering. As Trench observes, "uJpomonh> is perseverantia and patientia both in one." Thus Bishop Ellicott: "The brave patience with which the Christian
contends against the various hindrances, persecutions, and temptations that befall him in his conflict with the inward and outward world."'Upomonh> contains an
element of manliness Thus Plato joins it with the adverb ajndrikw~v, in a manly way, and contrasts it with ajna>ndrwv, unmanly, cowardly. roqumi>a is exercised
toward persons; uJpomonh>, toward things. The former is ascribed to God as an attribute (Luke 18:7; 1 Peter 3:20; 2 Peter 3:9, 15), the latter never; for the God of
patience (Romans 15:5) is the God who imparts patience to his children. "There can be no resistance to God nor burden upon him, the Almighty, from things. Therefore
uJpomonh> cannot find place in him" (Trench). Rev. retains A.V., be patient. The thought links itself naturally with that in the preceding verse: the righteous doth not
resist.

Therefore. Since things are so. Referring to the condition of things described in the previous passage.

Brethren. In contrast with the rich just addressed.

Waiteth (ejkde>cetai). With expectation. Compare Matthew 13:30; Mark 4:27.

The early and latter rain (uJetoimoa kai). Both adjectives only here in New Testament. 'Ueto, rain, is rejected by all the best texts. The early rain fell in October,
November, and December, and extended into January and February. These rains do not come suddenly, but by degrees, so that the farmer can sow his wheat or
barley. The rains are mostly from the west or southwest (Luke 12:54), continuing two or three days at a time, and falling mostly in the night. Then the wind shifts to the
north or east, and fine weather ensues (Proverbs 25:23). The latter rains, which are much lighter, fall in March and April. Rain in harvest was regarded as a miracle (1
Samuel 12:16-18. See Introduction, on James' local allusions.

9. Grudge not (mhzete). Better, as Rev., murmur not. The verb means to sigh or groan.

Standeth before the doors. In the act of entering.

10. Example (uJpo>deigma). See on 2 Peter 2:6.

Of suffering affliction (kakopaqei>av). Only here in New Testament. The word does not mean the endurance of affliction, but affliction itself. Hence, Rev., rightly,
suffering.

The prophets. Compare Matthew 5:12.

11. Endure (uJpome>nontav). Present participle. But the later texts read uJpomei>nantav, the aorist participle, which endured; referring to the prophets in the past
ages. So Rev. On endured and patience, see on ver. 7.

The end of the Lord (tolov kuri>ou). A peculiar expression. The happy conclusion to which God brought Job's trials.

Very pitiful and of tender mercy (polusplagcno>v kairmwn). The former adjective only here in New Testament; the latter here and Luke 6:36. Rev., full of pity and
merciful. Polusplagcno>v, is from polu>v much, and spla>gcna the nobler entrails, used like our heart, as the seat of the emotions. Hence the term bowels in the A.V.
(Philippians 1:8; Colossians 3:12 etc.). Compare eu]splagcnoi, tender-hearted, Ephesians 4:32. The distinction between this and oijkti>rmwn, merciful, seems to be
that the former denotes the general quality of compassion, while the latter emphasizes the sympathy called out by special cases, being the feeling which is moved to pain
at another's suffering.

12. Any other oath. See the common formulas of swearing, Matthew 5:35, 36.

13. Is afflicted (kakopaqei~). See on the kindred word kakopa>qeia, suffering, ver. 10. Only here and 2 Timothy 2:3, 9; 4:5.

Let him sing psalms (yalle>tw). The word means, primarily, to pluck or twitch. Hence of the sharp twang on a bowstring or harp-string, and so to play upon a stringed
instrument. Our2005-2009,
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                              derived from this,
                                       Media     is, properly, a tune played upon a stringed instrument. The verb, however, is used in the New Testament of singing
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praise generally. See 1 Corinthians 14:15; Romans 15:9.

15. The sick (tomnonta). Rev. gives, better, the participial force, him that is sick. The word originally means to work. Hence, "him that is laboring under disease."
13. Is afflicted (kakopaqei~). See on the kindred word kakopa>qeia, suffering, ver. 10. Only here and 2 Timothy 2:3, 9; 4:5.

Let him sing psalms (yalle>tw). The word means, primarily, to pluck or twitch. Hence of the sharp twang on a bowstring or harp-string, and so to play upon a stringed
instrument. Our word psalm, derived from this, is, properly, a tune played upon a stringed instrument. The verb, however, is used in the New Testament of singing
praise generally. See 1 Corinthians 14:15; Romans 15:9.

15. The sick (tomnonta). Rev. gives, better, the participial force, him that is sick. The word originally means to work. Hence, "him that is laboring under disease."

And if he have committed sins (ka}n aJmarti>av h|+ pepoihkw>v). The Greek gives a shade of meaning which can hardly be transferred neatly into English,
representing not merely the fact that the man has sinned, but his condition as a sinner. Literally the words read, if he be having committed sins; i.e., in a state of having
committed, and under the moral or physical consequences of transgression.

They shall be forgiven (ajfeqh>setai). Better, Rev., "it shall be forgiven," supplying the commission as a subject. The verb means to send forth or discharge, and is the
standard New Testament word for forgiving. Forgiveness (a]fesiv) is a putting or sending away of sins, with a consequent discharge of the sinner; thus differing from
pa>resiv (Romans 3:25), which a passing by of sin, a pretermission as distinguished from a remission. See, farther, on Romans 3:25.

16. Confess (ejxomologei~sqe). The preposition ejx, forth out, implies full, frank, open confession, and so in every case of its use in the New Testament. See on
Matthew 3:6.

Faults (paraptw>mata). See on Matthew 6:14.

The effectual, fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much (poluei de>hsiv dikai>ou ejnergoume>nh). Lit., much availeth (ijscu>ei, is strong), the prayer of a
righteous man working or operating. The rendering of the A.V., besides being unwarranted by the text, is almost a truism. An effectual prayer is a prayer that avails.
The Rev. is at once more correct and more natural: The supplication of a righteous man availeth much in its working.

17. A man (a]nqrwpov). The generic word; human like ourselves, this thought being emphasized by the succeeding epithet of like passions. See the same expression,
Acts 14:15.

Of like passions (oJmoiopaqh). Only here and Acts 14:15. There is some danger of a misunderstanding of this rendering, from the limited and generally bad sense in
which the word passions is popularly used. The meaning is rather of like nature and constitution. Rev. puts nature in margin, which would be better in the text.

He prayed fervently (proseuch|~ proshu>xato). Lit., he prayed with prayer. See a similar mode of expression, Genesis 2:17 (Sept.), ye shall surely die (qana>tw|
ajpoqanei~sqe); lit., ye shall die with death. Compare Luke 22:15; John 3:29; Acts 4:17. The addition of the cognate noun gives intenseness to the verb.

Hide - sins. A familiar Hebrew phrase. See Psalms 32:1; 85:2; Proverbs 10:12.

LIST OF GREEK WORDS USED BY JAMES ONLY

a]ge, go to, James 4:13; 5:1

ajdia>kritov, without doubting, James 3:17

ajkata>statov, unstable, James 1:18; 3:8

aJluko>v, salt, James 3:12

ajma>w, reap down, James 5:4

ajne>leov, unmerciful, James 2:13

ajnemi>zw, to drive with the wind, James 1:6

ajpei>rastov, that cannot be tempted, or unversed, James 1:13

aJplw~v, liberally, simply, James 1:5

ajpokue>w, bring forth, beget, James 1:15, 18

ajposki>asma, shadow, James 1:17

aujce>w, to boast, James 3;5

ajfustere>w, to keep back by fraud, James 5:4

boh>, cry, James 5:4

bru>w, to send forth, James 3:11

ge>lwv, laughter, James 4:9

di>yucov, double-minded, James 1;8; 4:8

ei]kw, to be like, James 1:6, 23

e]mfutov, implanted, James 1:21

ejna>liov, in the sea, James 3:7
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ejxe>lkw, to draw away, James 1:14

ejpilhsmonh>, forgetfulness, James 1:25
e]mfutov, implanted, James 1:21

ejna>liov, in the sea, James 3:7

ejxe>lkw, to draw away, James 1:14

ejpilhsmonh>, forgetfulness, James 1:25

ejpisth>mwn, knowing, James 3:13

ejpith>deiov, needful, James 2:16

oJ eujqu>nwn, steersman, James 3:4

eujpeiqh>v, easy to be intreated, James 3:17

eujpre>peia, grace, James 1:11

ejfh>merov, daily, James 2:15

qanathfo>rov, deadly, James 3:8

qrh~skov, religious, James 1:26

ijo>v, poison, rust, James 3:8; 5:3

kakopa>qeia, suffering, James 5:10

kath>feia, heaviness, James 4:9

kateo>w, to canker, James 5::3

katoiki>zw, to cause to dwell, James 4:5

kenw~v, in vain, James 4:5

marai>nw, to fade, James 1:11

meta>gw, to turn about, James 3:3, 4.

nomoqe>thv, lawgiver, James 4:12

ojlolu>zw, to howl, James 5:1

o]yimov, latter, James 5:7

parallagh>, variation, James 1:17

pikro>v, bitter, James 3:11, 14

poi>hsiv, doing, James 1:25

polu>splagcnov, full of pity, James 5:11

proswpolhmpte>w, to have respect to persons, James 2:9

prw>i`mov, early, James 5:7

rJipi>zw, toss, James 1:6

rJupari>a, filthiness, James 1:21

sh>pw, to corrupt, James 5:2

shto>brwtov, moth-eaten, James 5:2

talaipwre>w, to be afflicted, James 4:9

tacu>v, swift, James 1:19

troph>, turning, James 1:17

troco>v, wheel, James 3:6

prufa>w, to live daintily, James 5:5

u[lh, wood, forest, James 3:5
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fili>a, friendship, James 4:4
prufa>w, to live daintily, James 5:5

u[lh, wood, forest, James 3:5

fili>a, friendship, James 4:4

flogi>zw, to set on fire, James 3:6

fri>ssw, to shudder, James 2:19

calinagwge>w, to bridle, James 1:26; 3:2

cph>, ought, James 3:10

crusodaktu>liov, adorned with gold rings, James 2:2

ADDITIONAL NOTE
After the sheets of the three Gospels and the Acts had been printed, a careful revision of the lists of words peculiar to individual vriters, and further examination of the
various readings, revealed a nunuber of omissions and errors. The lists are corrected in the following additional tables.

I take this opportunity of expressing my great indebtedness to the careful and exhaustive lists in Dr. Joseph H. Thayer's admirable lexicon, recently published. I only
wish that I could have had the benefit of it in the preparation of the entire volume.

MATTHEW

STRIKE OUT

13:48, from ajggei~on: ajqniko>v, eujdi>a, qrh~nov, kh~tov, mei~zon, mu~lwn, nossia>, purjrJa>zw.

CHANGE

tufo>w to tu>fw.

ADD

a]ggov, vessel, Matthew 13:48

ajmfi>blhstron, casting-net, Matthew 4:18

ejgkru>ptw, to hide in, Matthew 13:33

eijde>a, aspect, Matthew 28:3

ejnqume>omai, think, Matthew 1:20; 9:4

Qee> (vocative), O God, Matthew 27:46

kataqemati>zw to curse vehemently, Matthew 26:74

lamba>nein sumbou>lion, to take counsel, Matthew 27:1, 7; 28:12

ojligopisti>a, little faith, Matthew 17:20

paratiqe>nai parabolh>n, set forth a parable, Matthew 13:24, 31

plhrou~n ton, to fulfil what was spoken, Matthew 1:22; 2:15, 17, 23 etc,

tou]noma, by name, Matthew 27:57

fugh>, flight, Matthew 24:20.

MARK

STRIKE OUT

a[lv, gami>skomai, meqo>ria, o]mma, proseggi>zw, skw>lhx.

CHANGE

e]nnucon to e]nnucov: neut., after ejpiba>llw, to intrans.

ADD

ajllacou~, elsewhere, Mark 1:38

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ajtima>w, treat with contempt, Mark 12:4
ADD

ajllacou~, elsewhere, Mark 1:38

ajnakuli>w, roll back, Mark 16:4

ajtima>w, treat with contempt, Mark 12:4

diarpa>zw, to spoil, Mark 3:27

ei+ten, then, Mark 4:28

ejkqauma>zw to wonder greatly, Mark 12:17

qambe>w, to be astonished, Mark 1:27; 10:24, 32

oJdo, to make a way, Mark 2:23

trumalia>, eye of a needle, Mark 10:25.

LUKE

STRIKE OUT

nagnwri>zomai, ajnqupateu>w, dikasth>v, eJkatonta>rchv, ejmpipla>w, Luke 14:14 from eijsphda>w: ejnu>pnion, ejpe>keina, ejpiporeu>omai, ejpi>stasiv,
zwogone>w, qeomace>w, qrau>w, kataklhrodote>w, kata>loipov, katasofi>zomai, katafronhth>v, 1:49, from megalei~a; meli>ssiov, ple>w, poli>thv, pollaplasi>wn,
24:33, from sunaqroi>zw; suspara>ssw, trofofore>w trugw>n, fo>rtov frua>ssw.

CHANGE

ajna>lhyiv to ajna>lhmyiv; ejfora>w to ejpei~don; ejxw>qw to ejxwqe>w; ejpoke>llw to ejpike>llw; eujqumo>teron to eu+qumwv; cra>w to ki>crhmi; lake>w to
la>skw; parakaqi>zw to parakaqe>zomai; suzh>thsiv to sunzh>thsiv; under su>neimi, Luke 10:18 to Luke 9:18; sfuro>n to sfudro>n.

ADD

'Aqhnai~ov, Athenian, Acts 17:21, 22

ajqroi>zw to gather, Luke 24:33

ai+nov, praise, Luke 18:43

ajmfia>(e)zw to clothe, Luke 12:28

ajna>phrov, crippled, Luke 14:13, 21

ajpodekateu>w, pay tithes, Luke 18:12

&Aray, Arabian, Acts 2:11

&Areiov Pa>gov, Mars' Hill, Acts 17:19, 22

'Areopagi>thv, Areopagite, Acts 17:34

'Asiano>v, of Asia, Acts 20:4

'Asia>rchv Asiarch, Acts 19:31

Au]goustov, Augustus, Luke 2:1

Beroai~ov, Berean, Acts 20:4

Galatiko>v, Galatian, Acts 16:6; 18:23

diaggellw, proclaim, preach, Luke 9:60; Acts 21:26

diakaqai>rw, cleanse thoroughly, Luke 3:17

Dio>skouroi, Castor and Pollux, Acts 28:11

e]a, let alone, Luke 4:34

ejkphda>w, Acts 14:14

under ejlai>wn, Luke 19:29; 21:37

Elami>thv, Elamite, Acts 2:9

'Ellhnisth>v,
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ejmfanh>v, manifest, Acts 10:40
under ejlai>wn, Luke 19:29; 21:37

Elami>thv, Elamite, Acts 2:9

'Ellhnisth>v, Hellenist, Acts 6:1; 9:29; 11:20

ejmfanh>v, manifest, Acts 10:40

'Epikou>riov, Epicurean, Acts 17:18

ejpirjrJi>ptw, to cast upon, Luke 19:35

eu+ge, well, well done, Luke 19:17

Eujraku>lwn, the wind Euraquilo, Acts 27:14

eujfrosu>nh, joy, Acts 2:28; 14:17

'Efe>siov, Ephesian, Acts 19:28, 34, 35; 21:29

hJmiqanh>v, half-dead, Luke 10:30

katadi>kh, condemnation, Acts 25:15

katefi>sthmi, make insurrection, Acts 18:12

klina>rion, couch, Acts 5:15

lampro>thv, brightness, Acts 26:13

lamprw~v, brilliantly, sumptuously, Luke 16:19

Liberti~nov, pertaining to a freedman, Acts 6:9.

Lukaonisti>, in the language of Lycaonia, Acts 14:11

pai~v(h), maid, Luke 8:51, 54

pantach~, everywhere, Acts 21:28

paraba>llw, arrive, Acts 20:15

paremba>llw, to cast up, Luke 19:43

peraite>rw, further, besides, Acts 19:39

pnikto>v, strangled, Acts 15:20, 29; 21:25

pnoh>, wind, breath, Acts 2:2; 17:25

proskli>nw, lean to, incline, Acts 5:36

prw>twv, first, Acts 11:26

Pu>qwn, Python, Acts 16:16

Sidw>niov, Sidonian, Acts 12:20

siteuto>v, fatted, Luke 15:23, 27, 30

skwlhko>brwtov, eaten by worms, Acts 12:23

Stwi`ko>v, stoic, Acts 18:18

sumparagi>nomai, to come together, Luke 23:48

sunalla>ssw, to reconcile, Acts 7:26

sunepiti>qhmi, attack jointly, Acts 24:9

Su>rov, Syrian, Luke 4:27

trieti>a, space of three years, Acts 20:31

fi>lh(hJ), female friend, Luke 15:9

Caldai~ov, Luke 7:4
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NOTES
fi>lh(hJ), female friend, Luke 15:9

Caldai~ov, Luke 7:4

NOTES
1.A full discussion of the classical usage would require an essay. The critical student is referred to the article bou>lesqai in Schmidt's Synonymik der Griechischen
Sprache, vol. 3, p. 602. See, also, the art, qe>lw, in Grimm's Clavis Nov. Test. His classification of meanings, however, needs careful revision.

2.See Homer, "Iliad," ix. 501; Sophocles "Oedipus Tyrannus," 621.

3.Floor, a[lwna, properly a circular space. Used also of the disk of the sun or moon, or of a halo, which is a transcript of the Greek word.

4.The tense is the aorist, denoting completed action at an indefinite past time, and so, strictly, forgave; but where any effect of the action expressed by the aorist
remains, we are justified in rendering it by a perfect; and so Rev.

5.It is uncertain whether this means four hundred and ninety times, or seventy-seven times. Those who maintain the latter, claim that the expression is derived from the
Septuagint, Genesis 4:24. Authorities, however, do not agree on the rendering of the Hebrew in that passage. Meyer says it cannot possibly mean anything else than
seventy-seven, while Bunsen renders seven times seventy, and Grotius septuagies et id ipsum septies, "seventy times and that seven times over." The point, however, is
unimportant, for, as Dr. Morison observes, "So far as the spirit of our Savior's answer is concerned, both enumerations are right."

6.Hebraistically, of gracious visitation. Comp. Luke 7:16; Hebrews 2:6.

7.In post-classical Greek, sometimes of reading aloud with comments. This may explain the parenthesis in Matthew 24:15.

8.Further examination has convinced me that this distinction is unfounded. See Prof. Ezra Abbot's "Critical Essays."

9.The Rev. is not open to the charge of Mr. Yonge (Expositor, 2nd Series, v., 318. of "construing through a brick wall." The rendering is quite "intelligible;" quite as
much so as Mr. Y.'s "cleanse the within by alms."

10.Not afantov aujtoi~v, became invisible to them, which would imply that his body remained, but invisibly; but ajp' aujtw~n, away from them, implying a real removal
(Beza, cited by Alford and Meyer).

11.Reasonings, doubtings, scruples, are more or less distinctly implied in every occurrence of the word in the New Testament. In Philippians 2:14disputings (Rev.) is,
as Meyer observes, unsuitable to the reference of murmurings to God, and means rather scrupulous considering or hesitations, indicating uncertainty in the
consciousness of duty. So in 1 Timothy 2:8 the A.V. doubting is better. Romans 14:1 is decisions of doubts (Rev., margin) or scruples. So Meyer, Godet, Lange, Beet,
Shedd, Hodge, Tholuck, Alford, De Wette.

12.Tischendorf (8th ed.), Westcott and Hort, and Rev. text read ajrxa>menoi, referring to the disciples. The old reading, ajrxa>menon, is explained as the impersonal
accusative neuter, referring to khrucqh~nai.

13.The construction is plainly the genitive absolute, ejrcome>nou Pe>trou, Peter passing by.

14.Where, however, the best texts read the simple verb ajporei~sqai, were perplexed, for diaporei~sqai, "were greatly perplexed."

15.The A.V. apparently assumes that ejn, in, stands for eijv, into, which is inadmissible. The preposition may be explained as combining the ideas of entrance into and
subsequent rest; and this seems to be the explanation adopted by the Rev. Alford's rendering, at their taking possession of the Gentiles, is condemned by the fact that
kata>scesiv does not mean taking possession, but holding possession, which is clearly the meaning in ver. 5, the only other New Testament passage where it occurs.
Meyer, in his anxiety to preserve the strict force of ejn, renders during the possession of the Gentiles, or while the Gentiles were in the state of possession, which,
though grammatically defensible, I cannot help thinking forced and unnatural. On the whole, it seems best to hold by the rendering of the Rev.

16.See Acts 8:3; 9:2; 22:3, 4; 26:9, 10.

17.It must be confessed that this statement, as thus amended, is obscure, and that the rendering would be greatly simplified by retaining the omitted words, as is done
by several high authorities, as Meyer, Alford, Hackett, Gloag, De Wette, though against strong MS evidence. They explain the omission in these MSS. by the fact that
no mention of fasting is made in ver. 3.

18.The Rev. Samuel Cox's application of the word to Christians, as making Christianity the daily business of their lives, is forced (Biblical Expositions, p. 341).

19.This force of the verb is illustrated by Xenophon (Anabasis, 1., 5, 9). "For one who directed his attention to it (i.e., the numerous evidences of power furnished by a
great empire) might see (sunidei~n, in a comprehensive glance) that the king was powerful." So Plato (Laws, 904), speaking of God, says, "When he saw that our
actions had life," etc., going on to enumerate various details, "He, seeing all this (tau~ta pa>nta sunidw>n)." Compare, also, Acts 14:6.

20.See the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, and Horace, Odes, B. i., Ode x.; Iliad, v., 390; xxiv., 24.

21.As, for instance, in the beautiful story of Baucis and Philemon, as related by Ovid (Metamorphoses, viii., 626-724).

22.Caria, the province adjoining Lydia on the south; Maeonia, the ancient name of Lydia.

23.For fuller descriptions, see Lewin, Life and Epistles of St. Paul; Davies, St. Paul in Greece; Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Art., Athens.

24.For descriptions of the temple, see Conybeare and Howson; and Lewin, Life and Epistles of St. Paul; Farrar, Life and Work of St. Paul; and Wood Ephesus.

25.See Bp. Lighfoot's "Essays on Supernatural Religion," p. 297, and Euripides "Iphingenia in tauris," 87.

26.See Bishop Lightfoot's Commentary on Philippians, p. 93; and the Essay on the Christian Ministry, in the same volume, p. 179 sq.; also, Conybeare and Howson,
vol. i., ch. xiii.
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27."Bernhardy very aptly remarks that the entrance of the word deisidaimoni>a marks a critical point in the history of the life of the Greek people. It marks the
wavering between skepticism and despondency. It leaves the conception of the object of religious reverence wavering between God and demon, and thus fearing
25.See Bp. Lighfoot's "Essays on Supernatural Religion," p. 297, and Euripides "Iphingenia in tauris," 87.

26.See Bishop Lightfoot's Commentary on Philippians, p. 93; and the Essay on the Christian Ministry, in the same volume, p. 179 sq.; also, Conybeare and Howson,
vol. i., ch. xiii.

27."Bernhardy very aptly remarks that the entrance of the word deisidaimoni>a marks a critical point in the history of the life of the Greek people. It marks the
wavering between skepticism and despondency. It leaves the conception of the object of religious reverence wavering between God and demon, and thus fearing
becomes the dominant notion. Hence the word carries more reproach than credit" (Zeschwitz, Profangracitat und Biblischer Sprachgeist).

28.Thus, though the priest is iJerau>v, the holy place is to, and the most holy place, tawn: iJero>n is never used in the Septuagint for the temple, except in I Chronicles
29:4; Ezekiel 45:19; and in both cases the temple is referred to in its outward aspect. In Ezekiel 27:6; 28:18ta is used of the heathen sanctuaries of Tyre. In the New
Testament iJero>v never implies moral excellence. Excepting in the neuter form, ton, the temple, it occurs but twice (1 Corinthians 9:13; 2 Timothy 3:15), and is never
used of a person. Semno>v is reverend; aJgno>v, pure, in the sense of chastity, freedom from a mixture of evil; and is applied once to God himself (1 John 3:3). %
Osiov is holy by sanction. Trench remarks the sharp distinction maintained by the Septuagint translators between it and a[giov; the two words being used to render two
different Hebrew words, and never interchanged. The Greek student will find an interesting discussion of this subject in Zeschwitz, Profangracitat und Biblischer
Sprachgeist.

29.As in John 10:32: "For which of these works are you for stoning me (liqa>zete)?" John 13:6: "Dost thou mean to wash (ni>pteiv) my feet?" Luke 1:59: "They were
for calling (ejka>loun) him Zacharias." Matthew 3:14: "John tried to prevent (diekw>luen)."

30.So the best texts, instead of pollw|, much.

31.See Scott's "Castle Dangerous," ch. 1.

Daniel Stanton

D&C 75:33

Birth: 28 May 1795, Manlius, Onondaga County, New York. Son of Amos Stanton and Elizabeth Wyman.

Death: 26 October 1872, Panaca, Lincoln County, Nevada.

Daniel Stanton, a veteran of the War of 1812, migrated to Ohio in 1819. He was baptized on 3 November 1830 in Kirtland by Parley P. Pratt. When he was ordained
a high priest by Oliver Cowdery he said "he had a long time since covenanted to do the will of God in all things, and also said that it was his desire to be sealed with the
Holy Spirit of promise."1

He served a mission with Seymour Brunson before settling his family in Jackson County, Missouri (see D&C 75:33). He presided over Branch Number Two in the
county before being called as a counselor to Bishop John Corrill. Religious persecution in the area forced him to flee to Clay County. Amid personal affliction he
volunteered to serve a mission and labored in Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana.

By 1838 Daniel had returned to Missouri, where he was appointed to serve on the Adam-ondi-Ahman high council. After assisting suffering Saints in the region, he fled
from Missouri to Quincy, Illinois. Ezra T. Benson recorded an incident involving Daniel in Quincy:

On Sunday the 19th of July, we [he and his wife] went to the meeting in the afternoon. During the meeting Sylvester B. Stoddard raised a quarrel over the communion
table with Daniel Stanton, the president of the branch. My wife inquired what I thought of that. I answered that I thought it did not alter the truth of the work. At the
close of the meeting we repaired to the Mississippi River and were baptized therein by Elder Daniel Stanton.2

Daniel served as the stake president in Quincy before moving to Lima, Illinois, where he again served on a high council.

He journeyed in the Mormon exodus from Illinois to the Salt Lake Valley. He was one of the earliest settlers in Springville, Utah. By 1860 he was in the small Utah
community of Fairfield, and by 1870 in Panea.3 He relocated in Panaca, Nevada, not long before his death in 1872 at the age of seventy-seven.

Notes

  1. Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-1844 (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co., 1983), p. 21.

  2. Autobiography of Ezra Taft Benson, Instructor 80 (March 1845): 102.

  3. See the Utah federal census 1860, 1870.

Northrop Sweet

D&C 33

Birth: 1802, New York.

A few days after Northrop Sweet's baptism in October 1830, the Prophet Joseph Smith received a revelation for him:

Behold, I say unto you, my servants Ezra [Thayre] and Northrop, open ye your ears and hearken to the voice of the Lord your God, whose word is quick and
powerful, sharper than a two-edged sword, to the dividing asunder of the joints and marrow, soul and spirit; and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart.

For verily, verily, I say unto you that ye are called to lift up your voices as with the sound of a trump, to declare my gospel unto a crooked and perverse generation.
(D&C 33:1-2.)

It appears that Northrop accepted the revelation and was faithful during the early New York era. He joined with the Saints in moving to Kirtland.
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However, in 1831 Northrop apostatized and formed a religion called "The Pure Church of Christ" with Wycam Clark and four others. They claimed     "they302
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the whole world with them by preaching 'Mormon' principles. They had two or three meetings; but the society would never have been known in the world, had not a
few of us remembered the circumstances and told of it."1 The church was "composed of six members but that was the extent of the growth of this early schism."2
(D&C 33:1-2.)

It appears that Northrop accepted the revelation and was faithful during the early New York era. He joined with the Saints in moving to Kirtland.

However, in 1831 Northrop apostatized and formed a religion called "The Pure Church of Christ" with Wycam Clark and four others. They claimed "they could carry
the whole world with them by preaching 'Mormon' principles. They had two or three meetings; but the society would never have been known in the world, had not a
few of us remembered the circumstances and told of it."1 The church was "composed of six members but that was the extent of the growth of this early schism."2
When the newly formed church failed to prosper, Northrop moved from Kirtland to Lake County, Ohio. He remained a resident of Ohio until about 1845, when he
moved to Batavia, Michigan. He was living with his son Hezekiah in Bethel, Michigan, in 1880 at the age of seventy-eight.

Notes

  1. George A. Smith, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 7:114.

  2. George A. Smith, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 11:4.

Nathan Eldon Tanner

Official Declaration-2

Birth: 9 May 1898, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County, Utah. Son of Nathan William Tanner and Sarah Edna Brown.

Death: 27 November 1982, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County, Utah.

Waiting to assist in the birth of N. Eldon Tanner, should that prove necessary, was his fourteen-year-old uncle, Hugh B. Brown, who recalled: "My first recollection of
Eldon was his birth cry, as I waited to help if needed. Ever since that time there has been a bond between us, as I instinctively recognized a child of promise."1

When Eldon was six weeks old he journeyed to Canada with his mother. En route his mother was robbed. "The robbers took everything valuable except the baby," she
reported.2 He grew to manhood in the small farming community of Aetna, Alberta. There he assisted his father with dry-farming wheat and oats and learned the
meaning and value of long days, hard work, and the proper use of time.

Schooling was always second to harvesting and other farm labors. Diligent with his studies, Eldon completed nine school grades in Aetna before moving with his family
to Cardston. While waiting to register for classes, he remembered, "I saw in the far corner of the room two girls talking. I asked my friend Ken Woolf who the beautiful
girl was. He said it was Sally Merrill (nickname Sara). I said, 'Someday I'm going to marry her.'"3

That revealing insight took time to come to fulfillment. During those years Eldon was employed as a principal of a three-room school, and as fate would have it Sara
was hired to be a teacher in the school. "That's where I fell in love with Sara and actually tried to get her to marry me." he remembered. After the courtship had
blossomed into marriage Sara wrote, "I have been so much more fortunate in my marriage than nearly anyone I know that I feel very thankful."4

Eldon provided for his bride by following his academic interest as a principal and teacher. One of his students, Heber Wolsey, said of him that he "ruined me for ever
settling for less than my best."5 Outside the classroom Eldon served his community as a health officer, a Scoutmaster, and for a time a constable. He further diversified
his professional career by opening a small general store. The complexity of operating the business increased as Eldon added a gas station, a butcher shop, and a farm
implement business. To spend the time necessary to make his business successful he left academia until he sold his interest in the business. He moved his young family to
Cardston in 1927 and became principal of Cardston High School.

In 1928 Eldon was called to the bishopric of the Cardston First Ward and in November 1933 ordained bishop. As his Church responsibilities increased, so did his
desire to give greater service to the community. The beginning of his political career was in 1933 as an elected member of the Cardston City Council. Later he was
named a delegate to the 1935 provincial election. He won a landslide victory, with twenty-two of the twenty-five precincts supporting him.

Once elected, he was invited by the Social Credit Party to be the speaker of the Alberta Legislature. On the opening day of the legislative session he borrowed a chair
and a "gown" to officiate in the prestigious position. After the second session of the legislature he was invited to join the executive council as minister of lands and mines,
and later to head both the Department of Lands and Forests and the Department of Mines and Minerals. In accepting these cabinet positions N. Eldon Tanner became
the first Latter-day Saint in the British Commonwealth to become a cabinet member.

As such, he is credited with developing a system of leasing oil lands that benefitted the oil companies but also the province of Alberta. The incentives he organized led
to Alberta being recognized as the fastest-growing oil producer in the world. His leadership caused one journalist to quip, "In Alberta, the government, for all practical
purposes involving oil, is Tanner."6

After ten years of valuable service in the cabinet, Eldon resigned. He had been elected to represent Cardston four times and had served in the Alberta government for
nearly seventeen years. Returning to the private sector in 1952, he became president of Merrill Petroleums, a merged company of three oil firms in Calgary. Two years
later he was named executive vice president of Trans-Canada Pipelines Company. His main responsibility with this company was to resolve the economic and political
issues involved in constructing a pipeline extending twenty-three hundred miles. For moving the pipeline forward he was recognized by the Journal of Trade and
Commerce in western Canada as the man of the year. Soon after its completion he resigned from Trans-Canada Pipelines with hopes of retiring on his three-hundred-
acre ranch on the outskirts of Calgary.

In 1953 Eldon was called as president of the Calgary Stake. The stake had twenty-four hundred members and covered 21,600 square miles. Eldon's motto as
president was "one person, one job."7

In 1960 a visit with his uncle Hugh B. Brown revealed that President David O. McKay wanted to see him. The next day, at age sixty-two Eldon was called as an
Assistant to the Council of the Twelve Apostles. Two years later he became a member of the Council. And on 3 October 1963, one year after his call to the Twelve,
he became Second Counselor in the First Presidency of the Church. "I feel that I have been in a state of shock all day," wrote Eldon that evening.8

This was the beginning of long service in the First Presidency as he served as Counselor to four Presidents: David O. McKay, Joseph Fielding Smith, Harold B. Lee,
and Spencer W. Kimball. He wrote, "I have not words to express my deep love for the Lord and my gratitude to him for his many blessings unto me and mine, and I
sincerely pray for his continued guidance and strength, as I try to serve him."9 President Kimball described Eldon Tanner: "As approachable as a child, as wise as a
father, and as loving as a gentle brother. Certainly Nathan Eldon Tanner is a man to match our mountains: tall, rugged, unyielding, immeasurable."10

 Copyright
During       (c) 2005-2009,
        his years            Infobase
                  as Counselor        Media
                               he saw great   Corp. in Church membership, a rapid increase in meetinghouse and temple building, and the construction
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                                                                                                                                                               the new
Church Office Building. His leadership was central in the rejuvenating of the business district adjoining Temple Square in Salt Lake City. In the late 1970s a
deteriorating health condition diagnosed as Parkinson's disease necessitated curtailing his rigorous and demanding schedule. N. Eldon Tanner died on 27 November
and Spencer W. Kimball. He wrote, "I have not words to express my deep love for the Lord and my gratitude to him for his many blessings unto me and mine, and I
sincerely pray for his continued guidance and strength, as I try to serve him."9 President Kimball described Eldon Tanner: "As approachable as a child, as wise as a
father, and as loving as a gentle brother. Certainly Nathan Eldon Tanner is a man to match our mountains: tall, rugged, unyielding, immeasurable."10

During his years as Counselor he saw great expansion in Church membership, a rapid increase in meetinghouse and temple building, and the construction of the new
Church Office Building. His leadership was central in the rejuvenating of the business district adjoining Temple Square in Salt Lake City. In the late 1970s a
deteriorating health condition diagnosed as Parkinson's disease necessitated curtailing his rigorous and demanding schedule. N. Eldon Tanner died on 27 November
1982 at his home in Salt Lake City at the age of eighty-four.

At his death the First Presidency issued the following statement: "With the passing of President N. Eldon Tanner the entire Church feels a tremendous loss. His
unflinching testimony of God the Eternal Father and of the Risen Lord Jesus Christ has been a strength to millions over the earth."11

Notes

  1. Hugh B. Brown, "President N. Eldon Tanner, a Man of Integrity," Ensign 2 (November 1972), pp. 13-14.

  2. As quoted in G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 10.

  3. G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 21.

  4. As quoted in G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 25.

  5. Heber Wolsey, "Memorandum to G. Homer Durham," March 1981, as cited in G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 31.

  6. Colliers, 9 August 1952, pp. 68-69, as cited in G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 86.

  7. G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 171.

  8. N. Eldon Tanner diary, as cited in G. Homer Durham, N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.), 1982, p. 198.

  9. N. Eldon Tanner, Seek Ye First the Kingdom of God (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1973), p. 291.

  10. Deseret News, 30 March 1978.

  11. "President N. Eldon Tanner Dies," Ensign 13 (January 1983), p. 9.

John Taylor

D&C 118:6; 124:129; 135; 138:53

Birth: 1 November 1808, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland County, England. Son of James Taylor and Agnes Taylor.

Death: 25 July 1887, Kaysville, Davis County, Utah.

John Taylor was reared in the English countryside and attended a common school near his father's farm in Hale, Westmoreland, England. At age fourteen he became
apprenticed to a cooper in Liverpool, later taking up the turner's trade in Penrith, Cumberland.

His quest for religious truth began in his youth, when "he saw, in vision, an angel holding a trumpet to his mouth, sounding a message to the nations. The import of this
vision he did not understand until later in life," but it resulted in a quest for greater truth. Perceiving "more spiritual light" in the Methodist dogma, when about sixteen he
left the Church of England. A year or so later he was recognized as a Methodist exhorter or local preacher, a distinction he continued when he migrated to Canada.1

His unusual perceptions of the Methodist faith led to his dismissal as an exhorter and to the formation of Bible study classes. Meantime Elder Parley P. Pratt, an
Apostle, had come to Toronto. Having begun to investigate Elder Pratt's teachings, John said: "If I find his religion true, I shall accept it, no matter what the
consequences may be; and if false, then I shall expose it." He carefully compared Elder Pratt's teachings with the scriptures: "I made a regular business of it for three
weeks, and followed Brother Parley from place to place." On 9 May 1836 John Taylor was baptized by Elder Pratt. Much later in life, he said, "I have never doubted
any principle of Mormonism since."2

His testimony for the work was evident in his ordinations as an elder and as a high priest, and in the fall of 1837 notification of his call to the Quorum of the Twelve
Apostles (see D&C 118:6). Of the apostolic appointment he commented, "I felt my own weakness and littleness; but I felt determined, the Lord being my helper, to
endeavor to magnfy it."3

Undaunted by poverty, John crossed the ocean to Britain, where he was instrumental in opening the mission in Ireland, in assisting migrating Saints to Nauvoo, and in
baptizing literally hundreds. Returning to Nauvoo he became prominent in civic affairs, being elected to the Nauvoo City Council and being named a regent of the
Nauvoo University and judge advocate with the rank of colonel in the Nauvoo Legion. He was also associate editor of the Times and Seasons and proprietor of the
Nauvoo Neighbor.

As regards the Nauvoo era, John Taylor is most remembered as one who was with the Prophet Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum in the Carthage Jail on 27 June
1844 (see D&C 135). In the afternoon in the loathsome jail he sang "A Poor Wayfaring Man of Grief." At 5:15 p.m. a scene of terror filled the room. While his
beloved Prophet and Hyrum Smith were murdered, John Taylor was severely wounded with four bullets penetrating his body and a fifth that would have hit his heart if
it had not struck the watch in his vest pocket. "I felt," said Elder Taylor, "a dull, lonely, sickening sensation at the news [that the Prophet was dead]. Oh, how lonely
was that feeling! How cold, barren and desolate!"4

John was taken to the Hamilton Hotel, but it was not until the following day that his wounds could be dressed.

Although he was a victim of religious bigotry, his faithful obedience did not end. He followed the leadership of the Twelve from Nauvoo to Iowa Territory, willingly
leaving behind
 Copyright     his property worth
           (c) 2005-2009,         ten thousand
                            Infobase            dollars with little hope of recompense. With the same resoluteness he served another mission to the British Isles. He
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gathered many of the English Saints with him in the valley of the Great Salt Lake before accepting another mission assignment to France.

In Paris he dramatically conflicted with impudent Protestant ministers. Undaunted, he continued to spread the gospel by making arrangements for the translation of the
John was taken to the Hamilton Hotel, but it was not until the following day that his wounds could be dressed.

Although he was a victim of religious bigotry, his faithful obedience did not end. He followed the leadership of the Twelve from Nauvoo to Iowa Territory, willingly
leaving behind his property worth ten thousand dollars with little hope of recompense. With the same resoluteness he served another mission to the British Isles. He
gathered many of the English Saints with him in the valley of the Great Salt Lake before accepting another mission assignment to France.

In Paris he dramatically conflicted with impudent Protestant ministers. Undaunted, he continued to spread the gospel by making arrangements for the translation of the
Book of Mormon into French and by publishing a monthly periodical, Etoile du Deseret, and the book The Government of God. Determined to share the gospel with
others in the European continent, he traveled to Germany, where he supervised the translation of the Book of Mormon into German. In Hamburg he published a
monthly periodical, Zion's Panier.

After an absence of three years he returned to the United States and was again called on a mission. This time he presided in the eastern states, where he supervised
immigration and published the newspaper The Mormon. In the first edition of the paper he wrote, "We are Mormon, inside and outside; at home or abroad, in public
and private-everywhere." His defense of the religious beliefs of the Church was noted by Brigham Young: "I can say, as to its editorials, that it is one of the strongest
papers ever published."5

In May 1857 John Taylor left his positions in the East and returned to the Salt Lake Valley to prepare for the Utah War. He said: "If the earthquake bellows, the
lightnings flash, the thunders roll and the powers of darkness are let loose, and the spirit of evil is permitted to rage and an evil influence is brought to bear on the Saints,
and my life with theirs, is put to the test-let it come."6

As the threat of war abated, John actively served in the development of the pioneer settlements. From 1857 to 1876 he served in the territorial legislature, the first five
sessions as speaker of the House of Representatives. From 1868 to 1870 he was the probate judge of Utah County, and in 1877 he served as superintendent of
district schools.

His civic service ended at the death of President Brigham Young. As leader of the Latter-day Saints, his energy focused on building the kingdom. With increased zeal
he pushed forward the work on the temples. Regular priesthood meetings and conferences began to be held in all the stakes of Zion. At a jubilee conference in April
1880 President Taylor said: "It occurred to me, that we ought to do something, as they did in former times, to relieve those that are oppressed with debt, to assist those
that are needy, to break off the yoke of those that may feel themselves crowded upon, and to make it a time of general rejoicing."7

The rejoicing ended with the passage of the Edmunds Bill outlawing plural marriage. President Taylor warned the Saints that the storm was coming and that it would
break in its fury upon them: "Let us treat it the same as we did this morning in coming through the snow-storm-put up our coat collars and wait till the storm subsides.
After the storm comes sunshine. While the storm lasts it is useless to reason with the world; when it subsides we can talk to them."8

In February 1885 he preached his last public sermon: "You will see trouble! trouble! TROUBLE enough in these United States. And as I have said before, I say today-
I tell you in the name of God, WOE! to them that fight against Zion, for God will fight against them!"9 That night he went into self-imposed exile to escape the ruthless
persecution aimed at him by unrelenting and hate-blinded enemies of the Church.

He wrote from exile: "We are engaged in a great work, and laying the foundation thereof-a work that has been spoken of by all the holy prophets since the world was.
I pray God the Eternal Father that when we have all finished our probation here, we may be presented to the Lord without spot or blemish, as pure and honorable
representatives of the Church and kingdom of God."10

At the home of Thomas F. Rouche of Kaysville about 7:55 p.m. on 25 July 1887 at the age of seventy-eight, President Taylor died. Engraved on a silver plate on his
coffin are the words: "Holiness to the Lord. Rest in Peace."

Notes

  1. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 26, 28.

  2. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), p. 38.

  3. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 47, 48.

  4. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 134-35, 140.

  5. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 249, 271.

  6. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), p. 273.

  7. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), p. 333.

  8. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), p. 360.

  9. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 383-84.

  10. B. H. Roberts, The Life of John Taylor (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1963), pp. 394, 398.

Ezra Thayre

D&C 33; 52:22; 54:1 Introduction; 56:5, 8-9; 75:31

Birth: 14 October 1791, Randolph, Windsor County, Vermont. Son of Ezra Thayer and Charlotte French.

Ezra Thayre (or Thayer), a bridge, dam, and mill builder in the Palmyra, New York, area, wrote of his conversion to the Book of Mormon through the preaching of
Hyrum Smith:

When Hyrum began to speak, every word touched me to the inmost soul. I thought every word was pointed to me. The tears rolled down my cheeks. When Hyrum
got through,(c)
 Copyright   he2005-2009,
                 picked up a Infobase
                              book and Media
                                        said, "Here
                                               Corp. is the book of Mormon." I said, "Let me see it." I then opened the book, and I received a shock with such exquisite
                                                                                                                                                        Page 305 / 567
joy that no pen can write and no tongue can express. I shut the book and said, "What is the price of it?" "Fourteen shillings," was the reply. I said, "I'll take the book." I
opened it again, and I felt a double portion of the Spirit, that I did not know whether I was in the world or not. I felt as though I was truly in heaven.1
Hyrum Smith:

When Hyrum began to speak, every word touched me to the inmost soul. I thought every word was pointed to me. The tears rolled down my cheeks. When Hyrum
got through, he picked up a book and said, "Here is the book of Mormon." I said, "Let me see it." I then opened the book, and I received a shock with such exquisite
joy that no pen can write and no tongue can express. I shut the book and said, "What is the price of it?" "Fourteen shillings," was the reply. I said, "I'll take the book." I
opened it again, and I felt a double portion of the Spirit, that I did not know whether I was in the world or not. I felt as though I was truly in heaven.1

Ezra was baptized in October 1830 by Parley P. Pratt. After his baptism he experienced opposition from friends and family, but the appearance of an angel and other
signs from heaven convinced him of the correctness of his religious choice.2

A few days after Ezra's baptism the Prophet Joseph Smith received a revelation directing him and Northrop Sweet to serve a mission (see D&C 33:1-2). Ezra
accepted this directive as a revelation from God. En route from New York to Ohio he preached at several houses and baptized many into the Church.

Ezra was present at the fourth general conference of the Church, held in Kirtland, where he was ordained a high priest. Four days later, on 7 June 1831, the Prophet
received a revelation calling Ezra to serve a mission with Thomas B. Marsh (see D&C 52:22). He failed to serve this mission. The reason for this failure seems to have
been his role in the controversy over Leman Copley's consecrating his farm for an inheritance of the Saints and later breaking that agreement. An exact determination of
Ezra's transgressions is difficult; however, "it is evident that selfishness and rebellion" were the root of his problems.3 The Lord revealed:

My servant Ezra Thayre must repent of his pride, and of his selfishness, and obey the former commandment which I have given him concerning the place upon which he
lives.

And if he will do this, as there shall be no divisions made upon the land, he shall be appointed still to go to the land of Missouri;

Otherwise he shall receive the money which he has paid, and shall leave the place, and shall be cut off out of my church, saith the Lord God of hosts. (D&C 56:5, 8-
10.)

Apparently Ezra repented, for on 25 January 1832 he was again appointed to serve a mission with Thomas B. Marsh (see D&C 75:31). He was faithful to this charge.
One year later he was appointed to negotiate the purchase of land in Kirtland for the Church, including 103 acres of the Peter French Farm. On this land the Kirtland
Temple was built.

Ezra is most remembered for bringing the first case before a high council, in Kirtland. He preferred charges against Elder Curtis Hodges Sr. on 19 February 1834,
claiming that Hodges erred in spirit and erred in loud speaking and unclear articulation. Viewing Brother Hodges's behavior as "unbecoming in an Elder in this Church,"
he requested a hearing before the council. Elder Hodges pleaded not guilty to the charges. Reputable elders substantiated Ezra's complaint. "Brother Story testified that
Elder Hodges talked so loud at a prayer meeting that the neighbors came out to see if some one was hurt." The decision of the council was that Hodges was guilty.4

Following the decision Ezra volunteered to march with Zion's Camp. On 16 May 1834 as the camp approached Dayton, Ohio, the Prophet "felt much depressed in
spirit" and told his traveling companions "there had been a great deal of bloodshed in that place" at some time. Soon Ezra, George A. Smith, and others who were
riding with the Prophet arrived at a sixty-feet-high mound that contained human bones.5 On 29 May 1834, when the horses became ill and some died because of the
moldy corn they had eaten, Ezra concocted a home remedy he called his "18x24" formula. Most of the animals recovered after taking it.6 When the camp arrived at
Fishing River on 22 June 1834, Ezra was attacked with the cholera. Lucy Mack Smith explained his process of recovery: "He went to the river and commenced
dipping himself, and finding that it helped him, he continued until he was quite restored."7

Ezra's Church membership was suspended in May 1835 for impropriety, based on a complaint signed by Oliver Granger.8 In September that year the Prophet Joseph
Smith wrote of his love for Ezra: "This day my soul has desired the salvation of Brother Ezra Thayer."9

Apparently the complaint was settled. Ezra moved to Missouri and resided in Adam-ondi-Ahman, where he served on the high council. After the Saints were expelled
from Missouri, Ezra moved to Rochester, New York. On 9 July 1840 Heber C. Kimball wrote to the Prophet about staying one night with Ezra in Rochester, "He was
glad to see me, and inquired much about you and the rest of the brethren: he seemed to be firm in the faith of the gospel and has much love for his brethren."10
Jonathan Crosby had a differing opinion of Ezra's faithfulness. He had found him in Rochester also, and said, "He treated us well, but was dead spiritually."11

After the Martyrdom Ezra refused to follow the leadership of the Quorum of the Twelve. He was living in Michigan in 1860 and was a high priest in the Reorganized
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.12

Notes

  1. Saints' Herald, July 1862, as cited in Lyndon W. Cook, The Revelations of the Prophet Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1985), pp. 47-48.

  2. See Ezra Thayre autobiography, as cited in Davis Bitton, Guide to Mormon Diaries and Autobiographies, 1977.

  3. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 1:180.

  4. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:33-34.

  5. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:66.

  6. See James L. Bradley, Zion's Camp 1834: Prelude to the Civil War (Logan, Utah: James L. Bradley, 1990), p. 98.

  7. Lucy Mack Smith, History of Joseph Smith by His Mother, ed. Preston Nibley (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1954), p. 229.

  8. See Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints, 1932-51), 2:221.

  9. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:281.
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  10. Times and Seasons (1 April 1845): 6:861.
day Saints, 1932-51), 2:221.

  9. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:281.

  10. Times and Seasons (1 April 1845): 6:861.

  11. Jonathan Crosby autobiography, Utah State Historical Society, Salt Lake City, Utah, pp. 23-24.

  12. See Susan Easton Black, Early Members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 6 vols. (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center,
Brigham Young University, 1993), 5:777.

Robert Blashel Thompson

D&C 124:12-14

Birth: 1 October 1811, Great Driffield, Yorkshire, England.

Death: 27 August 1841, Nauvoo, Hancock County, Illinois.

Robert Thompson received his education and developed an interest in religion in Dunnington, Yorkshire, England. He joined the Methodists and was a preacher for
some years before immigrating to Upper Canada in 1834. It was the preaching of Parley P. Pratt that led Robert to become a member of the Church in May 1836.

Anxious to join with the Saints, he journeyed to Kirtland in May 1837, but within the year he had returned to Upper Canada to serve a mission. After baptizing many
Canadians he once again attempted to settle in Kirtland, but the persecution against the Saints had increased, so Robert joined his brother-in-law Hyrum Smith and
journeyed to Far West, Missouri. Escalating persecution led to open confrontation in Missouri. Robert fought in the Battle of Crooked River in defense of the Saints;
consequently his enemies swore they would kill him. He suffered from exposure and lack of food as he attempted to avoid their clutches.

He temporarily settled in Quincy, Illinois, and was employed as a writer for the Argus newspaper and as a courthouse clerk. When he moved to Nauvoo he served as
a scribe for the Prophet and also gathered libelous reports and publications against the Church at the Prophet's request. He was appointed general Church clerk,
colonel and aide-de-camp of the Nauvoo Legion, Nauvoo city treasurer, and a regent of the University of Nauvoo.

On 19 January 1841 Robert was called by the Lord to assist the Prophet in writing a proclamation to the kings, presidents, and governors of the earth. "Let my servant
Robert B. Thompson help you to write this proclamation, for I am well pleased with him" (D&C 124:12). 1 In the revelation the Lord promised: "I will bless him with a
multiplicity of blessings; let him be faithful and true in all things from henceforth, and he shall be great in mine eyes; but let him remember that his stewardship will I
require at his hands" (D&C 124:13-14).

From May to August 1841 he worked with Don Carlos Smith as an associate editor of the Times and Seasons. On 16 August 1841 he was seized with the same
disease that had caused the death of Don Carlos the week before. "The attachment between them was so strong, it seemed as though they could not long be
separated." Robert died on 27 August 1841 at his residence in Nauvoo at the age of twenty-nine. The Prophet said that he died "in full hope of a glorious
resurrection."2

The Times and Seasons gave notice of his death: "With feelings, too pungent to be expressed, we have to record the death of our esteemed and much beloved
BROTHER ROBERT BLATSELL THOMPSON." It editorialized:

For the last five or six years he has been a faithful and an efficient Elder of this church; laboring incesantly for the cause of truth. He departs this life in the triumphs of
faith, bearing testimony, in his dying moments of the truth of the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ, and of the faith of the new and everlasting covenant; rejoicing
greatly, that his time had come, when he too could go, and be at rest in the paradise of God.3

Years later his widow recalled: "This indeed was a time of sorrow, but I can never forget the tender sympathy and brotherly kindness [Joseph Smith] ever showed
toward me and my fatherless child. When riding with him and his wife Emma in their carriage I have known him to alight and gather prairie flowers for my little girl."4

Notes

  1. Robert's premature death precluded his assistance with this project.

  2. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 4:411-12.

  3. Times and Seasons 2 (1 September 1841): 519.

  4. Mercy Thompson, "Recollections," Juvenile Instructor 27 (1 July 1892): 399.

Joseph H. Wakefield

D&C 50:37; 52:35

Birth: About 1792.

Joseph Wakefield, a known resident and property owner in Watertown, New York, was baptized either in or before 1831. He moved from the East to Kirtland, Ohio,
where through the Prophet Joseph Smith the Lord appointed him to preach with Parley P. Pratt in the Western Reserve (see D&C 50:37). Elder Pratt recorded a few
of their missionary experiences:

In obedience Joseph Wakefield and myself visited the several branches of the Church, rebuking the wrong spirits which had crept in among them, setting in order things
that were wanting; ordaining Elders and other officers; baptizing such as believed and repented of their sins. On some occasions we assembled fifty or sixty little
children in one circle, in the midst of the assembly of the saints, and laid our hands upon them all, and prayed for them, and blessed them in the name of Jesus.1
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After the mission Joseph was ordained a high priest on 3 June 1831 by Lyman Wight. Four days later the Prophet received another revelation appointing him to preach
with Solomon Humphrey in the East (see D&C 52:35). They preached in St. Lawrence County, New York, where Joseph baptized George A. Smith, a future
Apostle, "in the presence of [his] father and mother, and many of [his] neighbors," in September 1832.2
In obedience Joseph Wakefield and myself visited the several branches of the Church, rebuking the wrong spirits which had crept in among them, setting in order things
that were wanting; ordaining Elders and other officers; baptizing such as believed and repented of their sins. On some occasions we assembled fifty or sixty little
children in one circle, in the midst of the assembly of the saints, and laid our hands upon them all, and prayed for them, and blessed them in the name of Jesus.1

After the mission Joseph was ordained a high priest on 3 June 1831 by Lyman Wight. Four days later the Prophet received another revelation appointing him to preach
with Solomon Humphrey in the East (see D&C 52:35). They preached in St. Lawrence County, New York, where Joseph baptized George A. Smith, a future
Apostle, "in the presence of [his] father and mother, and many of [his] neighbors," in September 1832.2

After completing this mission Joseph Wakefield returned to Kirtland, where subsequently he joined with dissident Mormons. George A. Smith reported that after his
apostasy Joseph "announced to the astonished world the fact that, while he was a guest in the house of Joseph Smith, he had absolutely seen the Prophet come down
from the room where he was engaged in translating the word of God, and actually go to playing with the children! This convinced him that the Prophet was not a man of
God, and that the work was false, which, to me and hundreds of others, he had testified that he knew came from God."3

This apostate, of whom the Lord had said in 1831, "Joseph Wakefield, in whom I am well pleased," by 1834 was attempting to defame Joseph Smith and prove the
Book of Mormon was written by Solomon Spaulding. He was duly excommunicated. George A. Smith said his attacks on the Church led to mobocracy: "He
afterwards headed a mob meeting, and took the lead in bringing about a persecution against the Saints in Kirtland and the regions round about."4

Notes

  1. Parley P. Pratt, Autobiography of Parley P. Pratt, Parley P. Pratt Jr., ed. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1985), p. 51.

  2. George A. Smith, "Auto-Biography of George Albert Smith," Millennial Star 27 (15 July 1865): 438.

  3. George A. Smith, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 7:112.

  4. George A. Smith, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 7:112.

Micah Baldwin Welton

D&C 75:36

Birth: 13 August 1792, Watertown, Litchfield County, Connecticut.1 Son of Eliakim Welton and Loly Barnes.

Death: 9 August 1861, Knox County, Illinois.

The lure of the Ohio frontier in 1820 led Micah Welton to abandon his interest in medicine in favor of becoming a millwright and a farmer.2 His belief in God during the
early Ohio years was recorded by his biographer: "He was a firm believer in God and a great bible student. If anyone asked him a question he could quote the bible
chapter and verse."3

Micah was baptized on 23 June 1831 at Northampton, Ohio, by John Smith. He was ordained a priest, then an elder, and then called by revelation to labor as a
missionary in eastern Ohio with Eden Smith (see D&C 75:36). They began their mission from Northampton on 10 December 1831 and preached in several small
communities before returning to Northampton nine days later. They started again on a mission but had returned to Northampton a second time on 4 February 1832.4

In May 1833 a council held in Norton Township, Ohio, considered the standing of "Baldwin Welton" and other elders. The decision of the council was that "their
ordinations were illegal, and that the churches should not receive them in their several offices."5 It is assumed that "Baldwin Welton" is Micah Baldwin Welton. The
legality of his missionary license was established on 31 March 1836, five days after he attended the Kirtland temple dedication.6 Later that year he was residing in Clay
County, Missouri.

As persecution raged against the Saints in Missouri, Micah moved his family to Pike County, Illinois. He was ordained a seventy in 1839 at Quincy, Illinois, and was a
member of the Third Quorum of Seventy in Nauvoo. He was a property owner in Nauvoo from 1839 to 1844 and faithfully lived the gospel, being appointed to serve
a mission in Kentucky in 1844 and laboring as a carpenter on the Nauvoo Temple.

After 1846, however, Church records do not mention Micah Welton. He did not migrate to Iowa Territory or to the Rockies with the Saints. He died in August 1861
at Knox County, Illinois, at the age of sixty-eight.

Notes

  1. Handwritten entries in Sarah Elizabeth Welton family Bible, in author's possession.

  2. "History of Appanoose County," p. 554, in author's possession; see also the Ohio federal census 1820.

  3. Nina K. Wolff, "Micah Baldwin Welton" (no publisher, no date), p. 1, in author's possession.

  4. Journal of Eden Smith, typescript, p. 1, Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

  5. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 1:343.

  6. Nina K. Wolff, "Micah Baldwin Welton" (no publisher, no date), p. 1, in author's possession.

Harvey G. Whitlock

D&C 52:25

Birth: 1809, Massachusetts.

On 3 June 1831,
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           (c) 2005-2009,      general conference,
                                       Media Corp.Harvey Whitlock was ordained a high priest by Joseph Smith. Levi Hancock wrote:                  Page 308 / 567
Joseph put his hands on Harvey Whitlock and ordained him to the high priesthood. He turned as black as Lyman [Wight] was white. His fingers were set like claws.
He went around the room and showed his hands and tried to speak; his eyes were in the shape of oval O's. Hyrum Smith said, "Joseph, that is not of God." Joseph
D&C 52:25

Birth: 1809, Massachusetts.

On 3 June 1831, at the fourth general conference, Harvey Whitlock was ordained a high priest by Joseph Smith. Levi Hancock wrote:

Joseph put his hands on Harvey Whitlock and ordained him to the high priesthood. He turned as black as Lyman [Wight] was white. His fingers were set like claws.
He went around the room and showed his hands and tried to speak; his eyes were in the shape of oval O's. Hyrum Smith said, "Joseph, that is not of God." Joseph
bowed his head, and in a short time got up and commanded Satan to leave Harvey, laying his hands upon his head at the same time.

Harvey Whitlock [said] when Hyrum Smith said it was not God, he disdained him in his heart and when the Devil was cast out he was convinced it was Satan that was
in him.1

From this time forward Harvey preached the good news of the gospel. He labored with David Whitmer in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Missouri (see D&C
52:25). He attended several conferences in Missouri from 1831 to 1833. At the conference in August 1831 he "made remarks upon the second coming of Christ."2 At
the conference on 24 August 1832 he proposed four questions:

1st. Can a man in the Church of Christ walk by faith without law?

2nd. Was the law given to bring men to faith?

3rd. Was the law added because of transgression?

4th. Was the law given because it was asked for?3

He was expelled from Jackson County in 1833 by mobbers.

Harvey lost his fellowship among the Saints in 1835. He wrote to the Prophet Joseph Smith on 28 September that year: "I have fallen from that princely station
whereunto our God has called me. I have sunk myself in crimes of the deepest dye." He declared himself to be "a poor, wretched, bewildered, way-wanderer to
eternity."

In Joseph's response on 16 November 1835 he wrote:

I have received your letter and I have read it twice, and it gave me sensations that are better imagined than described, let it suffice that I say that the very flood gates of
my heart were broken up-I could not refrain from weeping. I thank God that it has entered into your heart to try to return to the Lord, and to this people, if it so be that
He will have mercy upon you. I have inquired of the Lord concerning your case; these words came to me [If you repent and remain faithful you will] be counted worthy
to stand among princes, and shall yet be made a polished shaft in my quiver for bringing down the strongholds of wickedness.4

Harvey returned to Kirtland, and on 30 January 1836 the First Presidency authorized his rebaptism and his ordination to the office of a high priest.5 In 1838 he forsook
the Church during the Missouri difficulties.

In 1840 he was residing in Cedar County, Iowa. By 1850 he had moved to the Rockies and was living among the Saints in Utah County, where he had a household of
ten and had accumulated a real wealth (land) worth one hundred dollars as the result of his practice as a doctor.6 In 1851 he was arrested as an accessory to theft.
Thereafter he denied the faith but, typical of his previous actions, was again rebaptized about 1858.7

By 1864 Harvey had moved to Northern California. He joined the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. In 1866 he was appointed to serve a
mission for the RLDS church.8

Notes

  1. Autobiography of Levi Ward Hancock, typescript, pp. 33-34, Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

  2. Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-1844 (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co., 1983), pp. 13-14.

  3. Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-1844 (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co., 1983), 53.

  4. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:314-15.

  5. See Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints, 1932-51), 2:388.

  6. See the Utah federal census 1850.

  7. See Lyndon W. Cook, The Revelations of the Prophet Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1985), p. 81.

  8. Susan Easton Black, Early Members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 6 vols. (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham
Young University, 1993), 6:223.

David Whitmer

D&C 14; 17-18; 30:1; 52:25

Birth: 7 January 1805, a small trading post near Harrisburgh, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. Son of Peter Whitmer Sr. and Mary Musselman.
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Death: 25 January 1888, Richmond, Ray County, Missouri.

During his infancy David Whitmer's family moved to a wooded farmland adjoining Seneca Lake in western New York. There David grew to manhood. At age twenty
D&C 14; 17-18; 30:1; 52:25

Birth: 7 January 1805, a small trading post near Harrisburgh, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. Son of Peter Whitmer Sr. and Mary Musselman.

Death: 25 January 1888, Richmond, Ray County, Missouri.

During his infancy David Whitmer's family moved to a wooded farmland adjoining Seneca Lake in western New York. There David grew to manhood. At age twenty
he was elected sergeant in a newly organized militia company, the "Seneca Grenadiers," his first public position of trust.1

In 1828 he heard rumors of a "gold Bible." Written letters from the young schoolmaster Oliver Cowdery confirmed these rumors. David first met Joseph Smith when he
conveyed the Prophet and his wife, Emma, and Oliver Cowdery by team and wagon from Pennsylvania to the Whitmer home in Fayette. David readily accepted
Joseph's prophetic calling and was privileged to be one of the Three Witnesses to see the plates and behold "a dazzlingly brilliant light that surpassed in brightness even
the sun at noonday and a personage clothed in white and near him a table containing" the ancient artifacts.2

Sure of his testimony of the Book of Mormon, David was one of the first baptized in this dispensation. He is numbered among the six original members of the Church
and was ordained an elder the day the Church was organized. After his marriage to Julia Ann Jolly on 9 January 1831, he moved with his young bride to Ohio and then
to the frontier of Missouri to be with the Saints of God. In Missouri, mobs terrorized the Whitmer settlement, burning homes and brutally whipping men. Despite
David's attempt to organize a resistance, mobbers forced the Saints from their homes across the river to the swamplands of Clay County.

On 3 July 1834 he was appointed president of the Clay County high council, and on 7 July President of the Church in Missouri. His leadership over the exiled refugees
from Jackson County was laudatory. His diligence in service was recognized. But after becoming general agent for the Church's Literary Firm in September 1835, and
attending the Kirtland Temple dedication in March 1836, he succumbed to smoldering apostate sentiments in Kirtland.

In 1837 he associated with a small but influential group of Kirtland Saints who rebelled against the Prophet's leadership. He later declared that under Joseph Smith's
leadership the Church had "abandoned the primitive faith" and "drifted into error and spiritual blindness" by developing "an obsession with earthly power and station."3
For these reasons, for violating the Word of Wisdom, and for possessing the same spirit as the dissenters he was excommunicated on 13 April 1838 in Far West.

Feeling betrayed by the verdict, David turned for support to his extended family. The Whitmers left the Church and David settled in Richmond, Ray County, Missouri.
He remained aloof from the Saints for the next fifty years.

He avoided any religious society until being persuaded by William McLellin in 1846-47 to join his reorganized church. David soon confessed his association with
McLellin was emotionally based, not divinely directed.4

After the brush with religiosity he confined himself to community and business ventures for the next two decades. He was elected to the city council of Richmond
several times and filled the unexpired term of mayor from 1867 to 1868. In the Ray County atlas of 1877 David was featured as one of twenty influential individuals in
the county.

For nearly a quarter of a century he operated the "Livery and Feed Stable" of "D. Whitmer & Son" or "Whitmer & Co." of Richmond. His advertisements promised,
"Customers may rely on promptness, good turnouts, safe horses, and moderate charges." The Richmond Conservator reported that "the forty six years of private
citizenship on the part of David Whitmer, in Richmond, [was] without stain or blemish. If a life of probity, of unobtrusive benevolence and well doing for well nigh a half
century, marks a man as a good citizen, then David Whitmer should enjoy the confidence and esteem of his fellow men."5

In the 1870s at the insistence of his family he organized the Church of Christ, whose congregation consisted of his extended family and a handful of friends. In 1887 at
the age of eighty-two he wrote and published a seventy-five-page pamphlet titled "An Address to all Believers in Christ." It is poorly organized and sentimental but
does express his religious views and his rejection of Mormonism as defined by Brigham Young.

During his years in a non-Mormon society David tenaciously held to his testimony of the Book of Mormon. He was widely known as "the last surviving witness" and
was interviewed far more extensively than the other witnesses. He said that thousands came to inquire, and over fifty of these conversations are reported in reasonable
detail in contemporary diaries, letters, and newspapers.

Just before his death David called his family and a few friends to his bedside. Turning to his attending physician, he said, "Dr. Buchanan, I want you to say whether or
not I am in my right mind, before I give my dying testimony." The doctor answered, "Yes, you are in your right mind." David then bore testimony: "I want to say to you
all, the Bible and the record of the Nephites (Book of Mormon) is true, so you can say that you have heard me bear my testimony on my death-bed."6

David died on 25 January 1888 in Richmond at the age of eighty-three. The Richmond Democrat eulogized his life: "No man ever lived here, who had among our
people, more friends and fewer enemies. Honest, conscientious and upright in all his dealings, just in his estimate of men, and open, manly and frank in his treatment of
all, he made lasting friends who loved him to the end."7

Notes

   1. Seneca Farmer, 23 March 1825, as cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981),
p. 68.

  2. Lyndon W. Cook, ed., David Whitmer Interviews, a Restoration Witness (Orem, Utah: Grandin Book Co., 1991), p. xiv.

  3. David Whitmer, An Address to All Believers in Christ (Richmond, Mo.: no publisher, 1887).

  4. See Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 70.

  5. Richmond Conservator, 9 January 1885, as cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.,
1981), p. 74.

  6. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:270.

  7. Richmond Democrat, 26 January 1888, as cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.,
1981), p. 76.
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John   Whitmer

D&C 15; 26; 30; 47; 69:1; 70:1
  7. Richmond Democrat, 26 January 1888, as cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co.,
1981), p. 76.

John Whitmer

D&C 15; 26; 30; 47; 69:1; 70:1

Birth: 27 August 1802, Fayette Township, Seneca County, New York. Son of Peter Whitmer Sr. and Mary Musselman.

Death: 11 July 1878, Far West, Caldwell County, Missouri.

It was on the family farm in Fayette that John Whitmer learned the art of husbandry. He also learned the value of religious worship in his youth by attending the German
Reformed Church. His religious life dramatically changed in June 1829 when Joseph Smith accepted the hospitality of the Whitmers. John readily received the prophetic
calling of Joseph and his message of the Restoration. He assisted the young Prophet as a scribe for the translation of the Book of Mormon before being baptized by
Oliver Cowdery.

Sacred events in holy writ witness of his devotion and the Lord's love for him (see D&C 15). He remembered with gratitude his privilege to be one of the Eight
Witnesses to the Book of Mormon. John was an influence for good during the early days of the Church in New York. He did as directed by divine revelation: "Let your
time be devoted to the studying of the scriptures, and to preaching, and to confirming the church at Colesville" (D&C 26:1). He strengthened the Colesville Saints and
acted as a scribe for the Bible translation in its early stages. Following the September 1830 Church conference in Fayette he was told, "My servant John, thou shalt
commence from this time forth to proclaim my gospel, as with the voice of a trump" (D&C 30:9).

From Fayette, New York, to Kirtland, Ohio, John shared news of the Restoration, but not all were pleased with his message. "A young man by the name of Whitmer
arrived here last week with a new batch of revelations from God, as he pretended, which have just been communicated to Joseph Smith," announced the Painesville
Telegraph.1 Undaunted by mockery, John unflinchingly asserted the truthfulness of the gospel.

When not proselytizing he continued to share his scribal talents with the Prophet, and the Lord called him to write the history of the Church (see D&C 47:1). He initially
fulfilled this assignment with faithfulness. His ninety-six written pages are considered by some historians to be the most authoritative history of the Church before 1838.

John Whitmer and Oliver Cowdery hand-carried the scribed revelations to Independence, Missouri. There W. W. Phelps began the typesetting and printing, but mob
action prevented their intended publication as the Book of Commandments. John remained in Missouri in a small Mormon colony near the Little Blue River. He played
a leading role in the Jackson County conflict and is remembered for willingly offering himself to the mob as a hostage to prevent further violence.

He also was a leader in Clay County and his name appears on several important documents. By 1834 some of the Saints viewed him as second only to David in
prominence and ability among the Whitmer brothers. On 3 July 1834 he became a member of the Church presidency in Missouri. Using legal sources he actively sought
redress and protection against mob violence. Perhaps because of his diligent response to duty, the Lord commanded him to return to Kirtland to accept an endowment
of the Spirit "with power from on high and proclaim the everlasting gospel."2

John remained in Kirtland from 1835 to 1836. On 18 May 1835 he was appointed editor of the Mormon newspaper. He wrote, "This day held a council and contrary
to my feelings or expectations I was appointed to edit the Messenger and Advocate."3 His last editorial contained his testimony: "I know that the Bible, book of
Mormon and book of Doctrine and Covenants of the church of Christ of Latter Day Saints, contain the revealed will of heaven."4

Upon returning to Missouri he aided the Saints by purchasing tracts of land in Caldwell County that later became known as Far West. However, financial irregularities
in the purchase led to allegations and an investigation of his actions. Angered by directives to account for his use of Church funds, he declined to disclose the records.
John was excommunicated on 10 March 1838 "for persisting in unchristian-like conduct" and for refusal to return to the Prophet the historical writings of the Church.
His public reaction to the excommunication was anger, but privately he wrote in his history asking that "I may be forgiven of my faults, and my sins be blotted out, and
in the last day be saved in the kingdom of God, notwithstanding my private situation, which I hope will soon be bettered, and I find favor in the eyes of God, all men
and his Saints."5

John remained in Missouri during the atrocities arising from the Extermination Order of 1838, free from persecution because of his disassociation with the Saints. When
the Saints fled from their homes and property in Far West he returned and took advantage of cheap prices for land and succeeded in purchasing much of the
abandoned town. He resided in Far West for the remainder of his life.

During the next forty years he wrote the final chapters of his history, revealing his bitterness toward Joseph Smith and Mormonism. He had brief religious encounters
with William E. McLellin in 1847, and later a sympathetic leaning to the Strangites and then the leadership of his brother David.

After 1856 John Whitmer was the sole survivor of the Eight Witnesses. His testimony of the Book of Mormon was told again and again with strong emotions. "Old
Father John Whitmer told me last winter, with tears in his eyes, that he knew as well as he knew he had an existence that Joseph translated the ancient writing which
was upon the plates which he 'saw and handled.'"6

John died on 11 July 1878 in Far West. His estate at death consisted of 625 acres of prime farmland near Far West, livestock, farm machinery, and a two-story home.
A eulogy in the Kingston Sentinel praised him. "Mr. Whitmer remained at Far West and has since been a highly respected and law abiding citizen."7

Notes

  1. Painesville (Ohio) Telegraph, 18 January 1831, as cited in John Whtmer, An Early Latter Day Saint History: The Book of John Whitmer, F. Mark McKiernan
and Roger D. Launius, eds. (Independence, Mo.: Herald Publishing House, 1980), p. 13.

  2. "The Conference Minutes and Record Book of Christ's Church of the Latter-day Saints, Far West Record," p.41, as cited in John Whtmer, An Early Latter Day
Saint History: The Book of John Whitmer, F. Mark McKiernan and Roger D. Launius, eds. (Independence, Mo.: Herald Publishing House, 1980), p. 16.

  3. Journal of John Whitmer, as cited in Davis Bitton, Guide to Mormon Diaries and Autobiographies, 1977.

  4. Messenger and Advocate 2 (March 1836): 287.

  5. John Whtmer, An Early Latter Day Saint History: The Book of John Whitmer, F. Mark McKiernan and Roger D. Launius, eds. (Independence, Mo.: Herald
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Publishing House, 1980), p. 20.

  6. Myron Bond letter, Saints' Herald, 15 August 1878, p. 254.
  4. Messenger and Advocate 2 (March 1836): 287.

  5. John Whtmer, An Early Latter Day Saint History: The Book of John Whitmer, F. Mark McKiernan and Roger D. Launius, eds. (Independence, Mo.: Herald
Publishing House, 1980), p. 20.

  6. Myron Bond letter, Saints' Herald, 15 August 1878, p. 254.

  7. Kingston (Missouri) Sentinel, as cited in John Whtmer, An Early Latter Day Saint History: The Book of John Whitmer, F. Mark McKiernan and Roger D.
Launius, eds. (Independence, Mo.: Herald Publishing House, 1980), p. 21.

Peter Whitmer Jr.

D&C 16, 30

Birth: 27 September 1809, Fayette Township, Seneca County, New York. Son of Peter Whitmer Sr. and Mary Musselman.

Death: 22 September 1836, Liberty, Clay County, Missouri.

Some time before his birth Peter Whitmer's family moved from Pennsylvania to the farmlands of Fayette, where they resided in a one-and-a-half story, twenty-foot-
square log house. In that log cottage Peter was reared by a hard-working, God-fearing father who valued strict discipline.

He and his family worshiped with the German Reformed congregation of Zion's Church, just south of the Whitmer farm, until 1829. In the summer of 1829 young Peter
became acquainted with Joseph Smith. Their friendship grew as the Prophet resided in the family home in Fayette. Peter was privileged to assist him sometimes as
scribe in the translation of the Book of Mormon and to be one of Eight Witnesses who saw and handled the Book of Mormon plates.

In June 1829 the Prophet was given a revelation of what would "be of the most worth" to Peter: "The thing which will be of the most worth unto you will be to declare
repentance unto this people, that you may bring souls unto me, that you may rest with them in the kingdom of my Father. Amen." (D&C 16:1, 3-6.)

The first soul Peter brought to the Lord was his own. He was baptized by Oliver Cowdery and ordained an elder in June 1830. According to the testimony of his
brother David, given in 1881, Peter was one of the first seven elders ordained in the latter days.

In September 1830 he was called by revelation to preach the gospel with Oliver Cowdery: "Behold, I say unto you, Peter, that you shall take your journey with your
brother Oliver; for the time has come that it is expedient in me that you shall open your mouth to declare my gospel. to build up my church among the Lamanites. Be
diligent in keeping my commandments, and you shall be blessed unto eternal life." (D&C 30:5-6, 8.)

One month later Peter was directed to accompany Parley P. Pratt, Oliver Cowdery, and Ziba Peterson "into the wilderness among the Lamanites" (D&C 32:2).

The missionaries to the Lamanites, as they became known, began their journey in October 1830 to the frontier to share the Book of Mormon with Indian tribes. They
trekked near Buffalo, New York, where they preached to the Catteraugus Indians. From Buffalo they traveled to Mentor, Ohio, where they baptized Sidney Rigdon
and many of his congregation. Convert Lyman Wight recalled hearing young Peter testify that he had seen the plates. Peter's terse diary entry announced, "We declared
the Book of Mormon."1

They then journeyed to Sandusky, Ohio, to preach to the Wyandot Indians. From Sandusky they traveled to Cincinnati and then two hundred miles to St. Louis. For
the last three hundred miles they trudged through trackless wastes of snow to Independence, Missouri, about fifteen hundred miles from where they had started.

In the frontier town of Independence Peter became an accomplished tailor. One of his clients was General Alexander Doniphan, who hired him to make a suit. He
remained in Independence until August 1831 when he joined other elders in returning to Ohio. At a Church conference in Ohio on 25 October 1831 he was ordained a
high priest by Oliver Cowdery. Brief notes from the conference include excerpts from a speech given by Peter: "My beloved brethren ever since I have had an
acquaintance with the writing of God I have [viewed] eternity with perfect confidence."2

He soon returned to Missouri and supported his family by continuing his trade as a tailor. Mary Elizabeth Lightner became his employee: "I went to work for Peter
Whitmer, who was a tailor by trade, and just married. He was crowded with work, and Lilburn W. Boggs offered him a room in his house, as he had just been elected
lieutenant governor, and wanted Peter to make him a suit for his inauguration ceremonies. Peter did make [the suit], and I stitched the collars and faced the coat. Mr.
Boggs often came in to note the progress of the work."3

Peter and his family suffered from mobocracy and religious persecution in 1833 before fleeing to Clay County. Residing in temporary shelters on the disease-ridden
swamplands of Clay proved distressing for Peter's health. Nevertheless, he extended hospitality to the sick of Zion's Camp. One of the afflicted, Heber C. Kimball,
recalled his kindness: "I went to Liberty, to the house of brother Peter Whitmer, which place I reached with difficulty, being much afflicted myself with the disease that
was among us. I stayed there until I started for home. I received great kindness from them."4

It is assumed that Peter also extended kindness to his oldest brother, Christian. Unfortunately, in 1835 Christian died. Although Peter suffered from consumption and
infection at this time, his problems did not preclude his service on the local high council in 1836.

However, ten months following the death of Christian, on 22 September 1836, Peter died near Liberty, Clay County. He was buried by the side of his brother. Their
brother-in-law Oliver Cowdery wrote in eulogy of the faithful brothers:

By many in this church, our brothers were personally known: they were the first to embrace the new covenant, on hearing it, and during a constant scene of persecution
and perplexity, to their last moments, maintained its truth-they were both included in the list of the eight witnesses in the Book of Mormon, and though they have
departed, it is with great satisfaction that we reflect, that they proclaimed to their last moments, the certainty of their former testimony.5

Notes

  1. As cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 126.

  2. Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-1844 (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co., 1983), p. 21.
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  3. Mary Elizabeth Rollins Lightner, autobiography, Utah Genealogical and Historical Magazine 17 (July 1926): 196.
  1. As cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 126.

  2. Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-1844 (Salt Lake City:
Deseret Book Co., 1983), p. 21.

  3. Mary Elizabeth Rollins Lightner, autobiography, Utah Genealogical and Historical Magazine 17 (July 1926): 196.

  4. Heber Kimball, "Extract from Journal," Times and Seasons 6 (15 March 1845): 839.

  5. Oliver Cowdery, "The Closing Year," Messenger and Advocate 3 (December 1836): 426.

Peter Whitmer Sr.

D&C 14: Introduction; 21: Introduction; 34:

Introduction; 128:21

Birth: 14 April 1773, Pennsylvania.

Death: 12 August 1854, Richmond, Ray County, Missouri.

Peter Whitmer Sr. married Mary Musselman and they became the parents of eight children. Three of the children are mentioned by name in the Doctrine and
Covenants-David, Peter Jr., and John. By 1809 the family had settled on farmland in the German-extraction township of Fayette, New York. Peter was elected an
overseer of district highways in 1826 and a local school trustee in 1827.

Among his contemporaries he was known as a hard-working, God-fearing man. He attended worship services in a log structure known as Zion's Church, located a
mile south of his farm. His German Reformed pastor, Diedrich Willers Sr., described him as "a quiet, unpretending, and apparently honest, candid, and simple-minded
man." The pastor's son Diedrich Willers Jr. wrote of Peter Whitmer Sr. as being "spoken of by old Fayette residents as a worthy and industrious citizen."1

On his property, deeded to him in four transactions between 1819 and 1827, Peter built a one-and-a-half-story log home.2 The home played such a significant role in
the early days of Mormonism that it often surpassed its owner. In 1829 the Prophet completed the translation of the Book of Mormon in the home; on the Peter
Whitmer property three witnesses beheld the angel and saw the Book of Mormon plates; and on 6 April 1830 the Church was organized in the home. The first three
conferences of the Church also were held there.

Peter embraced the wonderful truths that were unfolding in his home. Just twelve days after the Church was organized, on 18 April 1830, he and his wife were baptized
in Seneca Lake by Oliver Cowdery. In obedience to the Lord's command, the following year he moved his family to Kirtland. By 1832 they were residing in Jackson
County, Missouri. The Zion existence they had hoped to establish there ended as mobbers drove the Whitmers to the swamplands of Clay County. Father Whitmer, as
he was affectionately known, suffered from religious persecution with other righteous Saints.

His faithfulness to the restored gospel and the Prophet Joseph Smith remained strong until he relocated with his family in Far West. In 1838 he turned from the truth he
had avowed for nine years and joined his apostate sons Jacob, John, and David in rebellion against the Prophet. Joseph Smith wrote that Father Whitmer and others
"said I was a fallen Prophet, and they were capable of leading the people."3 Peter relocated among dissenters in Richmond, Missouri. He died on 12 August 1854 in
Richmond at the age of eighty-one.

Notes

  1. As cited in Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 125.

   2. Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 125. The house no longer stands, but a
replica has been built on the foundation stones. On 26 September 1926 the Church purchased from Joseph H. Manges and his wife what was known as the "Peter
Whitmer Farm."

  3. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 5:217.

Newel K. Whitney

D&C 63:42-46; 64:26; 72:8; 84:112, 114; 93:50; 96:2;

104:39-42; 117:1, 4, 11

Birth: 5 February 1795, Marlborough, Windham County, Vermont. Son of Samuel Whitney and Susanna Kimball.

Death: 23 September 1850, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County, Utah.

At age nineteen Newel K. Whitney entered merchandising in the village of Plattsburg, New York, on the western shore of Lake Champlain. In September 1814 he
fought to save Plattsburg from the British forces. Fortunately, the British fleet had already been defeated on the lake and the British land troops were so discouraged
that Plattsburg was saved without much of a fight.

Even though this was a strategic victory for the United States, through the war Newel lost most of his personal possessions. He left Plattsburg and moved to Green Bay
on Lake Michigan, where he set up as an Indian trader, buying and selling furs for an eastern market. A skirmish with an enraged, drunken Indian caused Newel to
abandon the Indian trade.

He settled in Ohio, on the shores of Lake Erie, where he accepted employment with Sidney Gilbert as a clerk and bookkeeper. His business success was described by
his wife, Elizabeth: "We prospered in all our efforts to accumulate wealth, so much so, that among our friends it came to be remarked that nothing of Whitney's ever got
lost on the lake, and no product of his exportation was ever low in the market; always ready sales and fair prices."1
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Amid their prosperity Newel and Elizabeth began to examine religious creeds. About midnight one evening they prayed to know how to receive the   Holy Ghost.
Elizabeth said: "The Spirit rested upon us and a cloud overshadowed the house. It was as though we were out of doors. The house passed away from our vision. A
solemn awe pervaded us. We saw the cloud and felt the Spirit of the Lord. Then we heard a voice out of the cloud saying 'Prepare to receive the word of the Lord, for
He settled in Ohio, on the shores of Lake Erie, where he accepted employment with Sidney Gilbert as a clerk and bookkeeper. His business success was described by
his wife, Elizabeth: "We prospered in all our efforts to accumulate wealth, so much so, that among our friends it came to be remarked that nothing of Whitney's ever got
lost on the lake, and no product of his exportation was ever low in the market; always ready sales and fair prices."1

Amid their prosperity Newel and Elizabeth began to examine religious creeds. About midnight one evening they prayed to know how to receive the Holy Ghost.
Elizabeth said: "The Spirit rested upon us and a cloud overshadowed the house. It was as though we were out of doors. The house passed away from our vision. A
solemn awe pervaded us. We saw the cloud and felt the Spirit of the Lord. Then we heard a voice out of the cloud saying 'Prepare to receive the word of the Lord, for
it is coming.'"2

The word of the Lord came with the missionaries who had been called to take the gospel to the Lamanites and were proselytizing en route. In November 1830 Newel
and Elizabeth were baptized.

The Prophet Joseph Smith saw a vision in which Newel was pleading with the Lord that the Prophet would come to Kirtland. On or about 1 February 1831 he arrived
at the Whitney store:

"Newel K. Whitney! Thou art the man!" he exclaimed, extending his hand cordially, as if to an old and familiar acquaintance.

"You have the advantage of me," replied the one addressed, as he mechanically took the proffered hand-a half-amused, half mystified look overspreading his
countenance-"I could not call you by name, as you have me."

"I am Joseph Smith, the Prophet," said the stranger, smiling. "You've prayed me here; now what do you want of me?"3

Elizabeth wrote of this event, "I remarked to my husband that this was the fulfillment of the vision we had seen of a cloud, as of glory, resting upon our house."4

The Prophet and his wife resided with the Whitneys for several weeks. Newel's call to the bishopric would require that he open his home to many others (see D&C
72:1-8). One historical account states: "Newel K. Whitney, staggering under the weight of the responsibility that was about to be placed upon him, said to the Prophet:
'Brother Joseph, I can't see a Bishop in myself.' The Prophet answered: 'Go and ask the Lord about it'. And Newel did ask the Lord, and he heard a voice from
heaven say, 'Thy strength is in me.'"5

Joseph loved Bishop Whitney. In June 1832 he wrote to Emma, "He is chearful and patient and a true Brother to me."6 On 7 October 1835 Joseph received a blessing
for Newel through the Urim and Thummim: "Blessed of the Lord is Brother Whitney, even the bishop of the Church of Latter-day Saints, for the Bishopric shall never
be taken away from him while he liveth. He shall deal with a liberal hand to the poor and the needy, the sick and afflicted, the widow and the fatherless."7

In partial fulfillment of the blessing, Newel held a three-day feast in January 1836 for the poor Saints in the Kirtland vicinity. The Prophet wrote of this event: "Attended
a sumptuous feast at Bishop Newel K. Whitney's. This feast was after the order of the Son of God-the lame, the halt, and the blind were invited, according to the
instructions of the Savior. We received a bountiful refreshment, furnished by the liberality of the Bishop. The company was large."8

Joseph's feeling for this faithful man was one of profound gratitude: "Thou art a faithful friend in whom the afflicted sons of men can confide, with the most perfect safety.
Let the blessings of the Eternal also be crowned upon his head. How warm that heart! how anxious that soul! for the welfare of one who has been cast out, and hated
of almost all men. Brother Whitney, thou knowest not how strong those ties are that bind my soul and heart to thee."9

After Joseph's death Newel was called as the Presiding Bishop of the Church. He and his family journeyed to the Salt Lake Valley in 1848.

On Saturday, 21 September 1850, he returned home from his labors in the bishopric, complaining of a severe pain in his left side. By Monday, 23 September, his
condition had become worse. President Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and other Church leaders gathered at his home. He passed away at 11:00 a.m. His
obituary stated: "Thus, in full strength, and mature years, has one of the oldest and most exemplary and useful members of the Church fallen suddenly; leaving a large
family to mourn the loss of an affectionate husband, and a kind and generous father."10

Notes

   1. Edward W. Tullidge, The Women of Mormondom (New York: Tullidge and Crandall, 1877), p. 34. The Kirtland Land and Tax Records graphically portray
Newel's economic prosperity. His name is found eighteen times as the taxpayer for the "Whitney Company," five times as "Whitney N. & Miller G. Trustee," and forty-
eight times as an individual.

  2. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:223.

  3. Orson F. Whitney, "Newel K. Whitney," Contributor 6 (1885): 125.

  4. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:224.

  5. Roy W. Doxey, Latter-day Prophets and the Doctrine and Covenants, 4 vols. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1978), 2:434.

  6. Joseph Smith, The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith, comp. Dean C. Jessee (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1984), p. 239.

  7. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:288.

  8. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:362.

  9. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 5:108.

  10. Deseret News, 23 September 1850.

Lyman Wight
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D&C 52:7, 12; 103:30; 124:18, 22-24, 60, 62, 70

Birth: 9 May 1796, Fairfield Township, Herkimer County, New York. Son of Levi Wight and Sarah Corbon.
  10. Deseret News, 23 September 1850.

Lyman Wight

D&C 52:7, 12; 103:30; 124:18, 22-24, 60, 62, 70

Birth: 9 May 1796, Fairfield Township, Herkimer County, New York. Son of Levi Wight and Sarah Corbon.

Death: 31 March 1858, Dexter, Medino County, Texas.

Lyman Wight enlisted in the military during the War of 1812 and was stationed at Sackets Harbor, New York, until the conflict ended. He moved to Ohio about 1826
and by 1829 had joined the Campbellite-based "Common Stock Family" on the Isaac Morley farm. Like others in the "Family," he discarded his Campbellite leanings
in favor of the truths preached by the missionaries, being baptized by Oliver Cowdery 14 November 1830.

At the fourth general conference of the Church he was ordained by the Prophet Joseph Smith to the office of high priest, the first man so designated in this dispensation.
A few days later he was called to serve a mission to Missouri and was warned, "Let my servant Lyman Wight beware, for Satan desireth to sift him as chaff" (D&C
52:7, 12). Several months after reaching Missouri he and others went to Cincinnati, Ohio, where he was so powerful in his discourses that a hundred people were
baptized.

Lyman resided in Jackson County, Missouri, until mobs forced him to flee to Clay County. He volunteered to go and inform the Prophet in Kirtland of the suffering of
the Missouri Saints, although he had only three days' provisions for the journey; and he went with Parley P. Pratt. The answer to the problems of the Saints in Missouri
was to raise a potential military force, Zion's Camp, to march from Kirtland in the redemption of Zion (see D&C 103:30). Lyman journeyed to Pennsylvania, New
York, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan mustering volunteers for Zion's Camp. He marched as second only to Joseph Smith in the camp, walking from Michigan to Clay
County, Missouri, without stockings on his feet.

According to Benjamin F. Johnson, "By Apostle Lyman Wight we were taught to 'pray for our enemies,' that God would damn them, and 'give us power to kill them.'"1
Lyman's bold statements such as "Boys, eat, drink and be merry for to-morrow we-fight" caused him to be greatly feared by the Missourians.2 His explosive
expressions of retaliation brought difficulties to the Saints as tempers flared.

His loudly proclaimed false doctrine brought difficulties to himself. A Church court was held on 21 August 1834 to investigate charges of Lyman preaching that "all
disease in this Church is of the devil, and that medicine administered to the sick is of the Devil, for the sick in the Church ought to live by faith." Another charge made
against him, in a Church court on 24 April 1837, was that he taught "the Church were under a telestial law, because God does not whip in a Celestial. And that the
Book of Covinants and Doctrine was a telestial law and the Book of Commandments were a Celestial law."3 Lyman sought forgiveness and it was granted, but
remarks were heard among the Saints such as "Lyman Wight, as a bull in the net, is in danger of apostasy, but the Prophet holds on to him."4

Nevertheless, on 28 June 1838 he was appointed second counselor to John Smith, president of the Adam-ondi-Ahman Stake. Four months later he was a captive of
the mob militia and was charged with treason and murder. Missourian General Wilson confided: "Col. Wight, we have nothing against you, only that you are associated
with Joe Smith. He is our enemy and a damned rascal. If you will come out and swear against him, we will spare your life."

Lyman defiantly replied: "Joseph Smith is not an enemy to mankind, he is not your enemy, and is as good a friend as you have got. Had it not been for him, you would
have been in hell long ago, for I should have sent you there, by cutting your throat, and no other man but Joseph Smith could have prevented me, and you may thank
him for your life."

Wilson responded, "Wight, you are a strange man; but if you will not accept my proposal, you will be shot tomorrow morning at 8."

Lyman said, "Shoot and be damned."5

His life was spared, yet his imprisonment had just begun. Lyman was chained to the Prophet in the squalor of Richmond Jail and then confined with him in inhumane
conditions in Liberty Jail. It was not until October 1839 that he enjoyed a brief season of peace, when he again served as a counselor to John Smith, but this time in the
Zarahemla Stake presidency.

On 8 April 1841 Lyman was ordained to the apostleship. His first apostolic assignment was strengthening the Saints in the East and collecting funds for building the
Nauvoo Temple and the Nauvoo House. He successfully fulfilled these assignments and in the process baptized about two hundred individuals in Kirtland referred to as
"dead members of the Church, and brought many of them to Nauvoo."6 From Nauvoo he journeyed up the Mississippi River to Black River, Wisconsin, in February
1844, to help supervise the cutting of timber in the pineries for the temple and the Nauvoo House.

In Wisconsin he first expressed his desire to preach to the Indians in Texas. Fulfillment of this desire did not materialize until after the martyrdom of Joseph Smith.
Contrary to apostolic counsel he stubbornly held the view that Joseph Smith had called him to establish a mission in Texas among the Lamanites. His adamant,
persuasive stance caused nearly 150 Saints in Wisconsin to journey with him to Texas. They established a small Mormon-breakaway colony, building mills near the
present site of Austin before moving to the Perdinales River Valley.

In his tract "An Address by Way of an Abridged Account and Journal of My Life with an Appeal to the Latter Day Saints, Scattered Abroad in the Earth " Lyman
wrote of his opposition to Brigham Young's leadership of the Church: "Notwithstanding their long ears and slanderous tongue, they will find them too short and too
feeble to compete with a man who has gained his right and inheritance by passing through the sufferings which I have passed through."7 He then invited all the earth to
gather to Texas in preparation for Zion's redemption.

Lymanism, as his apostate doctrine was known, had its greatest impact among the Saints scattered in Iowa and Missouri in 1848. Two Apostles wrote: "A number of
the persons affected with the 'Texas Epidemic' are busy visiting remote branches and instilling into the minds of the people the ideas that the authorities dare not interfere
with Lyman in his course for he was right, however much they might say against him they would take no public action."8 Public action was taken, however, in the Great
Salt Lake City fort on 3 December 1848, as fellowship was withdrawn from Lyman Wight. That disciplinary act cured the "Texas Epidemic."

Lyman resided in Texas for the remainder of his life. In 1850 he was elected chief justice of Gillespie County. By 1851 his religious leanings had turned to thoughts of
Joseph Smith III taking "his father's place in the flesh!"9 Lyman died suddenly of epileptic fits at Dexter on 31 March 1858, having been sick only five hours.

Notes

  1. Benjamin F. Johnson, letter to George S. Gibbs, as cited in E. Dale LeBaron, "Benjamin Franklin Johnson: Colonizer, Public Servant, and Church Leader," M.A.
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Thesis,     (c) 2005-2009,
        Brigham            Infobase
                 Young University,    Media
                                    1967, pp.Corp.
                                             325-46.                                                                                          Page 315 / 567

  2. Lyman Omer Littlefield, Reminiscences of Latter-day Saints (Logan, Utah: The Utah Journal Co., 1888), p. 61.
Notes

  1. Benjamin F. Johnson, letter to George S. Gibbs, as cited in E. Dale LeBaron, "Benjamin Franklin Johnson: Colonizer, Public Servant, and Church Leader," M.A.
Thesis, Brigham Young University, 1967, pp. 325-46.

  2. Lyman Omer Littlefield, Reminiscences of Latter-day Saints (Logan, Utah: The Utah Journal Co., 1888), p. 61.

  3. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:147, and Donald Q. Cannon and Lyndon W. Cook, eds., Far West Record: Minutes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1830-
1844 (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1983), p. 111.

  4. Edward Stevenson, Selections from the Autobiography of Edward Stevenson, 1820-1897 (1820-1846), ed. Joseph Grant Stevenson (Provo, Utah: Stevenson's
Genealogical Center, 1986), p. 60.

  5. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:95.

  6. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:96.

  7. Lyman Wight, "An Address by Way of an Abridged Account and Journal of my Life From February 1844 up to April 1848 With an Appeal to the Latter-day
Saints ," p. 13, Archives Division, Church Historical Department, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah.

  8. Letter of George A. Smith and Ezra T. Benson to Brigham Young, 7 October 1848, in Brigham Young Papers, as cited in Richard E. Bennett, "Lamanism,
Lymanism, and Cornfields," Journal of Mormon History 13 (1986-1987): 58 n. 36.

  9. As cited in Susan Easton Black, Early Members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 6 vols. (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center,
Brigham Young University, 1993), 2:791. Many of Lyman's early followers joined the RLDS church.

Frederick G. Williams

D&C 64:21; 81:1 Introduction; 90:6, 19; 92:1; 93:41-43,

52-53; 102:3; 104:27, 2

Birth: 28 October 1787, Suffield, Hartford County, Connecticut. Son of William (or Warren) Williams and Ruth Granger.

Death: 25 (or 10) October 1842, Quincy, Adams County, Illinois.

During his early youth Frederick G. Williams had a near-fatal accident one winter as he and his friends attempted to walk across frozen Lake Erie. The ice broke,
leaving them helpless on a floating block until the next day, when they were sighted by a boat captain and rescued. Frederick was never robust after the incident.

Perhaps the persistence of health problems into maturity led him to study medical books and proclaim himself a doctor. He advocated the herb-based Thompsonian
system of medicine before becoming eclectic in his practice. His medical career temporarily halted at the outbreak of the War of 1812, as he entered the fight against
the British near Lake Erie. After the war he became a boat pilot, navigating the waters from Buffalo to Detroit. One passenger aboard his vessel, Rebecca Swain,
caught his fancy and they later married.

By 1816 the young couple were residing in Warrensville, Ohio, where Frederick again practiced medicine. As his financial situation improved he moved to a farm in
Chardon, Ohio, where he attended a local congregation of Campbellites. Learning from coreligionists of encouraging economic opportunities in Kirtland, he and
Rebecca located there on a 144-acre farm.

Frederick was serving as a justice of the peace in Kirtland when he met the missionaries sent to the Lamanites. Rebecca readily received their message of the gospel
and the Book of Mormon. Before Frederick was converted he carefully weighed the truthfulness of their preaching by comparing the Book of Mormon with the
teachings of the Bible. In October 1830 he was baptized, confirmed, and ordained an elder. As the missionaries contemplated continuing their journey to the western
frontier, they invited their new convert to join them. Frederick was acquainted with the frontier and his insights proved helpful on the journey. After a ten-month
absence he returned to his family in Kirtland.1

In March 1832 the Lord called him to be a counselor to the Prophet Joseph Smith (see D&C 81:1-3, 6). The love of the Prophet for his counselor is best illustrated by
Joseph's naming his newborn son "Frederick Granger Williams Smith."2 The Prophet trusted him with myriad responsibilities. He was a personal scribe, an organizer of
the printing firm F. G. Williams and Company, and an editor of the Northern Times. Joseph Smith penned:

Brother Frederick G. Williams is one of those men in whom I place the greatest confidence and trust, for I have found him ever full of love and brotherly kindness. He
is not a man of many words, but is ever winning, because of his constant mind. He shall ever have place in my heart. God grant that he may overcome all evil. Blessed
be Brother Frederick, for he shall never want a friend; and his generation after him shall flourish.3

In May 1834 Frederick deeded his farm to the Prophet and joined Zion's Camp with the hope of redeeming Zion. He served as paymaster of the camp until the men
were discharged. Upon returning to Kirtland he continued to faithfully demonstrate his love of the gospel and the latter-day work. Perhaps because of his unwavering
faith he was privileged to witness an angel enter the Kirtland Temple on the day of dedication. He testified that the angel sat "between Father Smith and himself, and
remained there during the prayer."4 He further testified that "the Savior, dressed in his vesture without seam, came into the stand and accepted of the dedication of the
house, that he saw him, and gave a description of his clothing and all things pertaining to it."5

Unfortunately Frederick did not maintain his attitude of devotion. Detailed accounts of his fall are sparse and confusing. On 29 May 1837 a Church court was held and
five members of the high council expressed their grievances over his actions and those of four others and requested an investigation of their conduct: "We, the
undersigned, feeling ourselves aggrieved with the conduct of Frederick G. Williams, believing that [his] course for some time past has been injurious to the Church of
God, We should have an investigation of [his] behavior, believing it to be unworthy of [his] high calling."6

The court did not come to a conclusion on the charges. After this Frederick's name was not mentioned in the Prophet's writings until the conference of 3 September
1837. At that time, when his name was presented as a counselor in the Presidency it was rejected. Family tradition and historical records conflict over whether he also
 Copyright
lost        (c) 2005-2009,
     his membership.        Infobase
                     The answer  may Media
                                     be foundCorp.
                                               in the Prophet's writing of 5 August 1838: "Frederick G. Williams had recently been re-baptized."7Page 316 / 567

By 1838 Frederick had joined the Saints in Missouri. In writing a Missouri redress petition on 17 March 1840 he claimed that he was "redused and Left myself and
God, We should have an investigation of [his] behavior, believing it to be unworthy of [his] high calling."6

The court did not come to a conclusion on the charges. After this Frederick's name was not mentioned in the Prophet's writings until the conference of 3 September
1837. At that time, when his name was presented as a counselor in the Presidency it was rejected. Family tradition and historical records conflict over whether he also
lost his membership. The answer may be found in the Prophet's writing of 5 August 1838: "Frederick G. Williams had recently been re-baptized."7

By 1838 Frederick had joined the Saints in Missouri. In writing a Missouri redress petition on 17 March 1840 he claimed that he was "redused and Left myself and
family in a state of poverty with a delicate state of health in an advanced stage of life."8 On 6 April 1840 he spoke to an assembly of Saints, humbly seeking forgiveness
for his former wrongdoings in Missouri and expressing his determination to do the will of God. He was forgiven and received back into Church fellowship.

During the remaining two years of his life he was a frequent visitor in the Prophet's home. One night the Prophet said to him, "Brother Frederick, I don't like to see you
leave. You are going home to die." He answered, "I am already a dead man."9 He died in October 1842 in Quincy from a lung hemorrhage at the age of fifty-four.
Many descendants believe he died of a broken heart.

Notes

  1. Nancy Clement Williams, After 100 Years! Meet Frederick Granger Williams (Independence, Mo.: Zion's Printing and Publishing Co., 1951).

  2. This child of Joseph's was born 20 July 1836.

  3. As cited in Nancy Clement Williams, After 100 Years! Meet Frederick Granger Williams (Independence, Mo.: Zion's Printing and Publishing Co., 1951), p. 77.

  4. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:427.

  5. George A. Smith, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 11:10.

  6. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:484-85.

  7. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 3:55.

  8. As cited in Clark V. Johnson, ed., Mormon Redress Petitions: Documents of the 1833-1838 Missouri Conflict (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham
Young University, 1992), p. 377.

  9. Nancy Clement Williams, After 100 Years! Meet Frederick Granger Williams (Independence, Mo.: Zion's Printing and Publishing Co., 1951), pp. 126-27.

Samuel Williams

D&C 124:137

Birth: 22 March 1789, Russell, Hampden County, Massachusetts. Son of Samuel Williams and Azubah Warner.

Death: 10 November 1855, Ogden, Weber County, Utah.

Samuel Williams, a resident of Kirtland, was baptized a member of the Church before migrating with the Saints to Missouri. He suffered from religious bigotry in
Missouri and was forced to flee the state. He made a solemn covenant to assist other suffering Saints as they also journeyed from Missouri to Illinois.1

In Nauvoo, Samuel lived near the temple site from 1839 to 1846 and attended the Nauvoo Second Ward.2 On 19 January 1841 he was appointed by revelation to be
a counselor to the elders quorum president, John Hicks: "And again, I say unto you, I give unto you John A. Hicks, Samuel Williams, and Jesse Baker, which
priesthood is to preside over the quorum of elders" (D&C 124:137).

After the apostasy of Hicks, Samuel served as the elders quorum president and retained Jesse Baker as a counselor.3 Not much is written of their quorum meetings. It
is assumed that Samuel's faithful adherence to duty contrasted with his predecessor, John Hicks, as he was also called to be a temporary member of the Nauvoo high
council.

As persecution mounted, Samuel fled from Illinois with the migrating Saints to the frontier of Iowa. He was ordained a high priest on 24 December 1846 in Winter
Quarters, where he remained until the summer of 1849. In the Utah federal census of 1850 he was listed as a stonecutter in Salt Lake City with a household of five and
a real wealth (land) of $75.4 He died on 10 November 1855 in Ogden, Utah, at the age of sixty-six.

Notes

  1. See Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints, 1932-51), 3:252.

  2. See Lyman Platt, Nauvoo Early Mormon Record Series (Highland, Utah: L. De Platt, 1980).

  3. See Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints, 1932-51), 7:297.

  4. See the Utah federal census 1850.

Calves Wilson

D&C 75:15
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Birth and death: Unknown.

Calves Wilson was baptized before 25 October 1831 and ordained a priest on that date in Orange County, Ohio, by Oliver Cowdery. Three months later he was
Calves Wilson

D&C 75:15

Birth and death: Unknown.

Calves Wilson was baptized before 25 October 1831 and ordained a priest on that date in Orange County, Ohio, by Oliver Cowdery. Three months later he was
called by revelation to proclaim the gospel: "And again, I say unto my servant Asa Dodds, and unto my servant Calves Wilson, that they also shall take their journey
unto the western countries, and proclaim my gospel, even as I have commanded them" (D&C 75:15).

It is not known whether the mission was fulfilled by either man.

In the spring of 1832 Calves accompanied Lyman Wight on a mission to Cincinnati, Ohio. According to a biographer,["[Lyman] delivered a series of lectures and built
up a branch of the Church, and baptized upwards of one hundred."1 It is assumed that Calves participated in the successful preaching in the Cincinnati area.

Notes

  1. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:93.

Lewis Dunbar Wilson

D&C 124:132

Birth: 2 June 1805, Milton, Chittenden County, Vermont. Son of Bradley Wilson and Mary (Polly) Gill.

Death: 11 March 1856, Ogden, Weber County, Utah.

Lewis Wilson was a resident of Richland County, Ohio, in 1830. He was baptized on 23 May 1836 in Green Township, Richland County. A notice of his priesthood
ordination appeared in the November 1836 Messenger and Advocate.1 He served a short mission with his brother, George Wilson, in May 1837. His missionary
license was recorded in the "License Records, in Kirtland, Ohio, by Thomas Burdick, Recording Clerk."2

Lewis moved from Ohio to Far West, Missouri, in the fall of 1837. The extermination order in Missouri forced his removal from the state. He itemized his losses in
Missouri in a redress petition:

I hereby certify that I purchased from Congress Two hundred and forty acres of land lying in Caldwell County and State of Missouri and Was compelled to leave the
same on acount of the order of the executive of the State.

When the Malitia came to Far West they took from me a valuable Horse which broke up my team I made extertions to obtain it again but without success. I was
obliged to part with my land (in order to make up my team and for means to get me conveyed out of the State) for one sixth of the value.3

In Illinois, Lewis served on the Nauvoo high council from 1839 to 1846 (see D&C 124:132). In July 1843 he and others volunteered to rescue the Prophet Joseph
Smith from the Missourians, and he was blessed for his courage by Hyrum Smith. Hyrum told the group that "if any persons were running Brother Joseph down the
river, under any pretext whatever [they] were to rescue Joseph, at all hazards and bring him to Nauvoo."4 When Joseph was rescued, Lewis continued his watchcare
of the Prophet as one of his bodyguards.

Lewis left Nauvoo in 1846 in the great Mormon exodus. He located in Garden Grove and later in Kanesville, Iowa Territory, before migrating to the Salt Lake Valley
in 1853. He settled with his family in Ogden, Utah, where he again served on a high council. Lewis died in March 1856 in Ogden at the age of fifty.

Notes

  1. See Messenger and Advocate 3 (November 1836): 415.

  2. Messenger and Advocate 3 (June 1837): 528.

  3. As cited in Clark V. Johnson, ed., Mormon Redress Petitions: Documents of the 1833-1838 Missouri Conflict (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham
Young University, 1992), p. 554.

  4. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 5:482.

Wilford Woodruff

D&C 118:6; 124:129; 136:13; 138:53;

Official Declaration-1

Birth: 1 March 1807, Farmington, Hartford County, Connecticut. Son of Aphek Woodruff and Beulah Thompson.

Death: 2 September 1898, San Francisco, San Francisco County, California.

Wilford Woodruff's youth was marred by several accidents. In his words: "I have been numbered with those who are apparently the marked victims of misfortunes. It
has seemed to me at times as though some invisible power were watching my footsteps in search of an opportunity to destroy my life."1 In pondering the severity of the
mishaps, he wrote, "The repeated deliverances from all these remarkable dangers I ascribe to the mercies of my Heavenly Father."2

While religious subjects occupied his mind at an early age, Wilford did not profess religion until age twenty-three. However, he was strongly influenced by the elderly
Robert Mason-or Father Mason, as he was known-whom many called a prophet. Mason told Wilford that the Lord would establish his church and that Wilford would
"become
 Copyrighta conspicuous  actorInfobase
             (c) 2005-2009,     in that kingdom."3 In preparation for these future events Wilford began to read the scriptures and participated in "earnest
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God day and night as far as I could. I had pleaded with the Lord many hours in the forest, among the rocks, and in the fields, and in the mill-often at midnight for light
and truth and for His Spirit to guide me in the way of salvation."4
mishaps, he wrote, "The repeated deliverances from all these remarkable dangers I ascribe to the mercies of my Heavenly Father."2

While religious subjects occupied his mind at an early age, Wilford did not profess religion until age twenty-three. However, he was strongly influenced by the elderly
Robert Mason-or Father Mason, as he was known-whom many called a prophet. Mason told Wilford that the Lord would establish his church and that Wilford would
"become a conspicuous actor in that kingdom."3 In preparation for these future events Wilford began to read the scriptures and participated in "earnest prayer before
God day and night as far as I could. I had pleaded with the Lord many hours in the forest, among the rocks, and in the fields, and in the mill-often at midnight for light
and truth and for His Spirit to guide me in the way of salvation."4

That guidance came in the winter of 1833 as he learned of the restored gospel. He listened to the preaching of Zera Pulsipher. "I believed all that he said," Wilford later
wrote. "The spirit bore witness of its truth." When he began to read the Book of Mormon, "the spirit bore witness that the record which it contained was true."5

On 31 December 1833 he was baptized by Zera Pulsipher. "The snow was about three feet deep, the day was cold, and the water was mixed with ice and snow, yet I
did not feel the cold."

Not long thereafter Wilford made his way to Kirtland, Ohio, where on 25 April 1834 he met the Prophet Joseph. When the Zion's Camp march began a week or so
later, Wilford was a part of it. From Missouri he went on a mission to the southern states. In 1836 he was back in Kirtland.

On 15 April 1837 he received his patriarchal blessing from Joseph Smith Sr., informing him that he would bring his father's household into the kingdom of God. Within
the month he left on a mission to the East to share the gospel with family and friends. On this mission he organized a branch of the Church at Fox Island before receiving
word that he had been appointed to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see D&C 118:6). Wilford was ordained to that calling on 26 April 1839 at Far West,
Missouri.

As an Apostle his first assignment was to fulfill a mission to England. Feeble from an illness contracted along the Mississippi River, Wilford lay by a local post office in
Illinois. Observing his condition, the Prophet remarked, "Well, Brother Woodruff, you have started upon your mission."

"Yes," Wilford said, "but I feel and look more like a subject for the dissecting room than a missionary."

Joseph replied: "What did you say that for? Get up, and go along; all will be right with you."6

Parley P. Pratt, noting that Wilford was proceeding on the mission, hailed him, saying, "Brother Woodruff, I have no money, but I have an empty purse, which I will
give you." A little further on, Heber C. Kimball said to him, "As Parley has given you a purse, I have got a dollar I will give you to put in it." With these gifts Wilford left
the Nauvoo area for the East and then voyaged across the Atlantic Ocean. In about three months after arriving on British shores he had baptized over two hundred
people at the Benbow farm in Herefordshire. This was the beginning of his successful labor, which "enabled me to bring into the Church, through the blessings of God,
over eighteen hundred souls during eight months."7

Upon returning to Nauvoo, at Christmas time of 1841 he visited with other Apostles in the Prophet's home. His biographer wrote: "Elder Woodruff says in his journal
that the Prophet showed him and others for the first time the Urim and Thummim."8

In 1844 the opportunity for missionary service came again. The Prophet admonished, "Brother Woodruff, I want you to go, and if you do not you will die." While
Wilford was serving a mission in the east, the Prophet was martyred. Still sorrowing over the tragedy, in Boston on 17 July 1844 Wilford Woodruff and Brigham
Young called upon Sister Vose. "Brother Young took the bed and I the armchair, and then we veiled our faces and gave vent to our grief. Until now I had not shed a
tear since the death of the Prophet. My soul had been nerved up like steel."9

Wilford soon returned to Nauvoo, and by the end of August he was making preparations to leave for yet another mission to England. Among his preparations was a
visit to the widows of the martyrs, Emma Smith and Mary Fielding Smith. Emma gave him a piece of oak for a staff, taken from Joseph's coffin. Mary gave him locks of
hair from the heads of Joseph, Hyrum, Samuel, and Don Carlos Smith. He then obtained strands of hair from members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. These
were placed "in the knob of my staff as a relic of those noble men, the master spirits of the nineteenth century."10

As British Mission president, Wilford preached the gospel and published the good news. When he returned to the United States the Saints had begun their exodus to
Iowa Territory. He joined them in their temporary encampments and helped organize a company to cross the plains (see D&C 136:13).

For the remaining decades of his life he played a vital role in the frontier settlements of the West. However, his main assignment for two decades was to accompany
Brigham Young. "Some day," said President Young, "I shall look to you for my journal."11 He wrote a journal for sixty-three years and a history of the leading men in
the Church. In referring to his writings, Wilford wrote: "I seem to be a marked victim of the adversary. I can find but one reason for this: the devil knew if I got into the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, I would write the history of that Church and leave on record the works and teachings of the prophets, of the apostles and
elders."12

In 1877 he gave the dedicatory prayer on the St. George Temple and at the close of the services was appointed to preside over the temple. In 1879 religious
persecution against plural marriage caused Wilford to go into exile. "For the first time in my life I have had to flee from my enemies for the gospel's sake. They are trying
to arrest me for obeying the law of God in reference to Plural Marriage."13

At the death of President Taylor, Wilford Woodruff became the leader of the Church: "It is a position I have never looked for. I pray God to give me grace equal to my
day." At the April conference in 1889 he was sustained as President of the Church. On that occasion he said, "I pray God to protect me and give me power to magnify
my calling to the end of my days."14

Those were difficult days as persecution against polygamy raged. However, on 6 October 1890 the prophet had the Manifesto presented to the assembled Saints in the
Tabernacle (Official Declaration-1). "I want to say to all Israel that the step which I have taken in issuing this Manifesto has not been done without earnest prayer
before the Lord," said the prophet.15

During his presidency many noteworthy events occurred-the dedication of the Salt Lake Temple, the granting of general amnesty to Church members, and statehood
for Utah. At the celebration of his ninetieth birthday a banner written with the words "We honor the man so honored of God" epitomized the life of the prophet. As he
neared the end of his life he summarized his journals and concluded that from 1834 to 1895 he had traveled 172,269 miles, held 7,555 meetings, attended 75 semi-
annual general conferences of the Church and 344 quarterly conferences, preached 3,526 discourses, established seventy-seven preaching places in missions,
organized fifty-one branches, received 18,977 letters, written 11,519 letters, assisted in confirming 8,952 Saints, labored 603 days in the Endowment House, traveled
through England, Scotland, Wales, six islands of the sea, and twenty-three states and five U.S. territories in the cause of righteousness.16

At his beside in San Francisco on 2 September 1898 was one of his counselors, George Q. Cannon. He wrote of President Woodruff's last moments: "I arose about 6
o'clock. The(c)
 Copyright    nurse told me heInfobase
                 2005-2009,     had beenMedia
                                          sleeping   in the same position all the time. I took hold of his wrist, felt his pulse and I could feel that it was very
                                                   Corp.                                                                                                       Pagefaint.319
                                                                                                                                                                          While I
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stood there it grew fainter and fainter until it faded entirely."17

The remains of the deceased leader were conveyed from San Francisco to Salt Lake City by rail. He was buried on 8 September 1898 in Salt Lake City.
through England, Scotland, Wales, six islands of the sea, and twenty-three states and five U.S. territories in the cause of righteousness.16

At his beside in San Francisco on 2 September 1898 was one of his counselors, George Q. Cannon. He wrote of President Woodruff's last moments: "I arose about 6
o'clock. The nurse told me he had been sleeping in the same position all the time. I took hold of his wrist, felt his pulse and I could feel that it was very faint. While I
stood there it grew fainter and fainter until it faded entirely."17

The remains of the deceased leader were conveyed from San Francisco to Salt Lake City by rail. He was buried on 8 September 1898 in Salt Lake City.

Notes

  1. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 5.

  2. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 11.

  3. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 16.

  4. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 18.

  5. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 33-34.

  6. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 109.

  7. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 109-10, 119.

  8. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 157.

  9. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 204, 208.

  10. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 227-28.

  11. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 346-47.

  12. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 477.

  13. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 506.

  14. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), pp. 560, 565.

  15. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 570.

  16. Andrew Jenson, comp., Latter-day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (1901-36; reprint, Salt Lake City: Western Epics, 1971), 1:26.

  17. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 621.

Brigham Young

Testimony of the Twelve Apostles,

D&C 124:127; 126; 136; 138:53

Birth: 1 June 1801, Whittingham, Windham County, Vermont. Son of John Young and Abigail Howe.

Death: 29 August 1877, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County, Utah.

Few men of the nineteenth century match the caliber and dogged determination of Brigham Young. From humble beginnings in an obscure village in Vermont he rose to
the applause of thinking men; but more important, he grew in favor with God. Although some would contend that the laborious toils of farm labor and unwelcome
poverty dominated his early years, it was his unwavering search for eternal truth that permeated his thoughts.

Reading the Book of Mormon, listening to missionaries, and baptism brought answers to Brigham's search: "When I saw a man without eloquence, or talents for public
speaking, who could only say, 'I know, by the power of the Holy Ghost, that the Book of Mormon is true, that Joseph Smith is a Prophet of the Lord,' the Holy Ghost
proceeding from that individual illuminated my understanding, and light, glory, and immortality were before me."1

Anxious to learn more about his new religion, Brigham journeyed to Kirtland to meet the Prophet Joseph Smith: "When I went to Kirtland I had not a coat in the
world," he said. "Neither had I a shoe to my feet, and I had to borrow a pair of pants and a pair of boots."2 Of his initial meeting with Joseph he recalled: "Here my joy
was full at the privilege of shaking the hand of the Prophet of God, and receiving the sure testimony, by the spirit of prophecy, that he was all that any man could believe
him to be as a true Prophet."3

On 14 February 1835 Brigham Young was ordained a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. As an Apostle he was zealous in defense of the Prophet. One
evening in Kirtland, overhearing a man loudly rail against Joseph Smith, Brigham reacted: "I put my pants and shoes on, took my cowhide, went out, and laying hold on
him, jerked him round, and assured him that if he did not stop his noise and let the people enjoy their sleep without interruption, I would cowhide him on the spot, for
we had the Lord's Prophet right here, and we did not want the devil's prophet yelling round the streets. The nuisance was forthwith abated."4

To the faithful, Brigham was a compassionate friend. Having witnessed Mary Pitt, an English woman who had suffered from crippling lameness for eleven years, being
carried to her baptism, he pronounced a healing blessing. He "rebuked her lameness in the name of the Lord, and commanded her to arise and walk. The lameness left
her, and she never afterwards used a staff or crutch."5
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.
Brigham   marveled at the miraculous healing and the thousands of converts in the British Isles that embraced the gospel: "It truly seemed a miracle. Page   320
                                                                                                                                                      We landed in /the
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spring of 1840, as strangers in a strange land and penniless. But through the mercy of God we have gained many friends, established churches and have left sown in the
hearts of many thousands the seeds of eternal truth."6
To the faithful, Brigham was a compassionate friend. Having witnessed Mary Pitt, an English woman who had suffered from crippling lameness for eleven years, being
carried to her baptism, he pronounced a healing blessing. He "rebuked her lameness in the name of the Lord, and commanded her to arise and walk. The lameness left
her, and she never afterwards used a staff or crutch."5

Brigham marveled at the miraculous healing and the thousands of converts in the British Isles that embraced the gospel: "It truly seemed a miracle. We landed in the
spring of 1840, as strangers in a strange land and penniless. But through the mercy of God we have gained many friends, established churches and have left sown in the
hearts of many thousands the seeds of eternal truth."6

The darkest day of his life was 27 June 1844, the day of the martyrdom of Joseph Smith: "Spent the day in Boston with brother Woodruff. In the evening, while sitting
in the depot waiting, I felt a heavy depression of Spirit, and so melancholy I could not converse with any degree of pleasure. I could not assign my reasons for my
peculiar feelings."7

Twelve days later he learned of the tragic deaths of the Prophet Joseph and his brother Hyrum: "The first thing I thought of was whether Joseph had taken the keys of
the kingdom with him from the earth. Bringing my hand down on my knee, I said, 'The keys of the kingdom are right here with the Church.'"8

With renewed conviction he returned to Nauvoo, where he resolutely declared, "The Twelve are appointed by the finger of God an independent body who have the
keys of the priesthood-the keys of the kingdom of God to deliver to all the world."9 The authority of the Twelve was challenged on 8 August 1844 by Sidney Rigdon.
With characteristic resolution and steadfastness Brigham met the challenge. He seemed to appear to an assembled multitude like the Prophet Joseph Smith in physical
stature and in speech. William C. Staines wrote, "I thought it was he and so did thousands who heard it."10

Determined to carry forward the Lord's plans as implemented by Joseph Smith, Brigham encouraged the completion of the Nauvoo Temple. "We want to build the
Temple in this place," he said, "if we have to build it as the Jews built the walls of the Temple in Jerusalem, with a sword in one hand and the trowel in the other."11 Yet
as the temple neared completion, threatened violence became unrestrained and a forced exodus was imminent.

In February 1846 Brigham Young cried, "Flee Babylon by land or by sea." Thousands of obedient Saints responded and fled from the comforts of Nauvoo to the
rigors of Iowa's wilderness. Their sacrifice and suffering, from the loess hills of Iowa to the barren plains of Nebraska and the rigors of the Rockies, is a historic
migration without parallel.

"This is the right place, drive on," Brigham said on 24 July 1847 as he looked over the semi-arid desert of the Great Salt Lake Valley.12 These words were echoed in
correspondence to Charles C. Rich: "Let all the brethren and Sisters cheer up their hearts, and know assuredly that God has heard and answered their prayers and
ours, and led us to a goodly land."13

Leaving only a handful of Saints in the Valley, Brigham returned to the bluffs of the Missouri River to bring his leadership to the many Saints there and guide them to
their new home of safety in the Rockies. There in Winter Quarters, he was sustained in December 1847 as prophet and President of The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, fulfilling the prophecy given by Joseph Smith many years before in Kirtland that "the time will come when Brigham Young will preside over this
church."14

President Young served faithfully in that capacity for thirty years. His contributions to the Church and kingdom of God are unequaled. As President he faced multiple
problems of emigration, settling, and religious persecution. Yet he never swerved in his conviction to the faith. "We have been kicked out of the frying-pan into the fire,"
said Brigham, "out of the fire into the middle of the floor, and here we are and here we will stay." He knew that God had revealed to him "that this is the spot to locate
his people, and here is where they will prosper."15

His courageous steadfastness earned for him the title "Lion of the Lord." Even President Abraham Lincoln recognized that Brigham was not someone to offend. He told
T. B. H. Stenhouse, a Mormon journalist, "You go back and tell Brigham Young that if he will let me alone I will let him alone."16 Brigham was a man with a mission
and vision of what the future would hold for the Latter-day Saints:

It has been asked if we intend to settle more valleys. Why certainly we expect to fill the next valley and then the next, and the next, and so on. It has been the cry of
late, through the columns of the newspapers, that the "Mormons" are going into Mexico! That is quite right, we calculate to go there. Are we going back to Jackson
County? Yes. When? As soon as the way opens up. We intend to hold our own here, and also penetrate the north and the south, the east and the west, there to make
others and to raise the ensign of truth. We will continue to grow, to increase and spread abroad, and the powers of earth and hell combined cannot hinder it.17

Brigham Young died at 4 p.m. on 29 August 1877 in Salt Lake City, after calling "Joseph, Joseph, Joseph." In life he had been separated from his beloved friend, the
Prophet Joseph Smith, yet with Brigham's death they were united again. Like Joseph, Brigham had fulfilled the measure of his creation. And he advised that at his
interment there should be "no crying or mourning with anyone as I have done my work faithfully and in good faith."18

Notes

  1. Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 1:90.

  2. Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 2:128.

  3. B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 1930), 1:289.

  4. Brigham Young, Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1801-1844, ed. Elden Jay Watson (Salt Lake City: Elden Jay Watson, 1968), pp. 17-18.

  5. Matthias F. Cowley, Wilford Woodruff, History of His Life and Labors (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1964), p. 120.

  6. B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 1930), 2:86.

  7. Brigham Young, Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1801-1844, ed. Elden Jay Watson (Salt Lake City: Elden Jay Watson, 1968), p. 169.

  8. James R. Clark, comp., Messages of the First Presidency, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1965-75), 1:233.

  9. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 7:233.
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  10. As cited in Francis M. Gibbons, Brigham Young, Modern Moses, Prophet of God (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 104.
  8. James R. Clark, comp., Messages of the First Presidency, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1965-75), 1:233.

  9. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 7:233.

  10. As cited in Francis M. Gibbons, Brigham Young, Modern Moses, Prophet of God (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981), p. 104.

  11. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 7:256.

  12. B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 1930), 3:224.

   13. Letter of Brigham Young to Charles C. Rich, 2 August 1847, as cited in Leonard J. Arrington, Charles C. Rich, Mormon General and Western Frontiersman
(Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1974), p. 118.

  14. B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 1930), 1:289.

  15. As cited in Milton R. Hunter, in Conference Report, April 1947, p. 68.

  16. As cited in Leonard J. Arrington, Brigham Young, American Moses (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), p. 295.

  17. Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (London: Latter-day Saints Book Depot, 1854-86), 18:355-56.

  18. As cited in Preston Nibley, Brigham Young: The Man and His Work (Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press, 1936), p. 537.

Joseph Young

D&C 124:138

Birth: 7 April 1797, Hopkinton, Middlesex County, Massachusetts. Son of John Young and Nabbie Howe.

Death: 16 July 1881, Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County, Utah.

Joseph Young was reared in the wilderness of the eastern states, amid trees and woods, flowers and streams. He attended various denominational services with his
family in small communities from Vermont to New York. Although he practiced the trade of painting and glazing, he preferred being an itinerant preacher, traveling
through the forest preaching the message of Jesus Christ.

In 1818 he left his parental home to further his quest for eternal truth. "I was anxious about this period, to know something of the future existence, beyond this mortal
life and labored for the knowledge of it incessantly."1 In June 1830 he traveled with his brother Phineas to Canada: "On our way thence, we stopped in the town of
Lyons, at the house of a J. Green. Here I think we remained one night. It was at this place, I first had sight of the Book of Mormon. It was shown to us [by] a Solomon
Chamberlain. Nothing could have been more acceptable to my famishing soul. I hailed it as my Spiritual Jubilee a deliverance from a long night of darkness and
bondage."2

Joseph and Phineas left Upper Canada and journeyed to Pennsylvania to visit a small branch of the Church. In Columbia, Pennsylvania, Joseph was baptized on 6
April 1832 and ordained an elder a few days later. He soon began missionary labors in New York and Upper Canada, among friends and relatives. When sharing the
new doctrine with his brother John, he met opposition: "Joseph, you have received a new doctrine, and another spirit from what you have had heretofore, and I fear it is
a delusion; for the scriptures say that many false spirits have gone out into the world, and this is one of them."3

Joseph penned his immediate reaction to these words: "My spirit sunk within me; and darkness profound gathered thick like a cloud, covering my mind and spirit so
densely, that I was in great mental agony. However I did [not] remain long in this sad condition; for I prayed earnestly to the Lord for deliverance, and it came as
suddenly as if I had been led from a dungeon, into the sunlight of heaven."4

His brother was seized with severe pains in his head, and returning to his home he "threw himself on the hearth wrestling under excruceeding [sic] agonies." He
requested, "Joseph, you profess to have the priesthood of an institution that heals the sick. If you have received such a gift as that, I wish you would lay your hands on
me." Joseph agreed to bless him if he promised to not persecute or speak against the doctrine again. The afflicted brother consented and Joseph prayed for him. "My
prayer was heard in a moment or two and he was perfectly healed."5 Six months later Joseph baptized his brother John.

By 1834 Joseph was residing in Kirtland and had responded to the call to march with Zion's Camp to Missouri. The Prophet promised that if he would keep his
counsel on the march, "not a hair of his head would be hurt."6 Of that arduous journey Joseph wrote: "I never went through a more severe trial of my faith. It was as
much as we all could bear. We walked one hundred miles in three days in the hottest weather."7

In February 1835 the Prophet confided in him his intention to organize the Quorum of the Seventy, and revealed, "Brother Joseph, the Lord has made you president of
the Seventies" (D&C 124:138-39). 8 For the next forty-six years he presided as one of the seven Presidents. One of his first assignments was to help the Kirtland poor
remove to Far West, Missouri. En route they stopped at Haun's Mill, where many suffered in the terrible massacre. According to family tradition, about 4:00 p.m.
Joseph sat in the doorway of a cabin with his young son Seymour on his knee and his wife next to him. He saw armed men on horses riding toward the mill at great
speed: "Joseph latched the door of the cabin where they were, and faced his wife. She raised her arms and cried to God to protect her husband, and then begged him
to try to escape to the woods. He hated to leave her but she insisted, and he climbed out a window and escaped into the heavy brush."9

When the massacre ended he returned to help bury the bodies in an old abandoned well.

Joseph and his family fled from the atrocities in Missouri to Quincy, Illinois. They eventually settled in Nauvoo, where they built an attractive red brick home. Joseph
supported his family by painting and glazing. He was privileged to preside at the dedication of the temple, and on 10 February 1846 he was appointed to preside over
the Saints still residing in Nauvoo. However, before the year ended he fled from rising mobocracy. His wife wrote of their departure: "We are leaving our homes today
to cross the frozen river. We must not look back, but placing our faith in God, we must leave our destiny in His hands. Joseph appears to be cheerful, but the little
children  cry much of the time. They suffer with the cold, and the fires are cheerless."10
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In 1850 they trekked to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake. Living in the desert near the Salt Lake was not easy for Joseph. He wrote: "We have had nothing to eat for
three days. My brother Lorenzo sent us a small piece of venison tonight, which he had obtained from a trapper. We all relished it much. It may please God to send us
supported his family by painting and glazing. He was privileged to preside at the dedication of the temple, and on 10 February 1846 he was appointed to preside over
the Saints still residing in Nauvoo. However, before the year ended he fled from rising mobocracy. His wife wrote of their departure: "We are leaving our homes today
to cross the frozen river. We must not look back, but placing our faith in God, we must leave our destiny in His hands. Joseph appears to be cheerful, but the little
children cry much of the time. They suffer with the cold, and the fires are cheerless."10

In 1850 they trekked to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake. Living in the desert near the Salt Lake was not easy for Joseph. He wrote: "We have had nothing to eat for
three days. My brother Lorenzo sent us a small piece of venison tonight, which he had obtained from a trapper. We all relished it much. It may please God to send us
bread again. We must not falter in our faith, but sing always to the Glory of God."11

From 1856 to 1872 Joseph's family resided near Temple Square in the Salt Lake Twelfth Ward. During these years Joseph's valuable service was noteworthy. On 30
April 1860 he led a "Church train" to the East, consisting of thirty-six wagons loaded with Utah-grown products. In 1862 he gave a series of lectures at the Deseret
Theological Institute in Salt Lake City on "Travels of the Children of Israel." In 1870 Joseph fulfilled a mission to the British Isles, there preaching the good news of the
Restoration. After returning to the Valley he journeyed to pioneer settlements in Utah, Arizona, Idaho, and New Mexico to organize quorums of the seventies.

In 1881 Joseph Young succumbed to general weakness and debility incident to old age. He died on 16 July 1881 at the age of eighty-four. His funeral was held in the
Salt Lake Tabernacle on 19 July 1881 and was attended by thousands of Latter-day Saints.12

Notes

  1. Joseph Young, "Autobiographical Sketch of Joseph Young," comp. Merrill S. Lofthouse (no publisher, no date), pp. 5-6, in author's possession.

  2. Joseph Young, "Autobiographical Sketch of Joseph Young," comp. Merrill S. Lofthouse (no publisher, no date), p. 6, in author's possession.

  3. Joseph Young, "Autobiographical Sketch of Joseph Young," comp. Merrill S. Lofthouse (no publisher, no date), p. 9, in author's possession.

  4. Joseph Young, "Autobiographical Sketch of Joseph Young," comp. Merrill S. Lofthouse (no publisher, no date), pp. 9-10, in author's possession.

  5. Joseph Young, "Autobiographical Sketch of Joseph Young," comp. Merrill S. Lofthouse (no publisher, no date), pp. 10-12, in author's possession.

  6. James L. Bradley, Zion's Camp 1834: Prelude to the Civil War (Logan, Utah: James L. Bradley, 1990), p. 26.

  7. As cited in Lucille Young Nelson, "Joseph Young" (no publisher, no date), p. 107, in author's possession.

  8. Joseph Smith, History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, 1932-51), 2:181 n.

  9. Lucille Young Nelson, "Joseph Young" (no publisher, no date), p. 111, in author's possession.

  10. As cited in Lucille Young Nelson, "Joseph Young" (no publisher, no date), p. 116, in author's possession.

  11. As cited in Lucille Young Nelson, "Joseph Young" (no publisher, no date), p. 118, in author's possession.

  12. Joseph Young's son Seymour Young added six pages to his father's autobiographical sketch, in author's possession.

CHAPTER 12

ROMANS 12:1
1 I plead with you therefore, brethren, by the compassions of God, to present all your faculties to Him as a living and holy sacrifice acceptable to
Him. This with you will be an act of reasonable worship.

ROMANS 12:2
2 And do not follow the customs of the present age, but be transformed by the entire renewal of your minds, so that you may learn by experience
what God's will is - that will which is good and beautiful and perfect.

ROMANS 12:3
3 For through the authority graciously given to me I warn every individual among you not to value himself unduly, but to cultivate sobriety of
judgment in accordance with the amount of faith which God has allotted to each one.

ROMANS 12:4
4 For just as there are in the one human body many parts, and these parts have not all the same function;

ROMANS 12:5
5 so collectively we form one body in Christ, while individually we are linked to one another as its members.

ROMANS 12:6
6 But since we have special gifts which differ in accordance with the diversified work graciously entrusted to us, if it is prophecy, let the prophet
speak in exact proportion to his faith;

ROMANS 12:7
7 if it is the gift of administration, let the administrator exercise a sound judgment in his duties.

ROMANS 12:8
8 The teacher must do the same in his teaching; and he who exhorts others, in his exhortation. He who gives should be liberal; he who is in authority
should be energetic and alert; and he who succors the afflicted should do it cheerfully.

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ROMANS     12:9
9 Let your love be perfectly sincere. Regard with horror what is evil; cling to what is right.
ROMANS 12:8
8 The teacher must do the same in his teaching; and he who exhorts others, in his exhortation. He who gives should be liberal; he who is in authority
should be energetic and alert; and he who succors the afflicted should do it cheerfully.

ROMANS 12:9
9 Let your love be perfectly sincere. Regard with horror what is evil; cling to what is right.

ROMANS 12:10
10 As for brotherly love, be affectionate to one another; in matters of worldly honor, yield to one another.

ROMANS 12:11
11 Do not be indolent when zeal is required. Be thoroughly warm-hearted, the Lord's own servants,

ROMANS 12:12
12 full of joyful hope, patient under persecution, earnest and persistent in prayer.

ROMANS 12:13
13 Relieve the necessities of God's people; always practice hospitality.

ROMANS 12:14
14 Invoke blessings on your persecutors - blessings, not curses.

ROMANS 12:15
15 Rejoice with those who rejoice; weep with those who weep.

ROMANS 12:16
16 Have full sympathy with one another. Do not give your mind to high things, but let humble ways content you. Do not be wise in your own
conceits.

ROMANS 12:17
17 Pay back to no man evil for evil. Take thought for what is right and seemly in every one's esteem.

ROMANS 12:18
18 If you can, so far as it depends on you, live at peace with all the world.

ROMANS 12:19
19 Do not be revengeful, my dear friends, but give way before anger; for it is written, "'Revenge belongs to Me: I will pay back,' says the Lord."

ROMANS 12:20
20 On the contrary, therefore, if your enemy is hungry, give him food; if he is thirsty, quench his thirst. For by doing this you will be heaping
burning coals upon his head.

ROMANS 12:21
21 Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome the evil with goodness.

CHAPTER 13

ROMANS 13:1
1 Let every individual be obedient to those who rule over him; for no one is a ruler except by God's permission, and our present rulers have had their
rank and power assigned to them by Him.

ROMANS 13:2
2 Therefore the man who rebels against his ruler is resisting God's will; and those who thus resist will bring punishment upon themselves.

ROMANS 13:3
3 For judges and magistrates are to be feared not by right-doers but by wrong-doers. You desire - do you not? - to have no reason to fear your ruler.
Well, do the thing that is right, and then he will commend you.

ROMANS 13:4
4 For he is God's servant for your benefit. But if you do what is wrong, be afraid. He does not wear the sword to no purpose: he is God's servant - an
administrator to inflict punishment upon evil-doers.

ROMANS 13:5
5 We must obey therefore, not only in order to escape punishment, but also for conscience' sake.

ROMANS 13:6
6 Why, this is really the reason you pay taxes; for tax-gatherers are ministers of God, devoting their energies to this very work.

ROMANS 13:7
7 Pay promptly to all men what is due to them: taxes to those to whom taxes are due, toll to those to whom toll is due, respect to those to whom
respect is due, honor to those to whom honor is due.

ROMANS 13:8
8 Owe nothing to any one except mutual love; for he who loves his fellow man has satisfied the demands of Law.
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ROMANS 13:9
9 For the precepts, "Thou shalt not commit adultery," "Thou shalt do no murder," "Thou shalt not steal," "Thou shalt not covet," and all other
ROMANS 13:8
8 Owe nothing to any one except mutual love; for he who loves his fellow man has satisfied the demands of Law.

ROMANS 13:9
9 For the precepts, "Thou shalt not commit adultery," "Thou shalt do no murder," "Thou shalt not steal," "Thou shalt not covet," and all other
precepts, are summed up in this one command, "Thou shalt love thy fellow man as much as thou lovest thyself."

ROMANS 13:10
10 Love avoids doing any wrong to one's fellow man, and is therefore complete obedience to Law.

ROMANS 13:11
11 Carry out these injunctions because you know the critical period at which we are living, and that it is now high time, to rouse yourselves from
sleep; for salvation is now nearer to us than when we first became believers.

ROMANS 13:12
12 The night is far advanced, and day is about to dawn. We must therefore lay aside the deeds of darkness, and clothe ourselves with the armor of
Light.

ROMANS 13:13
13 Living as we do in broad daylight, let us conduct ourselves becomingly, not indulging in revelry and drunkenness, nor in lust and debauchery,
nor in quarrelling and jealousy.

ROMANS 13:14
14 On the contrary, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for gratifying your earthly cravings.

CHAPTER 14

ROMANS 14:1
1 I now pass to another subject. Receive as a friend a man whose faith is weak, but not for the purpose of deciding mere matters of opinion.

ROMANS 14:2
2 One man's faith allows him to eat anything, while a man of weaker faith eats nothing but vegetables.

ROMANS 14:3
3 Let not him who eats certain food look down upon him who abstains from it, nor him who abstains from it find fault with him who eats it; for God
has received both of them.

ROMANS 14:4
4 Who are you that you should find fault with the servant of another? Whether he stands or falls is a matter which concerns his own master. But
stand he will; for the Master can give him power to stand.

ROMANS 14:5
5 One man esteems one day more highly than another; another esteems all days alike. Let every one be thoroughly convinced in his own mind.

ROMANS 14:6
6 He who regards the day as sacred, so regards it for the Master's sake; and he who eats certain food eats it for the Master's sake, for he gives thanks
to God; and he who refrains from eating it refrains for the Master's sake, and he also gives thanks to God.

ROMANS 14:7
7 For not one of us lives to himself, and not one dies to himself.

ROMANS 14:8
8 If we live, we live to the Lord: if we die, we die to the Lord. So whether we live or die, we belong to the Lord.

ROMANS 14:9
9 For this was the purpose of Christ's dying and coming to life - namely that He might be Lord both of the dead and the living.

ROMANS 14:10
10 But you, why do you find fault with your brother? Or you, why do you look down upon your brother? We shall all stand before God to be
judged;

ROMANS 14:11
11 for it is written, "'As I live,' says the Lord, 'to Me every knee shall bow, and every tongue shall make confession to God.'"

ROMANS 14:12
12 So we see that every one of us will give account of himself to God.

ROMANS 14:13
13 Therefore let us no longer judge one another; but, instead of that, you should come to this judgment - that we must not put a stumbling-block in
our brother's path, nor anything to trip him up.

ROMANS      14:14
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14 As one who lives in union with the Lord Jesus, I know and am certain that in its own nature no food is 'impure'; but if people regard   325
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                                                                                                                                             food as
impure, to them it is.
our brother's path, nor anything to trip him up.

ROMANS 14:14
14 As one who lives in union with the Lord Jesus, I know and am certain that in its own nature no food is 'impure'; but if people regard any food as
impure, to them it is.

ROMANS 14:15
15 If your brother is pained by the food you are eating, your conduct is no longer controlled by love. Take care lest, by the food you eat, you lead to
ruin a man for whom Christ died.

ROMANS 14:16
16 Therefore do not let the boon which is yours in common be exposed to reproach.

ROMANS 14:17
17 For the Kingdom of God does not consist of eating and drinking, but of right conduct, peace and joy, through the Holy Spirit;

ROMANS 14:18
18 and whoever in this way devotedly serves Christ, God takes pleasure in him, and men highly commend him.

ROMANS 14:19
19 Therefore let us aim at whatever makes for peace and mutual upbuilding of character.

ROMANS 14:20
20 Do not for food's sake be throwing down God's work. All food is pure; but a man is in the wrong if his food is a snare to others.

ROMANS 14:21
21 The right course is to forego eating meat or drinking wine or doing anything that tends to your brother's fall.

ROMANS 14:22
22 As for you and your faith, keep your faith to yourself in the presence of God. The man is to be congratulated who does not pronounce judgment
on himself in what his actions sanction.

ROMANS 14:23
23 But he who has misgivings and yet eats meat is condemned already, because his conduct is not based on faith; for all conduct not based on faith is
sinful.

CHAPTER 15

ROMANS 15:1
1 As for us who are strong, our duty is to bear with the weaknesses of those who are not strong, and not seek our own pleasure.

ROMANS 15:2
2 Let each of us endeavor to please his fellow Christian, aiming at a blessing calculated to build him up.

ROMANS 15:3
3 For even the Christ did not seek His own pleasure. His principle was, "The reproaches which they addressed to Thee have fallen on me."

ROMANS 15:4
4 For all that was written of old has been written for our instruction, so that we may always have hope through the power of endurance and the
encouragement which the Scriptures afford.

ROMANS 15:5
5 And may God, the giver of power of endurance and of that encouragement, grant you to be in full sympathy with one another in accordance with
the example of Christ Jesus,

ROMANS 15:6
6 so that with oneness both of heart and voice you may glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.

ROMANS 15:7
7 Habitually therefore give one another a friendly reception, just as Christ also has received you, and thus promote the glory of God.

ROMANS 15:8
8 My meaning is that Christ has become a servant to the people of Israel in vindication of God's truthfulness - in showing how sure are the promises
made to our forefathers -

ROMANS 15:9
9 and that the Gentiles also have glorified God in acknowledgment of His mercy. So it is written, "For this reason I will praise Thee among the
Gentiles, and sing psalms in honor of Thy name."

ROMANS 15:10
10 And again the Psalmist says, "Be glad, ye Gentiles, in company with His People."

ROMANS 15:11
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11         (c) 2005-2009,
   And again,   "Praise theInfobase
                            Lord, allMedia Corp. and let all the people extol Him."
                                     ye Gentiles,                                                                                      Page 326 / 567

ROMANS 15:12
ROMANS 15:10
10 And again the Psalmist says, "Be glad, ye Gentiles, in company with His People."

ROMANS 15:11
11 And again, "Praise the Lord, all ye Gentiles, and let all the people extol Him."

ROMANS 15:12
12 And again Isaiah says, "There shall be the Root of Jesse and One who rises up to rule the Gentiles. On Him shall the Gentiles build their hopes."

ROMANS 15:13
13 May God, the giver of hope, fill you with continual joy and peace because you trust in Him - so that you may have abundant hope through the
power of the Holy Spirit.

ROMANS 15:14
14 But as to you, brethren, I am convinced - yes, I Paul am convinced - that, even apart from my teaching, you are already full of goodness of heart,
and enriched with complete Christian knowledge, and are also competent to instruct one another.

ROMANS 15:15
15 But I write to you the more boldly - partly as reminding you of what you already know - because of the authority graciously entrusted to me by
God,

ROMANS 15:16
16 that I should be a minister of Christ Jesus among the Gentiles, doing priestly duties in connection with God's Good News so that the sacrifice -
namely the Gentiles - may be acceptable to Him, being (as it is) an offering which the Holy Spirit has made holy.

ROMANS 15:17
17 I can therefore glory in Christ Jesus concerning the work for God in which I am engaged.

ROMANS 15:18
18 For I will not presume to mention any of the results that Christ has brought about by other agency than mine in securing the obedience of the
Gentiles by word or deed,

ROMANS 15:19
19 with power manifested in signs and marvels, and through the power of the Holy Spirit. But - to speak simply of my own labors - beginning in
Jerusalem and the outlying districts, I have proclaimed without reserve, even as far as Illyricum, the Good News of the Christ;

ROMANS 15:20
20 making it my ambition, however, not to tell the Good News where Christ's name was already known, for fear I should be building on another
man's foundation.

ROMANS 15:21
21 But, as Scripture says, "Those shall see, to whom no report about Him has hitherto come, and those who until now have not heard shall
understand."

ROMANS 15:22
22 And it is really this which has again and again prevented my coming to you.

ROMANS 15:23
23 But now, as there is no more unoccupied ground in this part of the world, and I have for years past been eager to pay you a visit,

ROMANS 15:24
24 I hope, as soon as ever I extend my travels into Spain, to see you on my way and be helped forward by you on my journey, when I have first
enjoyed being with you for a time.

ROMANS 15:25
25 But at present I am going to Jerusalem to serve God's people,

ROMANS 15:26
26 for Macedonia and Greece have kindly contributed a certain sum in relief of the poor among God's people, in Jerusalem.

ROMANS 15:27
27 Yes, they have kindly done this, and, in fact, it was a debt they owed them. For seeing that the Gentiles have been admitted in to partnership with
the Jews in their spiritual blessings, they in turn are under an obligation to render sacred service to the Jews in temporal things.

ROMANS 15:28
28 So after discharging this duty, and making sure that these kind gifts reach those for whom they are intended, I shall start for Spain, passing
through Rome on my way there;

ROMANS 15:29
29 and I know that when I come to you it will be with a vast amount of blessing from Christ.

ROMANS 15:30
30 But I entreat you, brethren, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love which His Spirit inspires, to help me by wrestling in prayer to
God  on my behalf,
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ROMANS 15:31
31 asking that I may escape unhurt from those in Judaea who are disobedient, and that the service which I am going to Jerusalem to render may be
ROMANS 15:30
30 But I entreat you, brethren, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love which His Spirit inspires, to help me by wrestling in prayer to
God on my behalf,

ROMANS 15:31
31 asking that I may escape unhurt from those in Judaea who are disobedient, and that the service which I am going to Jerusalem to render may be
well received by the Church there,

ROMANS 15:32
32 in order that if God be willing I may come to you with a glad heart, and may enjoy a time of rest with you.

ROMANS 15:33
33 May God, who gives peace be with you all! Amen.

CHAPTER 16

ROMANS 16:1
1 Herewith I introduce our sister Phoebe to you, who is a servant of the Church at Cenchreae,

ROMANS 16:2
2 that you may receive her as a fellow Christian in a manner worthy of God's people, and may assist her in any matter in which she may need help.
For she has indeed been a kind friend to many, including myself.

ROMANS 16:3
3 Greetings to Prisca and Aquila my fellow laborers in the work of Christ Jesus -

ROMANS 16:4
4 friends who have endangered their own lives for mine. I am grateful to them, and not I alone, but all the Gentile Churches also.

ROMANS 16:5
5 Greetings, too, to the Church that meets at their house. Greetings to my dear Epaenetus, who was the earliest convert to Christ in the province of
Asia;

ROMANS 16:6
6 to Mary who has labored strenuously among you;

ROMANS 16:7
7 and to Andronicus and Junia, my countrymen, who once shared my imprisonment. They are of note among the Apostles, and are Christians of
longer standing than myself.

ROMANS 16:8
8 Greetings to Ampliatus, dear to me in the Lord;

ROMANS 16:9
9 to Urban, our fellow laborer in Christ, and to my dear Stachys.

ROMANS 16:10
10 Greetings to Apella, that veteran believer; and to the members of the household of Aristobulus.

ROMANS 16:11
11 Greetings to my countryman, Herodion; and to the believing members of the household of Narcissus.

ROMANS 16:12
12 Greetings to those Christian workers, Tryphaena and Tryphosa; also to dear Persis, who has labored strenuously in the Lord's work.

ROMANS 16:13
13 Greetings to Rufus, who is one of the Lord's chosen people; and to his mother, who has also been a mother to me.

ROMANS 16:14
14 Greetings to Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and to the brethren associated with them;

ROMANS 16:15
15 to Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister and Olympas, and to all God's people associated with them.

ROMANS 16:16
16 Salute one another with a holy kiss. All the Churches of Christ send greetings to you.

ROMANS 16:17
17 But I beseech you, brethren, to keep a watch on those who are causing the divisions among you, and are leading others into sin, in defiance of the
instruction which you have received; and habitually to shun them.

ROMANS 16:18
18 For men of that stamp are not bondservants of Christ our Lord, but are slaves to their own appetites; and by their plausible words and their
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ROMANS 16:19
ROMANS 16:18
18 For men of that stamp are not bondservants of Christ our Lord, but are slaves to their own appetites; and by their plausible words and their
flattery they utterly deceive the minds of the simple.

ROMANS 16:19
19 Your fidelity to the truth is everywhere known. I rejoice over you, therefore, but I wish you to be wise as to what is good, and simple-minded as to
what is evil.

ROMANS 16:20
20 And before long, God the giver of peace will crush Satan under your feet. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you!

ROMANS 16:21
21 Timothy, my fellow worker, sends you greetings, and so do my countrymen Lucius, Jason and Sosipater.

ROMANS 16:22
22 I, Tertius, who write this letter, send you Christian greetings.

ROMANS 16:23
23 Gaius, my host, who is also the host of the whole Church, greets you. So do Erastus, the treasurer of the city, and Quartus our brother.

ROMANS 16:24
24 []

ROMANS 16:25
25 To Him who has it in His power to make you strong, as declared in the Good News which I am spreading, and the proclamation concerning Jesus
Christ, in harmony with the unveiling of the Truth which in the periods of past Ages remained unuttered,

ROMANS 16:26
26 but has now been brought fully to light, and by the command of the God of the Ages has been made known by the writings of the Prophets
among all the Gentiles to win them to obedience to the faith -

ROMANS 16:27
27 to God, the only wise, through Jesus Christ, even to Him be the glory through all the Ages! Amen.


Weymouth 1 CORINTHIANS
Paul's First Letter
To The
Corinthians

The genuineness of the two Letters to the Corinthians has never been seriously disputed. The first was written by the Apostle Paul, probably in the early spring of 56
A.D., just before he left Ephesus for Troas in the course of his third missionary tour (Acts 19). The Church in Corinth had been founded by him during his previous tour
(Acts 18). After some hesitation he had been induced to preach in Corinth, and in spite of the opposition of the Jews such great success attended his efforts that he
remained there for more than eighteen months. The furious attack upon him which was frustrated by Gallio gave impetus to the new cause, so that when the Apostle
left, there was a comparatively strong Church there, consisting mostly of Greeks, but including not a few Jews also. The dangers, however, arising out of the
temperament and circumstances of the Corinthians soon manifested themselves. The city was the capital of Roman Greece, a wealthy commercial center, and the home
of a restless, superficial intellectualism. Exuberant verbosity, selfish display, excesses at the Lord's table, unseemly behavior of women at meetings for worship, and also
abuse of spiritual gifts, were complicated by heathen influences and the corrupting customs of idolatry. Hence the Apostle's pleas, rebukes, and exhortations. Most
noteworthy of all is his forceful treatment of the subject of the Resurrection of Christ; and this only a quarter of a century after the event. Of the Letter mentioned in
5:9we know nothing.

CHAPTER 1

1 CORINTHIANS 1:1
1 Paul, called to be an Apostle of Christ Jesus through the will of God - and our brother Sosthenes:

1 CORINTHIANS 1:2
2 To the Church of God in Corinth, men and women consecrated in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, with all in every place who call on the name of
our Lord Jesus Christ - their Lord as well as ours.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:3
3 May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:4
4 I thank my God continually on your behalf for the grace of God bestowed on you in Christ Jesus -

1 CORINTHIANS 1:5
5 that you have been so richly blessed in Him, with readiness of speech and fullness of knowledge.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:6
6 Thus my testimony as to the Christ has been confirmed in your experience,

1Copyright
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7 so that there is no gift of God in which you consciously come short while patiently waiting for the reappearing of our Lord Jesus Christ,
1 CORINTHIANS 1:6
6 Thus my testimony as to the Christ has been confirmed in your experience,

1 CORINTHIANS 1:7
7 so that there is no gift of God in which you consciously come short while patiently waiting for the reappearing of our Lord Jesus Christ,

1 CORINTHIANS 1:8
8 who will also keep you stedfast to the very End, so that you will be free from reproach on the day of our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:9
9 God is ever true to His promises, and it was by Him that you were, one and all, called into fellowship with his Son Jesus Christ, our Lord.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:10
10 Now I entreat you, brethren, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to cultivate a spirit of harmony - all of you - and that there be no divisions
among you, but rather a perfect union through your having one mind and one judgment.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:11
11 For I have been distinctly informed, my brethren, about you by Chloe's people, that there are dissensions among you.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:12
12 What I mean is that each of you is a partisan. One man says "I belong to Paul;" another "I belong to Apollos;" a third "I belong to Peter;" a fourth
"I belong to Christ."

1 CORINTHIANS 1:13
13 Is the Christ in fragments? Is it Paul who was crucified on your behalf? Or were you baptized to be Paul's adherents?

1 CORINTHIANS 1:14
14 I thank God that I did not baptize any of you except Crispus and Gaius -

1 CORINTHIANS 1:15
15 for fear people should say that you were baptized to be my adherents.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:16
16 I did, however, baptize Stephanas' household also: but I do not think that I baptized any one else.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:17
17 Christ did not send me to baptize, but to proclaim the Good News; and not in merely wise words - lest the Cross of Christ should be deprived of its
power.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:18
18 For the Message of the Cross is foolishness to those who are on the way to perdition, but it is the power of God to those whom He is saving.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:19
19 For so it stands written, "I will exhibit the nothingness of the wisdom of the wise, and the intelligence of the intelligent I will bring to nought."

1 CORINTHIANS 1:20
20 Where is your wise man? Where your expounder of the Law? Where your investigator of the questions of this present age? Has not God shown
the world's wisdom to be utter foolishness?

1 CORINTHIANS 1:21
21 For after the world by its wisdom - as God in His wisdom had ordained - had failed to gain the knowledge of God, God was pleased, by the
apparent foolishness of the Message which we preach, to save those who accepted it.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:22
22 Seeing that Jews demand miracles, and Greeks go in search of wisdom,

1 CORINTHIANS 1:23
23 while we proclaim a Christ who has been crucified - to the Jews a stumbling-block, to Gentiles foolishness,

1 CORINTHIANS 1:24
24 but to those who have received the Call, whether Jews or Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:25
25 Because that which the world deems foolish in God is wiser than men's wisdom, and that which it deems feeble in God is mightier than men's
might.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:26
26 For consider, brethren, God's call to you. Not many who are wise with merely human wisdom, not many of position and influence, not many of
noble birth have been called.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:27
27 But God has chosen the things which the world regards as foolish, in order to put its wise men to shame; and God has chosen the things which the
world regards as destitute of influence, in order to put its powerful things to shame;
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1 CORINTHIANS 1:28
28 and the things which the world regards as base, and those which it sets utterly at nought - things that have no existence - God has chosen in order
1 CORINTHIANS 1:27
27 But God has chosen the things which the world regards as foolish, in order to put its wise men to shame; and God has chosen the things which the
world regards as destitute of influence, in order to put its powerful things to shame;

1 CORINTHIANS 1:28
28 and the things which the world regards as base, and those which it sets utterly at nought - things that have no existence - God has chosen in order
to reduce to nothing things that do exist;

1 CORINTHIANS 1:29
29 to prevent any mortal man from boasting in the presence of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 1:30
30 But you - and it is all God's doing - are in Christ Jesus: He has become for us a wisdom which is from God, consisting of righteousness and
sanctification and deliverance;

1 CORINTHIANS 1:31
31 in order that it may be as Scripture says, "He who boasts - let his boast be in the Lord."

CHAPTER 2

1 CORINTHIANS 2:1
1 And as for myself, brethren, when I came to you, it was not with surpassing power of eloquence or earthly wisdom that I came, announcing to you
that which God had commanded me to bear witness to.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:2
2 For I determined to be utterly ignorant, when among you, of everything except of Jesus Christ, and of Him as having been crucified.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:3
3 And so far as I myself was concerned, I came to you in conscious feebleness and in fear and in deep anxiety.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:4
4 And my language and the Message that I proclaimed were not adorned with persuasive words of earthly wisdom, but depended upon truths which
the Spirit taught and mightily carried home;

1 CORINTHIANS 2:5
5 so that your trust might rest not on the wisdom of man but on the power of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:6
6 Yet when we are among mature believers we do speak words of wisdom; a wisdom not belonging, however, to the present age nor to the leaders of
the present age who are soon to pass away.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:7
7 But in dealing with truths hitherto kept secret we speak of God's wisdom - that hidden wisdom which, before the world began, God pre-destined, so
that it should result in glory to us;

1 CORINTHIANS 2:8
8 a wisdom which not one of the leaders of the present age possesses, for if they had possessed it, they would never have crucified the Lord of glory.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:9
9 But - to use the words of Scripture - we speak of things which eye has not seen nor ear heard, and which have never entered the heart of man: all
that God has in readiness for them that love Him.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:10
10 For us, however, God has drawn aside the veil through the teaching of the Spirit; for the Spirit searches everything, including the depths of the
divine nature.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:11
11 For, among human beings, who knows a man's inner thoughts except the man's own spirit within him? In the same way, also, only God's Spirit is
acquainted with God's inner thoughts.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:12
12 But we have not received the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which comes forth from God, that we may know the blessings that have been so
freely given to us by God.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:13
13 Of these we speak - not in language which man's wisdom teaches us, but in that which the Spirit teaches - adapting, as we do, spiritual words to
spiritual truths.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:14
14 The unspiritual man rejects the things of the Spirit of God, and cannot attain to the knowledge of them, because they are spiritually judged.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:15
15 But the (c)
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1 CORINTHIANS 2:16
16 For who has penetrated the mind of the Lord, and will instruct Him? But we have the mind of Christ.
14 The unspiritual man rejects the things of the Spirit of God, and cannot attain to the knowledge of them, because they are spiritually judged.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:15
15 But the spiritual man judges of everything, although he is himself judged by no one.

1 CORINTHIANS 2:16
16 For who has penetrated the mind of the Lord, and will instruct Him? But we have the mind of Christ.

CHAPTER 3

1 CORINTHIANS 3:1
1 And as for myself, brethren, I found it impossible to speak to you as spiritual men. It had to be as to worldlings - mere babes in Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:2
2 I fed you with milk and not with solid food, since for this you were not yet strong enough. And even now you are not strong enough:

1 CORINTHIANS 3:3
3 you are still unspiritual. For so long as jealousy and strife continue among you, can it be denied that you are unspiritual and are living and acting
like mere men of the world?

1 CORINTHIANS 3:4
4 For when some one says, "I belong to Paul," and another says, "I belong to Apollos," is not this the way men of the world speak?

1 CORINTHIANS 3:5
5 What then is Apollos? And what is Paul? They are just God's servants, through whose efforts, and as the Lord granted power to each, you accepted
the faith.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:6
6 I planted and Apollos watered; but it was God who was, all the time, giving the increase.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:7
7 So that neither the planter nor the waterer is of any importance. God who gives the increase is all in all.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:8
8 Now in aim and purpose the planter and the waterer are one; and yet each will receive his own special reward, answering to his own special work.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:9
9 Apollos and I are simply fellow workers for and with God, and you are God's field - God's building.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:10
10 In discharge of the task which God graciously entrusted to me, I - like a competent master-builder - have laid a foundation, and others are
building upon it. But let every one be careful how and what he builds.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:11
11 For no one can lay any other foundation in addition to that which is already laid, namely Jesus Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:12
12 And whether the building which any one is erecting on that foundation be of gold or silver or costly stones, of timber or hay or straw -

1 CORINTHIANS 3:13
13 the true character of each individual's work will become manifest. For the day of Christ will disclose it, because that day is soon to come upon us
clothed in fire, and as for the quality of every one's work - the fire is the thing which will test it.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:14
14 If any one's work - the building which he has erected - stands the test, he will be rewarded.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:15
15 If any one's work is burnt up, he will suffer the loss of it; yet he will himself be rescued, but only, as it were, by passing through the fire.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:16
16 Do you not know that you are God's Sanctuary, and that the Spirit of God has His home within you?

1 CORINTHIANS 3:17
17 If any one is marring the Sanctuary of God, him will God mar; for the Sanctuary of God is holy, which you all are.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:18
18 Let no one deceive himself. If any man imagines that he is wise, compared with the rest of you, with the wisdom of the present age, let him
become "foolish" so that he may be wise.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:19
19 This world's wisdom is "foolishness" in God's sight; for it is written, "He snares the wise with their own cunning."

1 CORINTHIANS 3:20
20 And again, "The Lord takes knowledge of the reasonings of the wise - how useless they are."
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1 CORINTHIANS 3:21
21 Therefore let no one boast about his human teachers.
1 CORINTHIANS 3:20
20 And again, "The Lord takes knowledge of the reasonings of the wise - how useless they are."

1 CORINTHIANS 3:21
21 Therefore let no one boast about his human teachers.

1 CORINTHIANS 3:22
22 For everything belongs to you - be it Paul or Apollos or Peter, the world or life or death, things present or future - everything belongs to you;

1 CORINTHIANS 3:23
23 and you belong to Christ, and Christ belongs to God.

CHAPTER 4

1 CORINTHIANS 4:1
1 As for us Apostles, let any one take this view of us - we are Christ's officers, and stewards of God's secret truths.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:2
2 This being so, it follows that fidelity is what is required in stewards.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:3
3 I however am very little concerned at undergoing your scrutiny, or that of other men; in fact I do not even scrutinize myself.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:4
4 Though I am not conscious of having been in any way unfaithful, yet I do not for that reason stand acquitted; but He whose scrutiny I must
undergo is the Lord.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:5
5 Therefore form no premature judgments, but wait until the Lord returns. He will both bring to light the secrets of darkness and will openly disclose
the motives that have been in people's hearts; and then the praise which each man deserves will come to him from God.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:6
6 In writing this much, brethren, with special reference to Apollos and myself, I have done so for your sakes, in order to teach you by our example
what those words mean, which say, "Nothing beyond what is written!" - so that you may cease to take sides in boastful rivalry, for one teacher
against another.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:7
7 Why, who gives you your superiority, my brother? Or what have you that you did not receive? And if you really did receive it, why boast as if this
were not so?

1 CORINTHIANS 4:8
8 Every one of you already has all that heart can desire; already you have grown rich; without waiting for us, you have ascended your thrones! Yes
indeed, would to God that you had ascended your thrones, that we also might reign with you!

1 CORINTHIANS 4:9
9 God, it seems to me, has exhibited us Apostles last of all, as men condemned to death; for we have come to be a spectacle to all creation - alike to
angels and to men.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:10
10 We, for Christ's sake, are labeled as "foolish"; you, as Christians, are men of shrewd intelligence. We are mere weaklings: you are strong. You are
in high repute: we are outcasts.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:11
11 To this very moment we endure both hunger and thirst, with scanty clothing and many a blow.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:12
12 Homes we have none. Wearily we toil, working with our own hands. When reviled, we bless; when persecuted, we bear it patiently;

1 CORINTHIANS 4:13
13 when slandered, we try to conciliate. We have come to be regarded as the mere dirt and filth of the world - the refuse of the universe, even to this
hour.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:14
14 I am not writing all this to shame you, but I am offering you advice as my dearly-loved children.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:15
15 For even if you were to have ten thousand spiritual instructors - for all that you could not have several fathers. It is I who in Christ Jesus became
your father through the Good News.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:16
16 I entreat you therefore to become like me.
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1 CORINTHIANS 4:17
17 For this reason I have sent Timothy to you. Spiritually he is my dearly-loved and faithful child. He will remind you of my habits as a Christian
teacher - the manner in which I teach everywhere in every Church.
1 CORINTHIANS 4:16
16 I entreat you therefore to become like me.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:17
17 For this reason I have sent Timothy to you. Spiritually he is my dearly-loved and faithful child. He will remind you of my habits as a Christian
teacher - the manner in which I teach everywhere in every Church.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:18
18 But some of you have been puffed up through getting the idea that I am not coming to Corinth.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:19
19 But, if the Lord is willing, I shall come to you without delay; and then I shall know not the fine speeches of these conceited people, but their power.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:20
20 For Apostolic authority is not a thing of words, but of power.

1 CORINTHIANS 4:21
21 Which shall it be? Shall I come to you with a rod, or in a loving and tender spirit?

CHAPTER 5

1 CORINTHIANS 5:1
1 It is actually reported that there is fornication among you, and of a kind unheard of even among the Gentiles - a man has his father's wife!

1 CORINTHIANS 5:2
2 And you, instead of mourning and removing from among you the man who has done this deed of shame, are filled with self-complacency!

1 CORINTHIANS 5:3
3 I for my part, present with you in spirit although absent in body, have already, as though I were present, judged him who has so acted.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:4
4 In the name of our Lord Jesus, when you are all assembled and my spirit is with you, together with the power of our Lord Jesus,

1 CORINTHIANS 5:5
5 I have handed over such a man to Satan for the destruction of his body, that his spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord Jesus.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:6
6 It is no good thing - this which you make the ground of your boasting. Do you not know that a little yeast corrupts the whole of the dough?

1 CORINTHIANS 5:7
7 Get rid of the old yeast so that you may be dough of a new kind; for in fact you are free from corruption. For our Passover Lamb has already been
offered in sacrifice - even Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:8
8 Therefore let us keep our festival not with old yeast nor with the yeast of what is evil and mischievous, but with bread free from yeast - the bread of
transparent sincerity and of truth.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:9
9 I wrote to you in that letter that you were not to associate with fornicators;

1 CORINTHIANS 5:10
10 not that in this world you are to keep wholly aloof from such as they, any more than from people who are avaricious and greedy of gain, or from
worshippers of idols. For that would mean that you would be compelled to go out of the world altogether.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:11
11 But what I meant was that you were not to associate with any one bearing the name of "brother," if he was addicted to fornication or avarice or
idol-worship or abusive language or hard-drinking or greed of gain. With such a man you ought not even to eat.

1 CORINTHIANS 5:12
12 For what business of mine is it to judge outsiders? Is it not for you to judge those who are within the Church

1 CORINTHIANS 5:13
13 while you leave to God's judgment those who are outside? Remove the wicked man from among you.

CHAPTER 6

1 CORINTHIANS 6:1
1 If one of you has a grievance against an opponent, does he dare to go to law before irreligious men and not before God's people?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:2
2 Do you not know that God's people will sit in judgment upon the world? And if you are the court before which the world is to be judged, are you
unfit to deal with these petty matters?

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1 CORINTHIANS 6:3
3 Do you not know that we are to sit in judgment upon angels - to say nothing of things belonging to this life?
1 CORINTHIANS 6:2
2 Do you not know that God's people will sit in judgment upon the world? And if you are the court before which the world is to be judged, are you
unfit to deal with these petty matters?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:3
3 Do you not know that we are to sit in judgment upon angels - to say nothing of things belonging to this life?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:4
4 If therefore you have things belonging to this life which need to be decided, is it men who are absolutely nothing in the Church - is it they whom
you make your judges?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:5
5 I say this to put you to shame. Has it come to this, that there does not exist among you a single wise man competent to decide between a man and
his brother,

1 CORINTHIANS 6:6
6 but brother goes to law with brother, and that before unbelievers?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:7
7 To say no more, then, it is altogether a defect in you that you have law-suits with one another. Why not rather endure injustice? Why not rather
submit to being defrauded?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:8
8 On the contrary you yourselves inflict injustice and fraud, and upon brethren too.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:9
9 Do you not know that unrighteous men will not inherit God's Kingdom? Cherish no delusion here. Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers,
nor any who are guilty of unnatural crime,

1 CORINTHIANS 6:10
10 nor thieves, nor avaricious people, nor any who are addicted to hard drinking, to abusive language or to greed of gain, will inherit God's
Kingdom.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:11
11 And all this describes what some of you were. But now you have had every stain washed off: now you have been set apart as holy: now you have
been pronounced free from guilt; in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and through the Spirit of our God.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:12
12 Everything is allowable to me, but not everything is profitable. Everything is allowable to me, but to nothing will I become a slave.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:13
13 Food of all kinds is meant for the stomach, and the stomach is meant for food, and God will cause both of them to perish. Yet the body does not
exist for the purpose of fornication, but for the Master's service, and the Master exists for the body;

1 CORINTHIANS 6:14
14 and as God by His power raised the Master to life, so He will also raise us up.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:15
15 Do you not know that your bodies are members of Christ? Shall I then take away the members of Christ and make them the members of a
prostitute? No, indeed.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:16
16 Or do you not know that a man who has to do with a prostitute is one with her in body? For God says, "The two shall become one."

1 CORINTHIANS 6:17
17 But he who is in union with the Master is one with Him in spirit.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:18
18 Flee from fornication. Any other sin that a human being commits lies outside the body; but he who commits fornication sins against his own
body.

1 CORINTHIANS 6:19
19 Or do you not know that your bodies are a sanctuary of the Holy Spirit who is within you - the Spirit whom you have from God?

1 CORINTHIANS 6:20
20 And you are not your own, for you have been redeemed at infinite cost. Therefore glorify God in your bodies.

CHAPTER 7

1 CORINTHIANS 7:1
1 I now deal with the subjects mentioned in your letter. It is well for a man to abstain altogether from marriage.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:2
2 But because there is so much fornication every man should have a wife of his own, and every woman should have a husband.
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1 CORINTHIANS 7:3
3 Let a man pay his wife her due, and let a woman also pay her husband his.
1 CORINTHIANS 7:2
2 But because there is so much fornication every man should have a wife of his own, and every woman should have a husband.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:3
3 Let a man pay his wife her due, and let a woman also pay her husband his.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:4
4 A married woman is not mistress of her own person: her husband has certain rights. In the same way a married man is not master of his own
person: his wife has certain rights.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:5
5 Do not refuse one another, unless perhaps it is just for a time and by mutual consent, so that you may devote yourselves to prayer and may then
associate again; lest the Adversary begin to tempt you because of your deficiency in self-control.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:6
6 Thus much in the way of concession, not of command.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:7
7 Yet I would that everybody lived as I do; but each of us has his own special gift from God - one in one direction and one in another.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:8
8 But I tell the unmarried, and women who are widows, that it is well for them to remain as I am.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:9
9 If, however, they cannot maintain self-control, by all means let them marry; for marriage is better than the fever of passion.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:10
10 But to those already married my instructions are - yet not mine, but the Lord's - that a wife is not to leave her husband;

1 CORINTHIANS 7:11
11 or if she has already left him, let her either remain as she is or be reconciled to him; and that a husband is not to send away his wife.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:12
12 To the rest it is I who speak - not the Lord. If a brother has a wife who is an unbeliever, and she consents to live with him, let him not send her
away.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:13
13 And a woman who has an unbelieving husband - if he consents to live with her, let her not separate from him.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:14
14 For, in such cases, the unbelieving husband has become - and is - holy through union with a Christian woman, and the unbelieving wife is holy
through union with a Christian brother. Otherwise your children would be unholy, but in reality they have a place among God's people.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:15
15 If, however, the unbeliever is determined to leave, let him or her do so. Under such circumstances the Christian man or woman is no slave; God
has called us to live lives of peace.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:16
16 For what assurance have you, O woman, as to whether you will save your husband? Or what assurance have you, O man, as to whether you will
save your wife?

1 CORINTHIANS 7:17
17 Only, whatever be the condition in life which the Lord has assigned to each individual - and whatever the condition in which he was living when
God called him - in that let him continue.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:18
18 This is what I command in all the Churches. Was any one already circumcised when called? Let him not have recourse to the surgeons. Was any
one uncircumcised when called? Let him remain uncircumcised.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:19
19 Circumcision is nothing, and uncircumcision is nothing: obedience to God's commandments is everything.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:20
20 Whatever be the condition in life in which a man was, when he was called, in that let him continue.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:21
21 Were you a slave when God called you? Let not that weigh on your mind. And yet if you can get your freedom, take advantage of the
opportunity.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:22
22 For a Christian, if he was a slave when called, is the Lord's freed man, and in the same way a free man, if called, becomes the slave of Christ.
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1 CORINTHIANS 7:23
23 You have all been redeemed at infinite cost: do not become slaves to men.
1 CORINTHIANS 7:22
22 For a Christian, if he was a slave when called, is the Lord's freed man, and in the same way a free man, if called, becomes the slave of Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:23
23 You have all been redeemed at infinite cost: do not become slaves to men.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:24
24 Where each one stood when he was called, there, brethren, let him still stand - close to God.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:25
25 Concerning unmarried women I have no command to give you from the Lord; but I offer you my opinion, which is that of a man who, through
the Lord's mercy, is deserving of your confidence.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:26
26 I think then that, taking into consideration the distress which is now upon us, it is well for a man to remain as he is.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:27
27 Are you bound to a wife? Do not seek to get free. Are you free from the marriage bond? Do not seek for a wife.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:28
28 Yet if you marry, you have not sinned; and if a maiden marries, she has not sinned. Such people, however, will have outward trouble. But I am for
sparing you.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:29
29 Yet of this I warn you, brethren: the time has been shortened - so that henceforth those who have wives should be as though they had none,

1 CORINTHIANS 7:30
30 those who weep as though they did not weep, those who rejoice as though they did not rejoice, those who buy as though they did not possess,

1 CORINTHIANS 7:31
31 and those who use the world as not using it to the full. For the world as it now exists is passing away.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:32
32 And I would have you free from worldly anxiety. An unmarried man concerns himself with the Lord's business - how he shall please the Lord;

1 CORINTHIANS 7:33
33 but a married man concerns himself with the business of the world - how he shall please his wife.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:34
34 There is a difference too between a married and an unmarried woman. She who is unmarried concerns herself with the Lord's business - that she
may be holy both in body and spirit; but the married woman concerns herself with the business of the world - how she shall please her husband.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:35
35 Thus much I say in your own interest; not to lay a trap for you, but to help towards what is becoming, and enable you to wait on the Lord without
distraction.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:36
36 If, however, a father thinks he is acting unbecomingly towards his still unmarried daughter if she be past the bloom of her youth, and so the
matter is urgent, let him do what she desires; he commits no sin; she and her suitor should be allowed to marry.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:37
37 But if a father stands firm in his resolve, being free from all external constraint and having a legal right to act as he pleases, and in his own mind
has come to the decision to keep his daughter unmarried, he will do well.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:38
38 So that he who gives his daughter in marriage does well, and yet he who does not give her in marriage will do better.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:39
39 A woman is bound to her husband during the whole period that he lives; but if her husband dies, she is at liberty to marry whom she will,
provided that he is a Christian.

1 CORINTHIANS 7:40
40 But in my judgment, her state is a more enviable one if she remains as she is; and I also think that I have the Spirit of God.

CHAPTER 8

1 CORINTHIANS 8:1
1 Now as to things which have been sacrificed to idols. This is a subject which we already understand - because we all have knowledge of it.
Knowledge, however, tends to make people conceited; it is love that builds us up.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:2
2 If any one imagines that he already possesses any true knowledge, he has as yet attained to no knowledge of the kind to which he ought to have
attained;
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1 CORINTHIANS 8:3
3 but if any one loves God, that man is known by God.
1 CORINTHIANS 8:2
2 If any one imagines that he already possesses any true knowledge, he has as yet attained to no knowledge of the kind to which he ought to have
attained;

1 CORINTHIANS 8:3
3 but if any one loves God, that man is known by God.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:4
4 As to eating things which have been sacrificed to idols, we are fully aware that an idol is nothing in the world, and that there is no God but One.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:5
5 For if so-called gods do exist, either in Heaven or on earth - and in fact there are many such gods and many such lords -

1 CORINTHIANS 8:6
6 yet we have but one God, the Father, who is the source of all things and for whose service we exist, and but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom
we and all things exist.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:7
7 But all believers do not recognize these facts. Some, from force of habit in relation to the idol, even now eat idol sacrifices as such, and their
consciences, being but weak, are polluted.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:8
8 It is true that a particular kind of food will not bring us into God's presence; we are neither inferior to others if we abstain from it, nor superior to
them if we eat it.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:9
9 But take care lest this liberty of yours should prove a hindrance to the progress of weak believers.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:10
10 For if any one were to see you, who know the real truth of this matter, reclining at table in an idol's temple, would not his conscience (supposing
him to be a weak believer) be emboldened to eat the food which has been sacrificed to the idol?

1 CORINTHIANS 8:11
11 Why, your knowledge becomes the ruin of the weak believer - your brother, for whom Christ died!

1 CORINTHIANS 8:12
12 Moreover when you thus sin against the brethren and wound their weak consciences, you are, in reality, sinning against Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 8:13
13 Therefore if what I eat causes my brother to fall, never again to the end of my days will I touch any kind of animal food, for fear I should cause
my brother to fall.

CHAPTER 9

1 CORINTHIANS 9:1
1 Am I not free? Am I not an Apostle? Can it be denied that I have seen Jesus, our Lord? Are not you yourselves my work in the Lord?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:2
2 If to other men I am not an Apostle, yet at any rate I am one to you; for your very existence as a Christian Church is the seal of my Apostleship.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:3
3 That is how I vindicate myself to those who criticize me.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:4
4 Have we not a right to claim food and drink?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:5
5 Have we not a right to take with us on our journeys a Christian sister as our wife, as the rest of the Apostles do - and the Lord's brothers and Peter?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:6
6 Or again, is it only Barnabas and myself who are not at liberty to give up working with our hands?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:7
7 What soldier ever serves at his own cost? Who plants a vineyard and yet does not eat any of the grapes? Or who tends a herd of cattle and yet does
not taste their milk?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:8
8 Am I making use of merely worldly illustrations? Does not the Law speak in the same tone?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:9
9 For in the Law of Moses it is written, "Thou shalt not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain."

1 CORINTHIANS 9:10
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                                                                                                                                                is His will
that when a plough-man ploughs, and a thresher threshes, it should be in the hope of sharing that which comes as the result.
9 For in the Law of Moses it is written, "Thou shalt not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain."

1 CORINTHIANS 9:10
10 Is God simply thinking about the oxen? Or is it really in our interest that He speaks? Of course, it was written in our interest, because it is His will
that when a plough-man ploughs, and a thresher threshes, it should be in the hope of sharing that which comes as the result.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:11
11 If it is we who sowed the spiritual grain in you, is it a great thing that we should reap a temporal harvest from you?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:12
12 If other teachers possess that right over you, do not we possess it much more? Yet we have not availed ourselves of the right, but we patiently
endure all things rather than hinder in the least degree the progress of the Good News of the Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:13
13 Do you not know that those who perform the sacred rites have their food from the sacred place, and that those who serve at the altar all alike
share with the altar?

1 CORINTHIANS 9:14
14 In the same way the Lord also directed those who proclaim the Good News to maintain themselves by the Good News.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:15
15 But I, for my part, have not used, and do not use, my full rights in any of these things. Nor do I now write with that object so far as I myself am
concerned, for I would rather die than have anybody make this boast of mine an empty one.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:16
16 If I go on preaching the Good News, that is nothing for me to boast of; for the necessity is imposed upon me; and alas for me, if I fail to preach it!

1 CORINTHIANS 9:17
17 And if I preach willingly, I receive my wages; but if against my will, a stewardship has nevertheless been entrusted to me.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:18
18 What are my wages then? The very fact that the Good News which I preach will cost my hearers nothing, so that I cannot be charged with abuse
of my privileges as a Christian preacher.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:19
19 Though free from all human control, I have made myself the slave of all in the hope of winning as many converts as possible.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:20
20 To the Jews I have become like a Jew in order to win Jews; to men under the Law as if I were under the Law - although I am not - in order to win
those who are under the Law;

1 CORINTHIANS 9:21
21 to men without Law as if I were without Law - although I am not without Law in relation to God but am abiding in Christ's Law - in order to win
those who are without Law.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:22
22 To the weak I have become weak, so as to gain the weak. To all men I have become all things, in the hope that in every one of these ways I may
save some.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:23
23 And I do everything for the sake of the Good News, that I may share with my hearers in its benefits.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:24
24 Do you not know that in the foot-race the runners all run, but that only one gets the prize? You must run like him, in order to win with certainty.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:25
25 But every competitor in an athletic contest practices abstemiousness in all directions. They indeed do this for the sake of securing a perishable
wreath, but we for the sake of securing one that will not perish.

1 CORINTHIANS 9:26
26 That is how I run, not being in any doubt as to my goal. I am a boxer who does not inflict blows on the air,

1 CORINTHIANS 9:27
27 but I hit hard and straight at my own body and lead it off into slavery, lest possibly, after I have been a herald to others, I should myself be
rejected.

CHAPTER 10

1 CORINTHIANS 10:1
1 For I would have you remember, brethren, how our forefathers were all of them sheltered by the cloud, and all got safely through the Red Sea.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:2
2 All were baptized in the cloud and in the sea to be followers of Moses.
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1 CORINTHIANS 10:3
3 All ate the same spiritual food,
1 CORINTHIANS 10:2
2 All were baptized in the cloud and in the sea to be followers of Moses.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:3
3 All ate the same spiritual food,

1 CORINTHIANS 10:4
4 and all drank the same spiritual drink; for they long drank the water that flowed from the spiritual rock that went with them - and that rock was
the Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:5
5 But with most of them God was not well pleased; for they were laid low in the Desert.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:6
6 And in this they became a warning to us, to teach us not to be eager, as they were eager, in pursuit of what is evil.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:7
7 And you must not be worshippers of idols, as some of them were. For it is written, "The People sat down to eat and drink, and stood up to dance."

1 CORINTHIANS 10:8
8 Nor may we be fornicators, like some of them who committed fornication and on a single day 23,000 of them fell dead.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:9
9 And do not let us test the Lord too far, as some of them tested Him and were destroyed by the serpents.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:10
10 And do not be discontented, as some of them were, and they were destroyed by the Destroyer.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:11
11 All this kept happening to them with a figurative meaning; but it was put on record by way of admonition to us upon whom the ends of the Ages
have come.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:12
12 So then let him who thinks he is standing securely beware of falling.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:13
13 No temptation has you in its power but such as is common to human nature; and God is faithful and will not allow you to be tempted beyond
your strength. But, when the temptation comes, He will also provide the way of escape; so that you may be able to bear it.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:14
14 Therefore, my dear friends, avoid all connection with the worship of idols.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:15
15 I speak as to men of sense: judge for yourselves of what I say.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:16
16 The cup of blessing, which we bless, does it not mean a joint-participation in the blood of Christ? The loaf of bread which we break, does it not
mean a joint-participation in the body of Christ?

1 CORINTHIANS 10:17
17 Since there is one loaf, we who are many are one body; we, all of us, share in that one loaf.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:18
18 Look at the Israelites - the nation and their ritual. Are not those who eat the sacrifices joint-partakers in the altar?

1 CORINTHIANS 10:19
19 Do I mean that a thing sacrificed to an idol is what it claims to be, or that an idol is a real thing?

1 CORINTHIANS 10:20
20 No, but that which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to demons, not to God; and I would not have you have fellowship with one another
through the demons.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:21
21 You cannot drink the Lord's cup and the cup of demons: you cannot be joint-partakers both in the table of the Lord and in the table of demons.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:22
22 Or are we actually arousing the Lord to jealousy. Are we stronger than He is?

1 CORINTHIANS 10:23
23 Everything is allowable, but not everything is profitable. Everything is allowable, but everything does not build others up.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:24
24 Let no one
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                                    Media  good, but let each seek that of his fellow man.                                          Page 340 / 567

1 CORINTHIANS 10:25
25 Anything that is for sale in the meat market, eat, and ask no questions for conscience' sake;
23 Everything is allowable, but not everything is profitable. Everything is allowable, but everything does not build others up.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:24
24 Let no one be for ever seeking his own good, but let each seek that of his fellow man.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:25
25 Anything that is for sale in the meat market, eat, and ask no questions for conscience' sake;

1 CORINTHIANS 10:26
26 for the earth is the Lord's, and all that it contains.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:27
27 If an unbeliever gives you an invitation and you are disposed to accept it, eat whatever is put before you, and ask no questions for conscience'
sake.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:28
28 But if any one tells you, "This food has been offered in sacrifice;" abstain from eating it - out of respect for him who warned you, and, as before, for
conscience' sake.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:29
29 But now I mean his conscience, not your own. "Why, on what ground," you may object, "is the question of my liberty of action to be decided by a
conscience not my own?

1 CORINTHIANS 10:30
30 If, so far as I am concerned, I partake with a grateful heart, why am I to be found fault with in regard to a thing for which I give thanks?"

1 CORINTHIANS 10:31
31 Whether, then, you are eating or drinking, or whatever you are doing, let everything be done to the glory of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:32
32 Do not be causes of stumbling either to Jews or to Gentiles, nor to the Church of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 10:33
33 That is the way that I also seek in everything the approval of all men, not aiming at my own profit, but at that of the many, in the hope that they
may be saved.

CHAPTER 11

1 CORINTHIANS 11:1
1 Be imitators of me, in so far as I in turn am an imitator of Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:2
2 Now I commend you for remembering me in everything, and because you hold fast truths and practices precisely as I have taught them to you.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:3
3 I would have you know, however, that of every man, Christ is the Head, that of a woman her husband is the Head, and that God is Christ's Head.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:4
4 A man who wears a veil when praying or prophesying dishonors his Head;

1 CORINTHIANS 11:5
5 but a woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her Head, for it is exactly the same as if she had her hair cut short.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:6
6 If a woman will not wear a veil, let her also cut off her hair. But since it is a dishonor to a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, let her
wear a veil.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:7
7 For a man ought not to have a veil on his head, since he is the image and glory of God; while woman is the glory of man.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:8
8 Man does not take his origin from woman, but woman takes hers from man.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:9
9 For man was not created for woman's sake, but woman for man's.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:10
10 That is why a woman ought to have on her head a symbol of subjection, because of the angels.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:11
11 Yet, in the Lord, woman is not independent of man nor man independent of woman.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:12
12 For just as woman originates from man, so also man comes into existence through woman, but everything springs originally from God.
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1 CORINTHIANS 11:13
13 Judge of this for your own selves: is it seemly for a woman to pray to God when she is unveiled?
1 CORINTHIANS 11:12
12 For just as woman originates from man, so also man comes into existence through woman, but everything springs originally from God.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:13
13 Judge of this for your own selves: is it seemly for a woman to pray to God when she is unveiled?

1 CORINTHIANS 11:14
14 Does not Nature itself teach you that if a man has long hair it is a dishonor to him,

1 CORINTHIANS 11:15
15 but that if a woman has long hair it is her glory, because her hair was given her for a covering?

1 CORINTHIANS 11:16
16 But if any one is inclined to be contentious on the point, we have no such custom, nor have the Churches of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:17
17 But while giving you these instructions, there is one thing I cannot praise - your meeting together, with bad rather than good results.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:18
18 for, in the first place, when you meet as a Church, there are divisions among you. This is what I am told, and I believe that there is some truth in it.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:19
19 For there must of necessity be differences of opinion among you, in order that it may be plainly seen who are the men of sterling worth among
you.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:20
20 When, however, you meet in one place, there is no eating the Supper of the Lord;

1 CORINTHIANS 11:21
21 for it is his own supper of which each of you is in a hurry to partake, and one eats like a hungry man, while another has already drunk to excess.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:22
22 Why, have you no homes in which to eat and drink? Or do you wish to show your contempt for the Church of God and make those who have no
homes feel ashamed? What shall I say to you? Shall I praise you? In this matter I certainly do not praise you.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:23
23 For it was from the Lord that I received the facts which, in turn, I handed on to you; how that the Lord Jesus, on the night He was to be betrayed,
took some bread,

1 CORINTHIANS 11:24
24 and after giving thanks He broke it and said, "This is my body which is about to be broken for you. Do this in memory of me."

1 CORINTHIANS 11:25
25 In the same way, when the meal was over, He also took the cup. "This cup," He said, "is the new Covenant of which my blood is the pledge. Do
this, every time that you drink it, in memory of me."

1 CORINTHIANS 11:26
26 For every time that you eat this bread and drink from the cup, you are proclaiming the Lord's death - until He returns.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:27
27 Whoever, therefore, in an unworthy manner, eats the bread or drinks from the cup of the Lord sins against the body and blood of the Lord.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:28
28 But let a man examine himself, and, having done that, then let him eat the bread and drink from the cup.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:29
29 For any one who eats and drinks, eats and drinks judgment to himself, if he fails to estimate the body aright.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:30
30 That is why many among you are sickly and out of health, and why not a few die.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:31
31 If, however, we estimated ourselves aright, we should not be judged.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:32
32 But when we are judged by the Lord, chastisement follows, to save us from being condemned along with the world.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:33
33 Therefore, brethren, when you come together for this meal, wait for one another.

1 CORINTHIANS 11:34
34 If any one is hungry, let him eat at home; so that your coming together may not lead to judgment. The other matters I will deal with whenever I
come.
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CHAPTER 12
1 CORINTHIANS 11:34
34 If any one is hungry, let him eat at home; so that your coming together may not lead to judgment. The other matters I will deal with whenever I
come.

CHAPTER 12

1 CORINTHIANS 12:1
1 It is important, brethren, that you should have clear knowledge on the subject of spiritual gifts.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:2
2 You know that when you were heathens you went astray after dumb idols, wherever you happened to be led.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:3
3 For this reason I would have you understand that no one speaking under the influence of The Spirit of God ever says, "Jesus is accursed," and that
no one is able to say, "Jesus is Lord," except under the influence of the Holy Spirit.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:4
4 Now there are various kinds of gifts, but there is one and the same Spirit;

1 CORINTHIANS 12:5
5 various forms of official service, and yet one and the same Lord;

1 CORINTHIANS 12:6
6 diversities in work, and yet one and the same God - He who in each person brings about the whole result.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:7
7 But to each of us a manifestation of the Spirit has been granted for the common good.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:8
8 To one the utterance of wisdom has been granted through the Spirit; to another the utterance of knowledge in accordance with the will of the same
Spirit;

1 CORINTHIANS 12:9
9 to a third man, by means of the same Spirit, special faith; to another various gifts of healing, by means of the one Spirit;

1 CORINTHIANS 12:10
10 to another the exercise of miraculous powers; to another the gift of prophecy; to another the power of discriminating between prophetic utterances;
to another varieties of the gift of 'tongues;' to another the interpretation of tongues.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:11
11 But these results are all brought about by one and the same Spirit, who bestows His gifts upon each of us in accordance with His own will.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:12
12 For just as the human body is one and yet has many parts, and all its parts, many as they are, constitute but one body, so it is with the Church of
Christ.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:13
13 For, in fact, in one Spirit all of us - whether we are Jews or Gentiles, slaves or free men - were baptized to form but one body; and we were all
nourished by that one Spirit.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:14
14 For the human body does not consist of one part, but of many.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:15
15 Were the foot to say, "Because I am not a hand I am not a part of the body," that would not make it any the less a part of the body.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:16
16 Or were the ear to say, "Because I am not an eye, I am not a part of the body," that would not make it any the less a part of the body.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:17
17 If the whole body were an eye, where would the hearing be? If the whole body were an ear, where would the nostrils be?

1 CORINTHIANS 12:18
18 But, as a matter of fact, God has arranged the parts in the body - every one of them - as He has seen fit.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:19
19 If they were all one part, where would the body be?

1 CORINTHIANS 12:20
20 But, as a matter of fact, there are many parts and but one body.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:21
 Copyright
21 It is also(c) 2005-2009,
              impossible forInfobase
                              the eye Media
                                      to say Corp.
                                             to the hand, "I do not need you;" or again for the head to say to the feet, "I do not need you."
                                                                                                                                          Page 343 / 567

1 CORINTHIANS 12:22
20 But, as a matter of fact, there are many parts and but one body.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:21
21 It is also impossible for the eye to say to the hand, "I do not need you;" or again for the head to say to the feet, "I do not need you."

1 CORINTHIANS 12:22
22 No, it is quite otherwise. Even those parts of the body which are apparently somewhat feeble are yet indispensable;

1 CORINTHIANS 12:23
23 and those which we deem less honorable we clothe with more abundant honor; and so our ungraceful parts come to have a more abundant grace,
while our graceful parts have everything they need.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:24
24 But it was God who built up the body, and bestowed more abundant honor on the part that felt the need,

1 CORINTHIANS 12:25
25 that there might be no disunion in the body, but that all the members might entertain the same anxious care for one another's welfare.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:26
26 And if one part is suffering, every other part suffers with it; or if one part is receiving special honor, every other part shares in the joy.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:27
27 As for you, you are the body of Christ, and individually you are members of it.

1 CORINTHIANS 12:28
28 And by God's appointment there are in the Church - first Apostles, secondly Prophets, thirdly teachers. Then come miraculous powers, and then
ability to cure diseases or render loving service, or powers of organization, or varieties of the gift of 'tongues.'

1 CORINTHIANS 12:29
29 Are all Apostles? Are all Prophets? Are all teachers?

1 CORINTHIANS 12:30
30 Have all miraculous powers? Have all ability to cure diseases? Do all speak in 'tongues'? Do all interpret?

1 CORINTHIANS 12:31
31 But always seek to excel in the greater gifts. And now I will point out to you a way of life which transcends all others.

CHAPTER 13

1 CORINTHIANS 13:1
1 If I can speak with the tongues of men and of angels, but am destitute of Love, I have but become a loud-sounding trumpet or a clanging cymbal.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:2
2 If I possess the gift of prophecy and am versed in all mysteries and all knowledge, and have such absolute faith that I can remove mountains, but
am destitute of Love, I am nothing.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:3
3 And if I distribute all my possessions to the poor, and give up my body to be burned, but am destitute of Love, it profits me nothing.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:4
4 Love is patient and kind. Love knows neither envy nor jealousy. Love is not forward and self-assertive, nor boastful and conceited.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:5
5 She does not behave unbecomingly, nor seek to aggrandize herself, nor blaze out in passionate anger, nor brood over wrongs.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:6
6 She finds no pleasure in injustice done to others, but joyfully sides with the truth.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:7
7 She knows how to be silent. She is full of trust, full of hope, full of patient endurance.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:8
8 Love never fails. But if there are prophecies, they will be done away with; if there are languages, they will cease; if there is knowledge, it will be
brought to an end.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:9
9 For our knowledge is imperfect, and so is our prophesying;

1 CORINTHIANS 13:10
10 but when the perfect state of things is come, all that is imperfect will be brought to an end.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:11
11 When I was a child, I talked like a child, felt like a child, reasoned like a child: when I became a man, I put from me childish ways.
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1 CORINTHIANS 13:12
12 For the present we see things as if in a mirror, and are puzzled; but then we shall see them face to face. For the present the knowledge I gain is
imperfect; but then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.
1 CORINTHIANS 13:11
11 When I was a child, I talked like a child, felt like a child, reasoned like a child: when I became a man, I put from me childish ways.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:12
12 For the present we see things as if in a mirror, and are puzzled; but then we shall see them face to face. For the present the knowledge I gain is
imperfect; but then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.

1 CORINTHIANS 13:13
13 And so there remain Faith, Hope, Love - these three; and of these the greatest is Love.

CHAPTER 14

1 CORINTHIANS 14:1
1 Be eager in your pursuit of this Love, and be earnestly ambitious for spiritual gifts, but let it be chiefly so in order that you may prophesy.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:2
2 For he who speaks in an unknown tongue is not speaking to men, but to God; for no one understands him. Yet in the Spirit he is speaking secret
truths.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:3
3 But he who prophesies speaks to men words of edification, encouragement and comfort.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:4
4 He who speaks in an unknown tongue does good to himself, but he who prophesies does good to the Church.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:5
5 I should be right glad were you all to speak in 'tongues,' but yet more glad were you all to prophesy. And, in fact, the man who prophesies is
superior to him who speaks in 'tongues,' except when the latter can interpret in order that the Church may get a blessing.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:6
6 But, brethren, as things are, if I come to you speaking in 'tongues,' what benefit shall I confer on you, if the utterance is neither in the form of a
revelation nor of additional knowledge nor of prophecy nor of teaching?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:7
7 Even inanimate things - flutes or harps, for instance - when yielding a sound, if they make no distinction in the notes, how shall the tune which is
played on the flute or the harp be known?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:8
8 If the bugle - to take another example - gives an uncertain sound, who will prepare for battle?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:9
9 And so with you; if with the living voice you fail to utter intelligible words, how will people know what you are saying? You will be talking to the
winds.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:10
10 There are, we will suppose, a great number of languages in the world, and no creature is without a language.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:11
11 If, however, I do not know the meaning of the particular language, I shall seem to the speaker of it, and he to me, to be merely talking some
foreign tongue.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:12
12 Therefore, seeing that you are ambitious for spiritual gifts, seek to excel in them so as to benefit the Church.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:13
13 Therefore let a man who has the gift of tongues pray for the power of interpreting them.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:14
14 For if I pray in an unknown tongue, my spirit prays, but my understanding is barren.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:15
15 How then does the matter stand? I will pray in spirit, and I will pray with my understanding also. I will praise God in spirit, and I will praise Him
with my understanding also.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:16
16 Otherwise, if you bless God in spirit only, how shall he who is in the position of an ungifted man say the 'Amen' to your giving of thanks, when he
does not know what your words mean?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:17
17 Rightly enough you are giving thanks, and yet your neighbor is not benefited.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:18
18 I speak in a tongue, thank God, more than all of you;
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1 CORINTHIANS 14:19
19 but in the Church I would rather speak five words with my understanding - so as to instruct others also - than ten thousand words in an unknown
1 CORINTHIANS 14:18
18 I speak in a tongue, thank God, more than all of you;

1 CORINTHIANS 14:19
19 but in the Church I would rather speak five words with my understanding - so as to instruct others also - than ten thousand words in an unknown
tongue.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:20
20 Brethren, do not prove yourselves to be children in your minds. As regards evil, indeed, be utter babes, but as regards your minds prove
yourselves to be men of ripe years.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:21
21 In the Law it stands written, "'By men of unknown tongues and by the lips of an unknown nation will I speak to this People, but even then they
will not listen to Me', says the Lord."

1 CORINTHIANS 14:22
22 This shows that the gift of tongues is intended as a sign not to those who believe but to unbelievers, but prophecy is intended not for unbelievers
but for those who believe.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:23
23 Accordingly if the whole Church has assembled and all are speaking in 'tongues,' and there come in ungifted men, or unbelievers, will they not
say that you are all mad?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:24
24 If, on the other hand, every one is prophesying and an unbeliever or an ungifted man comes in, he is convicted by all and closely examined by all,

1 CORINTHIANS 14:25
25 and the hidden evils of his heart are brought to light. And, as the result, he will fall on his face and worship God, and will report to others that of a
truth God is among you.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:26
26 What then, brethren? Whenever you assemble, there is not one of you who is not ready either with a song of praise, a sermon, a revelation, a
'tongue,' or an interpretation. Let everything be done with a view to the building up of faith and character.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:27
27 If there is speaking in an unknown tongue, only two or at the most three should speak, and they should do so one at a time, and one should
interpret;

1 CORINTHIANS 14:28
28 or if there is no interpreter, let the man with the gift be silent in the Church, speaking to himself and to God.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:29
29 But if there are Prophets, let two or three speak and let the rest judge.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:30
30 And if anything is revealed to some one else who is seated there, let the first be silent.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:31
31 For you can all prophesy one by one, so that all may learn and all be encouraged:

1 CORINTHIANS 14:32
32 and the spirits of Prophets yield submission to Prophets.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:33
33 For God is not a God of disorder, but of peace, as He is in all the Churches of His people.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:34
34 Let married women be silent in the Churches, for they are not permitted to speak. They must be content with a subordinate place, as the Law also
says;

1 CORINTHIANS 14:35
35 and if they wish to ask questions, they should ask their own husbands at home. For it is disgraceful for a married woman to speak at a Church
assembly.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:36
36 Was it from you that God's Message first went forth, or is it to you only that it has come?

1 CORINTHIANS 14:37
37 If any one deems himself to be a Prophet or a man with spiritual gifts, let him recognize as the Lord's command all that I am now writing to you.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:38
38 But if any one is ignorant, let him be ignorant.
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1 CORINTHIANS 14:39
39 The conclusion, my brethren, is this. Be earnestly ambitious to prophesy, and do not check speaking with tongues;
37 If any one deems himself to be a Prophet or a man with spiritual gifts, let him recognize as the Lord's command all that I am now writing to you.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:38
38 But if any one is ignorant, let him be ignorant.

1 CORINTHIANS 14:39
39 The conclusion, my brethren, is this. Be earnestly ambitious to prophesy, and do not check speaking with tongues;

1 CORINTHIANS 14:40
40 only let everything be done in a becoming and orderly manner.

CHAPTER 15

1 CORINTHIANS 15:1
1 But let me recall to you, brethren, the Good News which I brought you, which you accepted, and on which you are standing,

1 CORINTHIANS 15:2
2 through which also you are obtaining salvation, if you bear in mind the words in which I proclaimed it - unless indeed your faith has been unreal
from the very first.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:3
3 For I repeated to you the all-important fact which also I had been taught, that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:4
4 that He was buried; that He rose to life again on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures,

1 CORINTHIANS 15:5
5 and was seen by Peter, and then by the Twelve.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:6
6 Afterwards He was seen by more than five hundred brethren at once, most of whom are still alive, although some of them have now fallen asleep.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:7
7 Afterwards He was seen by James, and then by all the Apostles.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:8
8 And last of all, as to one of untimely birth, He appeared to me also.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:9
9 For I am the least of the Apostles, and am not fit to be called an Apostle - because I persecuted the Church of God.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:10
10 But what I am I am by the grace of God, and His grace bestowed upon me did not prove ineffectual. But I labored more strenuously than all the
rest - yet it was not I, but God's grace working with me.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:11
11 But whether it is I or they, this is the way we preach and the way that you came to believe.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:12
12 But if Christ is preached as having risen from the dead, how is it that some of you say that there is no such thing as a resurrection of the dead?

1 CORINTHIANS 15:13
13 If there is no such thing as a resurrection of the dead, then Christ Himself has not risen to life.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:14
14 And if Christ has not risen, it follows that what we preach is a delusion, and that your faith also is a delusion.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:15
15 Nay more, we are actually being discovered to be bearing false witness about God, because we have testified that God raised Christ to life, whom
He did not raise, if in reality none of the dead are raised.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:16
16 For if none of the dead are raised to life, then Christ has not risen;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:17
17 and if Christ has not risen, your faith is a vain thing - you are still in your sins.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:18
18 It follows also that those who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:19
19 If in this present life we have a hope resting on Christ, and nothing more, we are more to be pitied than all the rest of the world.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:20
20 But, in reality,
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1 CORINTHIANS 15:21
21 For seeing that death came through man, through man comes also the resurrection of the dead.
19 If in this present life we have a hope resting on Christ, and nothing more, we are more to be pitied than all the rest of the world.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:20
20 But, in reality, Christ has risen from among the dead, being the first to do so of those who are asleep.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:21
21 For seeing that death came through man, through man comes also the resurrection of the dead.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:22
22 For just as through Adam all die, so also through Christ all will be made alive again.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:23
23 But this will happen to each in the right order - Christ having been the first to rise, and afterwards Christ's people rising at His return.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:24
24 Later on, comes the End, when He is to surrender the Kingship to God, the Father, when He shall have overthrown all other government and all
other authority and power.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:25
25 For He must continue King until He shall have put all His enemies under His feet.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:26
26 The last enemy that is to be overthrown is Death;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:27
27 for He will have put all things in subjection under His feet. And when He shall have declared that "All things are in subjection," it will be with the
manifest exception of Him who has reduced them all to subjection to Him.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:28
28 But when the whole universe has been made subject to Him, then the Son Himself will also become subject to Him who has made the universe
subject to Him, in order that GOD may be all in all.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:29
29 Otherwise what will become of those who got themselves baptized for the dead? If the dead do not rise at all, why are these baptized for them?

1 CORINTHIANS 15:30
30 Why also do we Apostles expose ourselves to danger every hour?

1 CORINTHIANS 15:31
31 I protest, brethren, as surely as I glory over you - which I may justly do in Christ Jesus our Lord - that I die day by day.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:32
32 If from merely human motives I have fought with wild beasts in Ephesus, what profit is it to me? If the dead do not rise, let us eat and drink, for
tomorrow we are to die.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:33
33 Do not deceive yourselves: "Evil companionships corrupt good morals."

1 CORINTHIANS 15:34
34 Wake from this drunken fit; live righteous lives, and cease to sin; for some have no knowledge of God: I speak thus in order to move you to shame.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:35
35 But some one will say, "How can the dead rise? And with what kind of body do they come back?"

1 CORINTHIANS 15:36
36 Foolish man! the seed you yourself sow has no life given to it unless it first dies;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:37
37 and as for what you sow, it is not the plant which is to be that you are sowing, but a bare grain, of wheat (it may be) or of something else, and
God gives it a body as He has seen fit,

1 CORINTHIANS 15:38
38 and to each kind of seed a body of its own.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:39
39 All flesh is not the same: there is human flesh, and flesh of cattle, of birds, and of fishes.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:40
40 There are bodies which are celestial and there are bodies which are earthly, but the glory of the celestial ones is one thing, and that of the earthly
ones is another.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:41
41 There is one glory of the sun, another of the moon, and another of the stars; for star differs from star in glory.
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1 CORINTHIANS 15:42
42 It is the same with the resurrection of the dead. The body is sown in a state of decay, it is raised free from decay;
1 CORINTHIANS 15:41
41 There is one glory of the sun, another of the moon, and another of the stars; for star differs from star in glory.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:42
42 It is the same with the resurrection of the dead. The body is sown in a state of decay, it is raised free from decay;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:43
43 it is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory; it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:44
44 an animal body is sown, a spiritual body is raised. As surely as there is an animal body, so there is also a spiritual body.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:45
45 In the same way also it is written, "The first man Adam became a living animal"; the last Adam is a life-giving Spirit.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:46
46 Nevertheless, it is not what is spiritual that came first, but what is animal; what is spiritual came afterwards.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:47
47 The first man is a man of earth, earthy; the second man is from Heaven.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:48
48 What the earthy one is, that also are those who are earthy; and what the heavenly One is, that also are those who are heavenly.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:49
49 And as we have borne a resemblance to the earthy one, let us see to it that we also bear a resemblance to the heavenly One.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:50
50 But this I tell you, brethren: our mortal bodies cannot inherit the Kingdom of God, nor will what is perishable inherit what is imperishable.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:51
51 I tell you a truth hitherto kept secret: we shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed,

1 CORINTHIANS 15:52
52 in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the sounding of the last trumpet; for the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised incapable of
decay, and we shall be changed.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:53
53 For so it must be: this perishable nature must clothe itself with what is imperishable, and this mortality must clothe itself with immortality.

1 CORINTHIANS 15:54
54 But when this perishable nature has put on what is imperishable, and this mortality has put on immortality, then will the words of Scripture be
fulfilled, "Death has been swallowed up in victory."

1 CORINTHIANS 15:55
55 "Where, O death, is thy victory? Where, O death, is thy sting?"

1 CORINTHIANS 15:56
56 Now sin is the sting of death, and sin derives its power from the Law;

1 CORINTHIANS 15:57
57 but God be thanked who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ!

1 CORINTHIANS 15:58
58 Therefore, my dear brethren, be firm, unmovable, busily occupied at all times in the Lord's work, knowing that your toil is not fruitless in the
Lord.

CHAPTER 16

1 CORINTHIANS 16:1
1 As to the collection for God's people, what I have directed the Churches of Galatia to do, you must do also.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:2
2 On the first day of every week let each of you put on one side and store up at his home whatever gain has been granted to him; so that whenever I
come, there may then be no collections going on.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:3
3 And when I am with you, whatever brethren you accredit by letter I will send to carry your kind gift to Jerusalem.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:4
4 And if it is worth while for me also to make the journey, they shall go as my companions.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:5
5Copyright
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                                     through Macedonia; for my plan will be to pass through Macedonia;
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1 CORINTHIANS 16:6
6 and I shall make some stay with you perhaps, or even spend the winter with you, in order that you may help me forward, whichever way I travel.
4 And if it is worth while for me also to make the journey, they shall go as my companions.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:5
5 I shall come to you after passing through Macedonia; for my plan will be to pass through Macedonia;

1 CORINTHIANS 16:6
6 and I shall make some stay with you perhaps, or even spend the winter with you, in order that you may help me forward, whichever way I travel.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:7
7 For I do not wish to see you on this occasion merely in passing; but if the Lord permits, I hope to remain some time with you.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:8
8 I shall remain in Ephesus, however, until the time of the Harvest Festival,

1 CORINTHIANS 16:9
9 for a wide door stands open before me which demands great efforts, and we have many opponents.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:10
10 If Timothy pays you a visit, see that he is free from fear in his relations with you; for he is engaged in the Master's work just as I am.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:11
11 Therefore let no one slight him, but all of you should help him forward in peace to join me; for I am waiting for him and others of the brethren.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:12
12 As for our brother Apollos, I have repeatedly urged him to accompany the brethren who are coming to you: but he is quite resolved not to do so at
present. He will come, however, when he has a good opportunity.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:13
13 Be on the alert; stand firm in the faith; acquit yourselves like men; be strong.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:14
14 Let all that you do be done from motives of love.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:15
15 And I beseech you, brethren - you know the household of Stephanas, how they were the earliest Greek converts to Christ, and have devoted
themselves to the service of God's people -

1 CORINTHIANS 16:16
16 I beseech you, on your part, to show deference to such men, and to every one who participates in their work and toils hard.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:17
17 It is a joy to me that Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus have now arrived, because what was wanting so far as you are concerned they have
supplied.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:18
18 They have refreshed my spirit, and yours. Acknowledge such men as these.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:19
19 The Churches in the province of Asia send you greetings; and Aquila and Prisca, in hearty Christian love, do the same, together with the Church
which meets at their house.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:20
20 The brethren all send greetings to you. Greet one another with a holy kiss.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:21
21 The final greeting of me - Paul - with my own hand.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:22
22 If any one is destitute of love to the Lord, let him be accursed. Our Lord Is Coming.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:23
23 The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you.

1 CORINTHIANS 16:24
24 My love in Christ Jesus be with you all.


Weymouth 2 CORINTHIANS
Paul's Second Letter
To The
Corinthians

The second Letter to the Corinthians was probably written in the autumn of 56 A.D., the first Letter to them having been sent in the spring of that year. But there are
other  letters(c)
 Copyright     of which we have
                  2005-2009,     no clearMedia
                              Infobase    account. One, lost to us, evidently preceded the first Letter (1 Corinthians 5:9). In our "second" Letter we find mention (2:2,4)
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of a severe communication which could not but give pain. Can this have been our "first" to the Corinthians? Some think not, in which case there must have been an
"intermediate" letter. This some students find in 2 Corinthians 10 1-8:10. If so, there must have been four letters. Some have thought that in 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1, and
8, 9, yet another is embedded, making possibly five in all. The reader must form his own conclusions, inasmuch as the evidence is almost entirely internal. On the whole
Corinthians

The second Letter to the Corinthians was probably written in the autumn of 56 A.D., the first Letter to them having been sent in the spring of that year. But there are
other letters of which we have no clear account. One, lost to us, evidently preceded the first Letter (1 Corinthians 5:9). In our "second" Letter we find mention (2:2,4)
of a severe communication which could not but give pain. Can this have been our "first" to the Corinthians? Some think not, in which case there must have been an
"intermediate" letter. This some students find in 2 Corinthians 10 1-8:10. If so, there must have been four letters. Some have thought that in 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1, and
8, 9, yet another is embedded, making possibly five in all. The reader must form his own conclusions, inasmuch as the evidence is almost entirely internal. On the whole
it would seem that our first Letter, conveyed by Titus, had produced a good effect in the Corinthian Church, but that this wore off, and that Titus returned to the
Apostle in Ephesus with such disquieting news that a visit of Paul just then to Corinth would have been very embarrassing, alike for the Church and the Apostle. Hence,
instead of going, he writes a "painful" letter and sends it by the same messenger, proceeding himself to Troas and thence to Macedonia, where, in great tension of spirit,
he awaits the return of Titus. At last there comes a reassuring account, the relief derived from which is so great that our second Letter is written, with the double
purpose of comforting those who had been so sharply rebuked and of preventing the recurrence of the evils which had called forth the remonstrance. In this way both
the tenderness and the severity of the present Letter may be explained.

CHAPTER 1

2 CORINTHIANS 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God - and our brother Timothy: To the Church of God in Corinth, with all God's people throughout
Greece.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:2
2 May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:3
3 Heartfelt thanks be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ - the Father who is full of compassion and the God who gives all comfort.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:4
4 He comforts us in our every affliction so that we may be able to comfort those who are in any kind of affliction by means of the comfort with which
we ourselves are comforted by God.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:5
5 For just as we have more than our share of suffering for the Christ, so also through the Christ we have more than our share of comfort.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:6
6 But if, on the one hand, we are enduring affliction, it is for your comfort and salvation; and if, on the other hand, we are receiving comfort, it is for
your comfort which is produced within you through your patient fortitude under the same sufferings as those which we also are enduring.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:7
7 And our hope for you is stedfast; for we know that as you are partners with us in the sufferings, so you are also partners in the comfort.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:8
8 For as for our troubles which came upon us in the province of Asia, we would have you know, brethren, that we were exceedingly weighed down,
and felt overwhelmed, so that we renounced all hope even of life.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:9
9 Nay, we had, as we still have, the sentence of death within our own selves, in order that our confidence may repose, not on ourselves, but on God
who raised the dead to life.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:10
10 He it is who rescued us from so imminent a death, and will do so again; and we have a firm hope in Him that He will also rescue us in all the
future,

2 CORINTHIANS 1:11
11 while you on your part lend us your aid in entreaty for us, so that from many lips thanksgivings may rise on our behalf for the boon granted to us
at the intercession of many.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:12
12 For the reason for our boasting is this - the testimony of our own conscience that it was in holiness and with pure motives before God, and in
reliance not on worldly wisdom but on the gracious help of God, that we have conducted ourselves in the world, and above all in our relations with
you.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:13
13 For we are writing to you nothing different from what we have written before, or from what indeed you already recognize as truth and will, I
trust, recognize as such to the very end;

2 CORINTHIANS 1:14
14 just as some few of you have recognized us as your reason for boasting, even as you will be ours, on the day of Jesus our Lord.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:15
15 It was because I entertained this confidence that I intended to visit you before going elsewhere - so that you might receive a twofold proof of God's
favor -

2 CORINTHIANS 1:16
16 and to pass by way of Corinth into Macedonia. Then my plan was to return from Macedonia to you, and be helped forward by you to Judaea.
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2 CORINTHIANS 1:17
17 Did I display any vacillation or caprice in this? Or the purposes which I form - do I form them on worldly principles, now crying "Yes, yes," and
2 CORINTHIANS 1:16
16 and to pass by way of Corinth into Macedonia. Then my plan was to return from Macedonia to you, and be helped forward by you to Judaea.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:17
17 Did I display any vacillation or caprice in this? Or the purposes which I form - do I form them on worldly principles, now crying "Yes, yes," and
now "No, no"?

2 CORINTHIANS 1:18
18 As certainly as God is faithful, our language to you is not now "Yes" and now "No."

2 CORINTHIANS 1:19
19 For Jesus Christ the Son of God - He who was proclaimed among you by us, that is by Silas and Timothy and myself - did not show Himself a
waverer between "Yes" and "No." But it was and always is "Yes" with Him.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:20
20 For all the promises of God, whatever their number, have their confirmation in Him; and for this reason through Him also our "Amen"
acknowledges their truth and promotes the glory of God through our faith.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:21
21 But He who is making us as well as you stedfast through union with the Anointed One, and has anointed us, is God,

2 CORINTHIANS 1:22
22 and He has also set His seal upon us, and has put His Spirit into our hearts as a pledge and foretaste of future blessing.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:23
23 But as for me, as my soul shall answer for it, I appeal to God as my witness, that it was to spare you pain that I gave up my visit to Corinth.

2 CORINTHIANS 1:24
24 Not that we want to lord it over you in respect of your faith - we do, however, desire to help your joy - for in the matter of your faith you are
standing firm.

CHAPTER 2

2 CORINTHIANS 2:1
1 But, so far as I am concerned, I have resolved not to have a painful visit the next time I come to see you.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:2
2 For if I of all men give you pain, who then is there to gladden my heart, but the very persons to whom I give pain?

2 CORINTHIANS 2:3
3 And I write this to you in order that when I come I may not receive pain from those who ought to give me joy, confident as I am as to all of you that
my joy is the joy of you all.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:4
4 For with many tears I write to you, and in deep suffering and depression of spirit, not in order to grieve you, but in the hope of showing you how
brimful my heart is with love for you.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:5
5 Now if any one has caused sorrow, it has been caused not so much to me, as in some degree - for I have no wish to exaggerate - to all of you.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:6
6 In the case of such a person the punishment which was inflicted by the majority of you is enough.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:7
7 So that you may now take the opposite course, and forgive him rather and comfort him, for fear he should perhaps be driven to despair by his
excess of grief.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:8
8 I beg you therefore fully to reinstate him in your love.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:9
9 For in writing to you I have also this object in view - to discover by experience whether you are prepared to be obedient in every respect.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:10
10 When you forgive a man an offense I also forgive it; for in fact what I have forgiven, if I have forgiven anything, has always been for your sakes in
the presence of Christ,

2 CORINTHIANS 2:11
11 for fear Satan should gain an advantage over us. For we are not ignorant of his devices.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:12
12 Now when I came into the Troad to spread there the Good News about the Christ, even though in the Lord's providence a door stood open before
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me,

2 CORINTHIANS 2:13
2 CORINTHIANS 2:12
12 Now when I came into the Troad to spread there the Good News about the Christ, even though in the Lord's providence a door stood open before
me,

2 CORINTHIANS 2:13
13 yet, obtaining no relief for my spirit because I did not find our brother Titus, I bade them farewell and went on into Macedonia.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:14
14 But to God be the thanks who in Christ ever heads our triumphal procession, and by our hands waves in every place that sweet incense, the
knowledge of Him.

2 CORINTHIANS 2:15
15 For we are a fragrance of Christ grateful to God in those whom He is saving and in those who are perishing;

2 CORINTHIANS 2:16
16 to the last-named an odor of death predictive of death, and to the others an odor of life predictive of life. And for such service as this who is
competent?

2 CORINTHIANS 2:17
17 We are; for, unlike most teachers, we are not fraudulent hucksters of God's Message; but with transparent motives, as commissioned by God, in
God's presence and in communion with Christ, so we speak.

CHAPTER 3

2 CORINTHIANS 3:1
1 Do you say that this is self-recommendation once more? Or do we need, as some do, letters of recommendation to you or from you?

2 CORINTHIANS 3:2
2 Our letter of recommendation is yourselves - a letter written on our hearts and everywhere known and read.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:3
3 For all can see that you are a letter of Christ entrusted to our care, and written not with ink, but with the Spirit of the ever-living God - and not on
tablets of stone, but on human hearts as tablets.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:4
4 Such is the confidence which we have through Christ in the presence of God;

2 CORINTHIANS 3:5
5 not that of ourselves we are competent to decide anything by our own reasonings, but our competency comes from God.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:6
6 It is He also who has made us competent to serve Him in connection with a new Covenant, which is not a written code but a Spirit; for the written
code inflicts death, but the Spirit gives Life.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:7
7 If, however, the service that proclaims death - its code being engraved in writing upon stones - came with glory, so that the children of Israel could
not look steadily on the face of Moses because of the brightness of his face - a vanishing brightness;

2 CORINTHIANS 3:8
8 will not the service of the Spirit be far more glorious?

2 CORINTHIANS 3:9
9 For if the service which pronounces doom had glory, far more glorious still is the service which tells of righteousness.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:10
10 For, in fact, that which was once resplendent in glory has no glory at all in this respect, that it pales before the glory which surpasses it.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:11
11 For if that which was to be abolished came with glory, much more is that which is permanent arrayed in glory.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:12
12 Therefore, cherishing a hope like this, we speak without reserve, and we do not imitate Moses,

2 CORINTHIANS 3:13
13 who used to throw a veil over his face to hide from the gaze of the children of Israel the passing away of what was but transitory.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:14
14 Nay, their minds were made dull; for to this very day during the reading of the book of the ancient Covenant, the same veil remains unlifted,
because it is only in Christ that it is to be abolished.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:15
15 Yes, to this day, whenever Moses is read, a veil lies upon their hearts.
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2 CORINTHIANS 3:16
16 But whenever the heart of the nation shall have returned to the Lord, the veil will be withdrawn.
2 CORINTHIANS 3:15
15 Yes, to this day, whenever Moses is read, a veil lies upon their hearts.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:16
16 But whenever the heart of the nation shall have returned to the Lord, the veil will be withdrawn.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:17
17 Now by "the Lord" is meant the Spirit; and where the Spirit of the Lord is, freedom is enjoyed.

2 CORINTHIANS 3:18
18 And all of us, with unveiled faces, reflecting like bright mirrors the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same likeness, from one
degree of radiant holiness to another, even as derived from the Lord the Spirit.

CHAPTER 4

2 CORINTHIANS 4:1
1 Therefore, being engaged in this service and being mindful of the mercy which has been shown us, we are not cowards.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:2
2 Nay, we have renounced the secrecy which marks a feeling of shame. We practice no cunning tricks, nor do we adulterate God's Message. But by a
full clear statement of the truth we strive to commend ourselves in the presence of God to every human conscience.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:3
3 If, however, the meaning of our Good News has been veiled, the veil has been on the hearts of those who are on the way to perdition,

2 CORINTHIANS 4:4
4 in whom the god of this present age has blinded their unbelieving minds so as to shut out the sunshine of the Good News of the glory of the Christ,
who is the image of God.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:5
5 (For we do not proclaim ourselves, but we proclaim Christ Jesus as Lord, and ourselves as your bondservants for the sake of Jesus.)

2 CORINTHIANS 4:6
6 For God who said, "Out of darkness let light shine," is He who has shone in our hearts to give us the light of the knowledge of God's glory, which is
radiant on the face of Christ.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:7
7 But we have this treasure in a fragile vase of clay, in order that the surpassing greatness of the power may be seen to belong to God, and not to
originate in us.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:8
8 We are hard pressed, yet never in absolute distress; perplexed, yet never utterly baffled;

2 CORINTHIANS 4:9
9 pursued, yet never left unsuccored; struck to the ground, yet never slain;

2 CORINTHIANS 4:10
10 always, wherever we go, carrying with us in our bodies the putting to death of Jesus, so that in our bodies it may also be clearly shown that Jesus
lives.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:11
11 For we, alive though we are, are continually surrendering ourselves to death for the sake of Jesus, so that in this mortal nature of ours it may also
be clearly shown that Jesus lives.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:12
12 Thus we are constantly dying, while you are in full enjoyment of Life.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:13
13 But possessing the same Spirit of faith as he who wrote, "I believed, and therefore I have spoken," we also believe, and therefore we speak.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:14
14 For we know that He who raised the Lord Jesus from the dead will raise us also to be with Jesus, and will cause both us and you to stand in His
own presence.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:15
15 For everything is for your sakes, in order that grace, being more richly bestowed because of the thanksgivings of the increased number, may more
and more promote the glory of God.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:16
16 Therefore we are not cowards. Nay, even though our outward man is wasting away, yet our inward man is being renewed day by day.

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17 For this our light and transitory burden of suffering is achieving for us a preponderating, yes, a vastly preponderating, and eternal   354of/ 567
                                                                                                                                         weight
glory;
2 CORINTHIANS 4:16
16 Therefore we are not cowards. Nay, even though our outward man is wasting away, yet our inward man is being renewed day by day.

2 CORINTHIANS 4:17
17 For this our light and transitory burden of suffering is achieving for us a preponderating, yes, a vastly preponderating, and eternal weight of
glory;

2 CORINTHIANS 4:18
18 while we look not at things seen, but things unseen; for things seen are temporary, but things unseen are eternal.

CHAPTER 5

2 CORINTHIANS 5:1
1 For we know that if this poor tent, our earthly house, is taken down, we have in Heaven a building which God has provided, a house not built by
human hands, but eternal.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:2
2 For in this one we sigh, because we long to put on over it our dwelling which comes from Heaven -

2 CORINTHIANS 5:3
3 if indeed having really put on a robe we shall not be found to be unclothed.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:4
4 Yes, we who are in this tent certainly do sigh under our burdens, for we do not wish to lay aside that with which we are now clothed, but to put on
more, so that our mortality may be absorbed in Life.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:5
5 And He who formed us with this very end in view is God, who has given us His Spirit as a pledge and foretaste of that bliss.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:6
6 We have therefore a cheerful confidence. We know that while we are at home in the body we are banished from the Lord;

2 CORINTHIANS 5:7
7 for we are living a life of faith, and not one of sight.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:8
8 So we have a cheerful confidence, and we anticipate with greater delight being banished from the body and going home to the Lord.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:9
9 And for this reason also we make it our ambition, whether at home or in exile, to please Him perfectly.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:10
10 For we must all of us appear before Christ's judgment-seat in our true characters, in order that each may then receive an award for his actions in
this life, in accordance with what he has done, whether it be good or whether it be worthless.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:11
11 Therefore, because we realize how greatly the Lord is to be feared, we are endeavoring to win men over, and God recognizes what our motives
are, and I hope that you, in your hearts, recognize them too.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:12
12 We are not again commending ourselves to your favor, but are furnishing you with a ground of boasting on our behalf, so that you may have a
reply ready for those with whom superficial appearances are everything and sincerity of heart counts for nothing.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:13
13 For if we have been beside ourselves, it has been for God's glory; or if we are now in our right senses, it is in order to be of service to you.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:14
14 For the love of Christ overmasters us, the conclusion at which we have arrived being this - that One having died for all, His death was their death,

2 CORINTHIANS 5:15
15 and that He died for all in order that the living may no longer live to themselves, but to Him who died for them and rose again.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:16
16 Therefore for the future we know no one simply as a man. Even if we have known Christ as a man, yet now we do so no longer.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:17
17 So that if any one is in Christ, he is a new creature: the old state of things has passed away; a new state of things has come into existence.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:18
18 And all this is from God, who has reconciled us to Himself through Christ, and has appointed us to serve in the ministry of reconciliation.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:19
19 We are to tell how God was in Christ reconciling the world to Himself, not charging men's transgressions to their account, and that He has
entrusted to us the Message of this reconciliation.
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2 CORINTHIANS 5:20
20 On Christ's behalf therefore we come as ambassadors, God, as it were, making entreaty through our lips: we, on Christ's behalf, beseech men to be
2 CORINTHIANS 5:19
19 We are to tell how God was in Christ reconciling the world to Himself, not charging men's transgressions to their account, and that He has
entrusted to us the Message of this reconciliation.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:20
20 On Christ's behalf therefore we come as ambassadors, God, as it were, making entreaty through our lips: we, on Christ's behalf, beseech men to be
reconciled to God.

2 CORINTHIANS 5:21
21 He has made Him who knew nothing of sin to be sin for us, in order that in Him we may become the righteousness of God.

CHAPTER 6

2 CORINTHIANS 6:1
1 And you also we, as God's fellow workers, entreat not to be found to have received His grace to no purpose.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:2
2 For He says, "At a time of welcome I have listened to you, and on a day of salvation I have succored you." Now is the time of loving welcome! Now
is the day of salvation!

2 CORINTHIANS 6:3
3 We endeavor to give people no cause for stumbling in anything, lest the work we are doing should fall into discredit.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:4
4 On the contrary, as God's servants, we seek their full approval - by unwearied endurance, by afflictions, by distress, by helplessness;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:5
5 by floggings, by imprisonments; by facing riots, by toil, by sleepless watching, by hunger and thirst;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:6
6 by purity of life, by knowledge, by patience, by kindness, by the Holy Spirit, by sincere love;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:7
7 by the proclamation of the truth, by the power of God; by the weapons of righteousness, wielded in both hands;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:8
8 through honor and ignominy, through calumny and praise. We are looked upon as impostors and yet are true men;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:9
9 as obscure persons, and yet are well known; as on the point of death, and yet, strange to tell, we live; as under God's discipline, and yet we are not
deprived of life;

2 CORINTHIANS 6:10
10 as sad, but we are always joyful; as poor, but we bestow wealth on many; as having nothing, and yet we securely possess all things.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:11
11 O Corinthians, our lips are unsealed to you: our heart is expanded.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:12
12 There is no narrowness in our love to you: the narrowness is in your own feelings.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:13
13 And in just requital - I speak as to my children - let your hearts expand also.

2 CORINTHIANS 6:14
14 Do not come into close association with unbelievers, like oxen yoked with asses. For what is there in common between righteousness and
lawlessness? Or what partnership has light with darkness?

2 CORINTHIANS 6:15
15 Where can harmony between Christ and Belial be found? Or what participation has a believer with an unbeliever?

2 CORINTHIANS 6:16
16 And what compact has the Temple of God with idols? For we are the Temple of the ever-living God; as God has said, "I will dwell among them,
and walk about among them; and will be their God, and it is they who shall be My people."

2 CORINTHIANS 6:17
17 Therefore, "'Come out from among them and separate yourselves,' says the Lord, 'and touch nothing impure; and I will receive you, and will be a
Father to you,

2 CORINTHIANS 6:18
18 and you shall be My sons and daughters,' says the Lord the Ruler of all."

CHAPTER        7
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2 CORINTHIANS 7:1
1 Having therefore these promises, beloved friends, let us purify ourselves from all defilement of body and of spirit, and secure perfect holiness
18 and you shall be My sons and daughters,' says the Lord the Ruler of all."

CHAPTER 7

2 CORINTHIANS 7:1
1 Having therefore these promises, beloved friends, let us purify ourselves from all defilement of body and of spirit, and secure perfect holiness
through the fear of God.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:2
2 Make room for us in your hearts. There is not one of you whom we have wronged, not one to whom we have done harm, not one over whom we
have gained any selfish advantage.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:3
3 I do not say this to imply blame, for, as I have already said, you have such a place in our hearts that we would die with you or live with you.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:4
4 I have great confidence in you: very loudly do I boast of you. I am filled with comfort: my heart overflows with joy amid all our affliction.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:5
5 For even after our arrival in Macedonia we could get no relief such as human nature craves. We were greatly harassed; there were conflicts without
and fears within.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:6
6 But He who comforts the depressed - even God - comforted us by the coming of Titus, and not by his coming only,

2 CORINTHIANS 7:7
7 but also by the fact that he had felt comforted on your account, and by the report which he brought of your eager affection, of your grief, and of
your jealousy on my behalf, so that I rejoiced more than ever.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:8
8 For if I gave you pain by that letter, I do not regret it, though I did regret it then. I see that that letter, even though for a time it gave you pain, had
a salutary effect.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:9
9 Now I rejoice, not in your grief, but because the grief led to repentance; for you sorrowed with a godly sorrow, which prevented you from receiving
injury from us in any respect.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:10
10 For godly sorrow produces repentance leading to salvation, a repentance not to be regretted; but the sorrow of the world finally produces death.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:11
11 For mark the effects of this very thing - your having sorrowed with a godly sorrow - what earnestness it has called forth in you, what eagerness to
clear yourselves, what indignation, what alarm, what longing affection, what jealousy, what meting out of justice! You have completely wiped away
reproach from yourselves in the matter.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:12
12 Therefore, though I wrote to you, it was not to punish the offender, nor to secure justice for him who had suffered the wrong, but it was chiefly in
order that your earnest feeling on our behalf might become manifest to yourselves in the sight of God.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:13
13 For this reason we feel comforted; and - in addition to this our comfort - we have been filled with all the deeper joy at Titus's joy, because his spirit
has been set at rest by you all.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:14
14 For however I may have boasted to him about you, I have no reason to feel ashamed; but as we have in all respects spoken the truth to you, so also
our boasting to Titus about you has turned out to be the truth.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:15
15 And his strong and tender affection is all the more drawn out towards you when he recalls to mind the obedience which all of you manifested by
the timidity and nervous anxiety with which you welcomed him.

2 CORINTHIANS 7:16
16 I rejoice that I have absolute confidence in you.

CHAPTER 8

2 CORINTHIANS 8:1
1 But we desire to let you know, brethren, of the grace of God which has been bestowed on the Churches of Macedonia;

2 CORINTHIANS 8:2
2 how, while passing through great trouble, their boundless joy even amid their deep poverty has overflowed to increase their generous liberality.

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3 For I can testify that to the utmost of their power, and even beyond their power, they have of their own free will given help.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:4
2 CORINTHIANS 8:2
2 how, while passing through great trouble, their boundless joy even amid their deep poverty has overflowed to increase their generous liberality.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:3
3 For I can testify that to the utmost of their power, and even beyond their power, they have of their own free will given help.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:4
4 With earnest entreaty they begged from us the favor of being allowed to share in the service now being rendered to God's people.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:5
5 They not only did this, as we had expected, but first of all in obedience to God's will they gave their own selves to the Lord and to us.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:6
6 This led us to urge Titus that, as he had previously been the one who commenced the work, so he should now go and complete among you this act
of beneficence also.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:7
7 Yes, just as you are already very rich in faith, readiness of speech, knowledge, unwearied zeal, and in the love that is in you, implanted by us, see to
it that this grace of liberal giving also flourishes in you.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:8
8 I am not saying this by way of command, but to test by the standard of other men's earnestness the genuineness of your love also.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:9
9 For you know the condescending goodness of our Lord Jesus Christ - how for your sakes He became poor, though He was rich, in order that you
through His poverty might grow rich.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:10
10 But in this matter I give you an opinion; for my doing this helps forward your own intentions, seeing that not only have you begun operations,
but a year ago you already had the desire to do so.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:11
11 And now complete the doing also, in order that, just as there was then the eagerness in desiring, there may now be the accomplishment in
proportion to your means.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:12
12 For, assuming the earnest willingness, the gift is acceptable according to whatever a man has, and not according to what he has not.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:13
13 I do not urge you to give in order that others may have relief while you are unduly pressed,

2 CORINTHIANS 8:14
14 but that, by equalization of burdens, your superfluity having in the present emergency supplied their deficiency, their superfluity may in turn be
a supply for your deficiency later on, so that there may be equalization of burdens.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:15
15 Even as it is written, "He who gathered much had not too much, and he who gathered little had not too little."

2 CORINTHIANS 8:16
16 But thanks be to God that He inspires the heart of Titus with the same deep interest in you;

2 CORINTHIANS 8:17
17 for Titus welcomed our request, and, being thoroughly in earnest, comes to you of his own free will.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:18
18 And we send with him the brother whose praises for his earnestness in proclaiming the Good News are heard throughout all the Churches.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:19
19 And more than that, he is the one who was chosen by the vote of the Churches to travel with us, sharing our commission in the administration of
this generous gift to promote the Lord's glory and gratify our own strong desire.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:20
20 For against one thing we are on our guard - I mean against blame being thrown upon us in respect to these large and liberal contributions which
are under our charge.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:21
21 For we seek not only God's approval of our integrity, but man's also.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:22
22 And we send with them our brother, of whose zeal we have had frequent proof in many matters, and who is now more zealous than ever through
the strong confidence which he has in you.

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23 As for Titus, remember that he is a partner with me, and is my comrade in my labors for you. And as for our brethren, remember that358
                                                                                                                                      they /are
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delegates from the Churches, and are men in whom Christ is glorified.
the strong confidence which he has in you.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:23
23 As for Titus, remember that he is a partner with me, and is my comrade in my labors for you. And as for our brethren, remember that they are
delegates from the Churches, and are men in whom Christ is glorified.

2 CORINTHIANS 8:24
24 Exhibit therefore to the Churches a proof of your love, and a justification of our boasting to these brethren about you.

CHAPTER 9

2 CORINTHIANS 9:1
1 As to the services which are being rendered to God's people, it is really unnecessary for me to write to you.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:2
2 For I know your earnest willingness, on account of which I habitually boast of you to the Macedonians, pointing out to them that for a whole year
you in Greece have been ready; and the greater number of them have been spurred on by your ardor.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:3
3 Still I send the brethren in order that in this matter our boast about you may not turn out to have been an idle one; so that, as I have said, you may
be ready;

2 CORINTHIANS 9:4
4 for fear that, if any Macedonians come with me and find you unprepared, we - not to say you yourselves - should be put to the blush in respect to
this confidence.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:5
5 I have thought it absolutely necessary therefore to request these brethren to visit you before I myself come, and to make sure beforehand that the
gift of love which you have already promised may be ready as a gift of love, and may not seem to have been something which I have extorted from
you.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:6
6 But do not forget that he who sows with a niggardly hand will also reap a niggardly crop, and that he who sows bountifully will also reap
bountifully.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:7
7 Let each contribute what he has decided upon in his own mind, and not do it reluctantly or under compulsion. "It is a cheerful giver that God
loves."

2 CORINTHIANS 9:8
8 And God is able to bestow every blessing on you in abundance, so that richly enjoying all sufficiency at all times, you may have ample means for
all good works.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:9
9 As it is written, "He has scattered abroad, he has given to the poor, his almsgiving remains for ever."

2 CORINTHIANS 9:10
10 And God who continually supplies seed for the sower and bread for eating, will supply you with seed and multiply it, and will cause your
almsgiving to yield a plentiful harvest.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:11
11 May you be abundantly enriched so as to show all liberality, such as through our instrumentality brings thanksgiving to God.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:12
12 For the service rendered in this sacred gift not only helps to relieve the wants of God's people, but it is also rich in its results and awakens a chorus
of thanksgiving to God.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:13
13 For, by the practical proof of it which you exhibit in this service, you cause God to be extolled for your fidelity to your professed adherence to the
Good News of the Christ, and for the liberality of your contributions for them and for all who are in need,

2 CORINTHIANS 9:14
14 while they themselves also in supplications on your behalf pour out their longing love towards you because of God's surpassing grace which is
resting upon you.

2 CORINTHIANS 9:15
15 Thanks be to God for His unspeakably precious gift!

CHAPTER 10

2 CORINTHIANS 10:1
1 But as for me Paul, I entreat you by the gentleness and self-forgetfulness of Christ - I who when among you have not an imposing personal
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2 CORINTHIANS 10:2
CHAPTER 10

2 CORINTHIANS 10:1
1 But as for me Paul, I entreat you by the gentleness and self-forgetfulness of Christ - I who when among you have not an imposing personal
presence, but when absent am fearlessly outspoken in dealing with you.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:2
2 I beseech you not to compel me when present to make a bold display of the confidence with which I reckon I shall show my 'courage' against some
who reckon that we are guided by worldly principles.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:3
3 For, though we are still living in the world, it is no worldly warfare that we are waging.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:4
4 The weapons with which we fight are not human weapons, but are mighty for God in overthrowing strong fortresses.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:5
5 For we overthrow arrogant 'reckonings,' and every stronghold that towers high in defiance of the knowledge of God, and we carry off every
thought as if into slavery - into subjection to Christ;

2 CORINTHIANS 10:6
6 while we hold ourselves in readiness to punish every act of disobedience, as soon as ever you as a Church have fully shown your obedience.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:7
7 Is it outward appearances you look to? If any man is confident as regards himself that he specially belongs to Christ, let him consider again and
reflect that just as he belongs to Christ, so also do we.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:8
8 If, however, I were to boast more loudly of our Apostolic authority, which the Lord has given us that we may build you up, not pull you down, I
should have no reason to feel ashamed.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:9
9 Let it not seem as if I wanted to frighten you by my letters.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:10
10 For they say "His letters are authoritative and forcible, but his personal presence is unimpressive, and as for eloquence, he has none."

2 CORINTHIANS 10:11
11 Let such people take this into their reckoning, that whatever we are in word by our letters when absent, the same are we also in act when present.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:12
12 For we have not the 'courage' to rank ourselves among, or compare ourselves with, certain persons distinguished by their self-commendation. Yet
they are not wise, measuring themselves, as they do, by one another and comparing themselves with one another.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:13
13 We, however, will not exceed due limits in our boasting, but will keep within the limits of the sphere which God has assigned to us as a limit,
which reaches even to you.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:14
14 For there is no undue stretch of authority on our part, as though it did not extend to you. We pressed on even to Corinth, and were the first to
proclaim to you the Good News of the Christ.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:15
15 We do not exceed our due limits, and take credit for other men's labors; but we entertain the hope that, as your faith grows, we shall gain
promotion among you - still keeping within our own sphere - promotion to a larger field of labor,

2 CORINTHIANS 10:16
16 and shall tell the Good News in the districts beyond you, not boasting in another man's sphere about work already done by him.

2 CORINTHIANS 10:17
17 But "whoever boasts, let his boast be in the Lord."

2 CORINTHIANS 10:18
18 For it is not the man that commends himself who is really approved, but he whom the Lord commends.

CHAPTER 11

2 CORINTHIANS 11:1
1 I wish you could have borne with a little foolish boasting on my part. Nay, do bear with me.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:2
2 I am jealous over you with God's own jealousy. For I have betrothed you to Christ to present you to Him like a faithful bride to her one husband.

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                                                                                                                                              fidelity
to Christ.
2 CORINTHIANS 11:2
2 I am jealous over you with God's own jealousy. For I have betrothed you to Christ to present you to Him like a faithful bride to her one husband.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:3
3 But I am afraid that, as the serpent in his craftiness deceived Eve, so your minds may be led astray from their single-heartedness and their fidelity
to Christ.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:4
4 If indeed some visitor is proclaiming among you another Jesus whom we did not proclaim, or if you are receiving a Spirit different from the One
you have already received or a Good News different from that which you have already welcomed, your toleration is admirable!

2 CORINTHIANS 11:5
5 Why, I reckon myself in no respect inferior to those superlatively great Apostles.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:6
6 And if in the matter of speech I am no orator, yet in knowledge I am not deficient. Nay, we have in every way made that fully evident to you.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:7
7 Is it a sin that I abased myself in order for you to be exalted, in that I proclaimed God's Good News to you without fee or reward?

2 CORINTHIANS 11:8
8 Other Churches I robbed, receiving pay from them in order to do you service.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:9
9 And when I was with you and my resources failed, there was no one to whom I became a burden - for the brethren when they came from
Macedonia fully supplied my wants - and I kept myself from being in the least a burden to you, and will do so still.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:10
10 Christ knows that it is true when I say that I will not be stopped from boasting of this anywhere in Greece.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:11
11 And why? Because I do not love you? God knows that I do.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:12
12 But I will persist in the same line of conduct in order to cut the ground from under the feet of those who desire an opportunity of getting
themselves recognized as being on a level with us in the matters about which they boast.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:13
13 For men of this stamp are sham apostles, dishonest workmen, assuming the garb of Apostles of Christ.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:14
14 And no wonder. Satan, their master, can disguise himself as an angel of light.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:15
15 It is therefore no great thing for his servants also to disguise themselves as servants of righteousness. Their end will be in accordance with their
actions.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:16
16 To return to what I was saying. Let no one suppose that I am foolish. Or if you must, at any rate make allowance for me as being foolish, in order
that I, as well as they, may boast a little.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:17
17 What I am now saying, I do not say by the Lord's command, but as a fool in his folly might, in this reckless boasting.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:18
18 Since many boast for merely human reasons, I too will boast.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:19
19 Wise as you yourselves are, you find pleasure in tolerating fools.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:20
20 For you tolerate it, if any one enslaves you, lives at your expense, makes off with your property, gives himself airs, or strikes you on the face.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:21
21 I use the language of self-disparagement, as though I were admitting our own feebleness. Yet for whatever reason any one is 'courageous' - I speak
in mere folly - I also am courageous.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:22
22 Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they descendants of Abraham? So am I.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:23
23 Are they servants of Christ? (I speak as if I were out of my mind.) Much more am I His servant; serving Him more thoroughly than they by my
labors, and more thoroughly also by my imprisonments, by excessively cruel floggings, and with risk of life many a time.

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2 CORINTHIANS 11:24
24 From the Jews I five times have received forty lashes all but one.
2 CORINTHIANS 11:23
23 Are they servants of Christ? (I speak as if I were out of my mind.) Much more am I His servant; serving Him more thoroughly than they by my
labors, and more thoroughly also by my imprisonments, by excessively cruel floggings, and with risk of life many a time.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:24
24 From the Jews I five times have received forty lashes all but one.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:25
25 Three times I have been beaten with Roman rods, once I have been stoned, three times I have been shipwrecked, once for full four and twenty
hours I was floating on the open sea.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:26
26 I have served Him by frequent travelling, amid dangers in crossing rivers, dangers from robbers; dangers from my own countrymen, dangers
from the Gentiles; dangers in the city, dangers in the Desert, dangers by sea, dangers from spies in our midst;

2 CORINTHIANS 11:27
27 with labor and toil, with many a sleepless night, in hunger and thirst, in frequent fastings, in cold, and with insufficient clothing.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:28
28 And besides other things, which I pass over, there is that which presses on me daily - my anxiety for all the Churches.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:29
29 Who is weak, and I am not weak? Who is led astray into sin, and I am not aflame with indignation?

2 CORINTHIANS 11:30
30 If boast I must, it shall be of things which display my weakness.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:31
31 The God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ - He who is blessed throughout the Ages - knows that I am speaking the truth.

2 CORINTHIANS 11:32
32 In Damascus the governor under King Aretas kept guards at the gates of the city in order to apprehend me,

2 CORINTHIANS 11:33
33 but through an opening in the wall I was let down in a basket, and so escaped his hands.

CHAPTER 12

2 CORINTHIANS 12:1
1 I am compelled to boast. It is not a profitable employment, but I will proceed to visions and revelations granted me by the Lord.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:2
2 I know a Christian man who fourteen years ago - whether in the body I do not know, or out of the body I do not know; God knows - was caught
up (this man of whom I am speaking) even to the highest Heaven.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:3
3 And I know that this man - whether in the body or apart from the body I do not know;

2 CORINTHIANS 12:4
4 God knows - was caught up into Paradise and heard unspeakable things which no human being is permitted to repeat.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:5
5 Of such a one I will boast; but of myself I will not boast, except in my weaknesses.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:6
6 If however I should choose to boast, I should not be a fool for so doing, for I should be speaking the truth. But I forbear, lest any one should be led
to estimate me more highly than what his own eyes attest, or more highly than what he hears from my lips.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:7
7 And judging by the stupendous grandeur of the revelations - therefore lest I should be over-elated there has been sent to me, like the agony of
impalement, Satan's angel dealing blow after blow, lest I should be over-elated.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:8
8 As for this, three times have I besought the Lord to rid me of him;

2 CORINTHIANS 12:9
9 but His reply has been, "My grace suffices for you, for power matures in weakness." Most gladly therefore will I boast of my infirmities rather than
complain of them - in order that Christ's power may overshadow me.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:10
10 In fact I take pleasure in infirmities, in the bearing of insults, in distress, in persecutions, in grievous difficulties - for Christ's sake; for when I am
weak, then I am strong.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:11
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11          (c) 2005-2009,
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                                all this,     Corp.have compelled me to do so. Why, you ought to have been my vindicators; for in no respect
                                          but you                                                                                    Page 362have /I 567
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inferior to these superlatively great Apostles, even though in myself I am nothing.
weak, then I am strong.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:11
11 It is foolish of me to write all this, but you have compelled me to do so. Why, you ought to have been my vindicators; for in no respect have I been
inferior to these superlatively great Apostles, even though in myself I am nothing.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:12
12 The signs that characterize the true Apostle have been done among you, accompanied by unwearied fortitude, and by tokens and marvels and
displays of power.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:13
13 In what respect, therefore, have you been worse dealt with than other Churches, except that I myself never hung as a dead weight upon you?
Forgive the injustice I thus did you!

2 CORINTHIANS 12:14
14 See, I am now for the third time prepared to visit you, but I will not be a dead weight to you. I desire not your money, but yourselves; for children
ought not to put by for their parents, but parents for their children.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:15
15 And as for me, most gladly will I spend all I have and be utterly spent for your salvation.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:16
16 If I love you so intensely, am I the less to be loved? Be that as it may: I was not a burden to you. But being by no means scrupulous, I entrapped
you, they say!

2 CORINTHIANS 12:17
17 Have I gained any selfish advantage over you through any one of the messengers I have sent to you?

2 CORINTHIANS 12:18
18 I begged Titus to visit you, and sent our other brother with him. Did Titus gain any selfish advantage over you? Were not he and I guided by one
and the same Spirit, and did we not walk in the same steps?

2 CORINTHIANS 12:19
19 You are imagining, all this time, that we are making our defense at your bar. In reality it is as in God's presence and in communion with Christ
that we speak; but, dear friends, it is all with a view to your progress in goodness.

2 CORINTHIANS 12:20
20 For I am afraid that perhaps when I come I may not find you to be what I desire, and that you may find me to be what you do not desire; that
perhaps there may be contention, jealousy, bitter feeling, party spirit, ill-natured talk, backbiting, undue eulogy, unrest;

2 CORINTHIANS 12:21
21 and that upon re-visiting you I may be humbled by my God in your presence, and may have to mourn over many whose hearts still cling to their
old sins, and who have not repented of the impurity, fornication, and gross sensuality, of which they have been guilty.

CHAPTER 13

2 CORINTHIANS 13:1
1 This intended visit of mine is my third visit to you. "On the evidence of two or three witnesses every charge shall be sustained."

2 CORINTHIANS 13:2
2 Those who cling to their old sins, and indeed all of you, I have forewarned and still forewarn (as I did on my second visit when present, so I do now,
though absent) that, when I come again, I shall not spare you;

2 CORINTHIANS 13:3
3 since you want a practical proof of the fact that Christ speaks by my lips - He who is not feeble towards you, but powerful among you.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:4
4 For though it is true that He was crucified through weakness, yet He now lives through the power of God. We also are weak, sharing His weakness,
but with Him we shall be full of life to deal with you through the power of God.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:5
5 Test yourselves to discover whether you are true believers: put your own selves under examination. Or do you not know that Jesus Christ is within
you, unless you are insincere?

2 CORINTHIANS 13:6
6 But I trust that you will recognize that we are not insincere.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:7
7 And our prayer to God is that you may do nothing wrong; not in order that our sincerity may be demonstrated, but that you may do what is right,
even though our sincerity may seem to be doubtful.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:8
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2 CORINTHIANS 13:9
9 and it is a joy to us when we are powerless, but you are strong. This we also pray for - the perfecting of your characters.
even though our sincerity may seem to be doubtful.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:8
8 For we have no power against the truth, but only for the furtherance of the truth;

2 CORINTHIANS 13:9
9 and it is a joy to us when we are powerless, but you are strong. This we also pray for - the perfecting of your characters.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:10
10 For this reason I write thus while absent, that when present I may not have to act severely in the exercise of the authority which the Lord has given
me for building up, and not for pulling down.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:11
11 Finally, brethren, be joyful, secure perfection of character, take courage, be of one mind, live in peace. And then God who gives love and peace
will be with you.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:12
12 Salute one another with a holy kiss.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:13
13 All God's people here send greetings to you.

2 CORINTHIANS 13:14
14 May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit, be with you all.


Weymouth GALATIANS
Paul's Letter
To The
Galatians

There is no question as to the genuineness of this Pauline Letter, but unlike most other writings of the Apostle i was addressed to "Churches" rather than to a single
community.

Formerly it was not easy to decide the precise meaning of the term "Galatia." Opinions differed on the subject. The "North Galatian theory," contended for by some
German scholars, maintained that the Letter was addressed to the Churches of Ancyra, Tavium, Pessinus and possibly to those in other cities. The "South Galatian
theory," which now holds the field in English-speaking countries, is to the effect that the congregations intended were those of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Derbe and
Lystra; and this is strongly supported by the unique resemblance between this Letter and Paul's sermon in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:14-41). In any case the population
was very mixed, consisting of Phrygians, Greeks, Romans, Gauls and Jews.

The date of the Letter cannot be exactly fixed. The periods assigned by recent scholarship vary from 46 A.D. to 58 A.D., but the medium estimate of 53 A.D.,
adopted by Harnack and Ramsay, satisfies all the requirements of the case.

The Apostle certainly visited Galatia during his second missionary tour, perhaps about 51 A. D., and, although suffering from illness, was received with enthusiasm.
After a short stay he departed cherishing a joyful confidence as to his converts there. But when, less than three years afterwards, he came again, he found that the
leaven of Judaism had produced a definite apostasy, insomuch that both the freedom of individual believers and his own Apostolic authority were in danger.

Even his personal presence (Acts 18:23) did not end the difficulty. Hence, possibly during his journey between Macedonia and Achaia, he sent this Letter. Its rugged
and incoherent style shows that it was dictated under great stress of feeling, and the doctrine of justification by faith is stated more emphatically than in any other of his
writings. But his earnest insistence upon the "fruit borne by the Spirit" proves that his ideal of practical holiness was rather strengthened than impaired by his plea for
Faith as the mainspring of Christian life.

CHAPTER 1

GALATIANS 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle sent not from men nor by any man, but by Jesus Christ and by God the Father, who raised Jesus from among the dead -

GALATIANS 1:2
2 and all the brethren who are with me: To the Churches of Galatia.

GALATIANS 1:3
3 May grace and peace be granted to you from God the Father, and from our Lord Jesus Christ,

GALATIANS 1:4
4 who gave Himself to suffer for our sins in order to rescue us from the present wicked age in accordance with the will of our God and Father.

GALATIANS 1:5
5 To Him be the glory to the Ages of the Ages! Amen.

GALATIANS 1:6
6 I marvel that you are so readily leaving Him who called you by the grace of Christ, and are adhering to a different Good News.

GALATIANS 1:7
7 For other "Good News" there is none; but there are some persons who are troubling you, and are seeking to distort the Good News concerning
Christ.
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GALATIANS 1:8
8 But if even we or an angel from Heaven should bring you a Good News different from that which we have already brought you, let him be
GALATIANS 1:7
7 For other "Good News" there is none; but there are some persons who are troubling you, and are seeking to distort the Good News concerning
Christ.

GALATIANS 1:8
8 But if even we or an angel from Heaven should bring you a Good News different from that which we have already brought you, let him be
accursed.

GALATIANS 1:9
9 What I have just said I repeat - if any one is preaching to you a Good News other than that which you originally received, let him be accursed.

GALATIANS 1:10
10 For is it man's favor or God's that I aspire to? Or am I seeking to please men? If I were still a man-pleaser, I should not be Christ's bondservant.

GALATIANS 1:11
11 For I must tell you, brethren, that the Good News which was proclaimed by me is not such as man approves of.

GALATIANS 1:12
12 For, in fact, it was not from man that I received or learnt it, but by a revelation from Jesus Christ.

GALATIANS 1:13
13 For you have heard of my early career in Judaism - how I furiously persecuted the Church of God, and made havoc of it;

GALATIANS 1:14
14 and how in devotion to Judaism I outstripped many men of my own age among my people, being far more zealous than they on behalf of the
traditions of my forefathers.

GALATIANS 1:15
15 But when He who set me apart even from my birth, and called me by His grace,

GALATIANS 1:16
16 saw fit to reveal His Son within me in order that I might tell among the Gentiles the Good News concerning Him, at once I did not confer with any
human being,

GALATIANS 1:17
17 nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were my seniors in the Apostleship, but I went away into Arabia, and afterwards came back to
Damascus.

GALATIANS 1:18
18 Then, three years later, I went up to Jerusalem to inquire for Peter, and I spent a fortnight with him.

GALATIANS 1:19
19 I saw none of the other Apostles, except James, the Lord's brother.

GALATIANS 1:20
20 In making these assertions I am speaking the truth, as in the sight of God.

GALATIANS 1:21
21 Afterwards I visited Syria and Cilicia.

GALATIANS 1:22
22 But to the Christian Churches in Judaea I was personally unknown.

GALATIANS 1:23
23 They only heard it said, "He who was once our persecutor is now telling the Good News of the faith of which he formerly made havoc."

GALATIANS 1:24
24 And they gave glory to God on my account.

CHAPTER 2

GALATIANS 2:1
1 Later still, after an interval of fourteen years, I again went up to Jerusalem in company with Barnabas, taking Titus also with me.

GALATIANS 2:2
2 I went up in obedience to a revelation of God's will; and I explained to them the Good News which I proclaim among the Gentiles. To the leaders of
the Church this explanation was made in private, lest by any means I should be running, or should already have run, in vain.

GALATIANS 2:3
3 But although my companion Titus was a Greek they did not insist upon even his being circumcised.

GALATIANS 2:4
4 Yet there was danger of this through the false brethren secretly introduced into the Church, who had stolen in to spy out the freedom which is ours
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GALATIANS 2:5
GALATIANS 2:4
4 Yet there was danger of this through the false brethren secretly introduced into the Church, who had stolen in to spy out the freedom which is ours
in Christ Jesus, in order to rob us of it.

GALATIANS 2:5
5 But not for an hour did we give way and submit to them; in order that the Good News might continue with you in its integrity.

GALATIANS 2:6
6 From those leaders I gained nothing new. Whether they were men of importance or not, matters nothing to me - God recognizes no external
distinctions. To me, at any rate, the leaders imparted nothing new.

GALATIANS 2:7
7 Indeed, when they saw that I was entrusted with the preaching of the Good News to the Gentiles as Peter had been with that to the Jews -

GALATIANS 2:8
8 for He who had been at work within Peter with a view to his Apostleship to the Jews had also been at work within me with a view to my
Apostleship to the Gentiles -

GALATIANS 2:9
9 and when they perceived the mission which was graciously entrusted to me, they (that is to say, James, Peter, and John, who were considered to be
the pillars of the Church) welcomed Barnabas and me to their fellowship on the understanding that we were to go to the Gentiles and they to the
Jews.

GALATIANS 2:10
10 Only they urged that we should remember their poor - a thing which was uppermost in my own mind.

GALATIANS 2:11
11 Now when Peter visited Antioch, I remonstrated with him to his face, because he had incurred just censure.

GALATIANS 2:12
12 For until certain persons came from James he had been accustomed to eat with Gentiles; but as soon as these persons came, he withdrew and
separated himself for fear of the Circumcision party.

GALATIANS 2:13
13 And along with him the other Jews also concealed their real opinions, so that even Barnabas was carried away by their lack of
straightforwardness.

GALATIANS 2:14
14 As soon as I saw that they were not walking uprightly in the spirit of the Good News, I said to Peter, before them all, "If you, though you are a
Jew, live as a Gentile does, and not as a Jew, how can you make the Gentiles follow Jewish customs?

GALATIANS 2:15
15 You and I, though we are Jews by birth and not Gentile sinners,

GALATIANS 2:16
16 know that it is not through obedience to Law that a man can be declared free from guilt, but only through faith in Jesus Christ. We have therefore
believed in Christ Jesus, for the purpose of being declared free from guilt, through faith in Christ and not through obedience to Law. For through
obedience to Law no human being shall be declared free from guilt.

GALATIANS 2:17
17 But if while we are seeking in Christ acquittal from guilt we ourselves are convicted of sin, Christ then encourages us to sin! No, indeed.

GALATIANS 2:18
18 Why, if I am now rebuilding that structure of sin which I had demolished, I am thereby constituting myself a transgressor;

GALATIANS 2:19
19 for it is by the Law that I have died to the Law, in order that I may live to God.

GALATIANS 2:20
20 I have been crucified with Christ, and it is no longer I that live, but Christ that lives in me; and the life which I now live in the body I live through
faith in the Son of God who loved me and gave Himself up to death on my behalf.

GALATIANS 2:21
21 I do not nullify the grace of God; for if acquittal from guilt is obtainable through the Law, then Christ has died in vain."

CHAPTER 3

GALATIANS 3:1
1 You foolish Galatians! Whose sophistry has bewitched you - you to whom Jesus Christ has been vividly portrayed as on the Cross?

GALATIANS 3:2
2Copyright
  Answer me    this one question,
           (c) 2005-2009, Infobase"IsMedia
                                      it on the ground of your obedience to the Law that you received the Spirit, or is it because, when you heard, you
                                             Corp.                                                                                     Page 366 / 567
believed?"
1 You foolish Galatians! Whose sophistry has bewitched you - you to whom Jesus Christ has been vividly portrayed as on the Cross?

GALATIANS 3:2
2 Answer me this one question, "Is it on the ground of your obedience to the Law that you received the Spirit, or is it because, when you heard, you
believed?"

GALATIANS 3:3
3 Are you so foolish? Having begun by the Spirit, are you now going to reach perfection through what is external?

GALATIANS 3:4
4 Have you endured such sufferings to no purpose - if indeed it has been to no purpose?

GALATIANS 3:5
5 He who gives you His Spirit and works miracles among you - does He do so on the ground of your obedience to the Law, or is it the result of your
having heard and believed:

GALATIANS 3:6
6 even as Abraham believed God, and his faith was placed to his account as righteousness?

GALATIANS 3:7
7 Notice therefore that those who possess faith are true sons of Abraham.

GALATIANS 3:8
8 And the Scripture, foreseeing that in consequence of faith God would declare the nations to be free from guilt, sent beforehand the Good News to
Abraham, saying, "In you all the nations shall be blessed."

GALATIANS 3:9
9 So we see that it is those who possess faith that are blessed with believing Abraham.

GALATIANS 3:10
10 All who are depending upon their own obedience to the Law are under a curse, for it is written, "Cursed is every one who does not remain faithful
to all the precepts of the Law, and practise them."

GALATIANS 3:11
11 It is evident, too, that no one can find acceptance with God simply by obeying the Law, because "the righteous shall live by faith,"

GALATIANS 3:12
12 and the Law has nothing to do with faith. It teaches that "he who does these things shall live by doing them."

GALATIANS 3:13
13 Christ has purchased our freedom from the curse of the Law by becoming accursed for us - because "Cursed is every one who is hanged upon a
tree."

GALATIANS 3:14
14 Our freedom has been thus purchased in order that in Christ Jesus the blessing belonging to Abraham may come upon the nations, so that
through faith we may receive the promised Spirit.

GALATIANS 3:15
15 Brethren, even a covenant made by a man - to borrow an illustration from daily life - when once formally sanctioned is not liable to be set aside or
added to.

GALATIANS 3:16
16 (Now the promises were given to Abraham and to his seed. God did not say "and to seeds," as if speaking of many, but "and to your seed," since
He spoke of only one - and this is Christ.)

GALATIANS 3:17
17 I mean that the Covenant which God had already formally made is not abrogated by the Law which was given four hundred and thirty years
later - so as to annul the promise.

GALATIANS 3:18
18 For if the inheritance comes through obedience to Law, it no longer comes because of a promise. But, as a matter of fact, God has granted it to
Abraham in fulfilment of a promise.

GALATIANS 3:19
19 Why then was the Law given? It was imposed later on for the sake of defining sin, until the seed should come to whom God had made the
promise; and its details were laid down by a mediator with the help of angels.

GALATIANS 3:20
20 But there cannot be a mediator where only one individual is concerned.

GALATIANS 3:21
21 God, however, is only one. Is the Law then opposed to the promises of God? No, indeed; for if a Law had been given which could have conferred
Life, righteousness would certainly have come by the Law.
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GALATIANS 3:22
22 But Scripture has shown that all mankind are the prisoners of sin, in order that the promised blessing, which depends on faith in Jesus Christ, may
GALATIANS 3:21
21 God, however, is only one. Is the Law then opposed to the promises of God? No, indeed; for if a Law had been given which could have conferred
Life, righteousness would certainly have come by the Law.

GALATIANS 3:22
22 But Scripture has shown that all mankind are the prisoners of sin, in order that the promised blessing, which depends on faith in Jesus Christ, may
be given to those who believe.

GALATIANS 3:23
23 Before this faith came, we Jews were perpetual prisoners under the Law, living under restraints and limitations in preparation for the faith which
was soon to be revealed.

GALATIANS 3:24
24 So that the Law has acted the part of a tutor-slave to lead us to Christ, in order that through faith we may be declared to be free from guilt.

GALATIANS 3:25
25 But now that this faith has come, we are no longer under a tutor-slave.

GALATIANS 3:26
26 You are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus;

GALATIANS 3:27
27 for all of you who have been baptized into Christ, have clothed yourselves with Christ.

GALATIANS 3:28
28 In Him the distinctions between Jew and Gentile, slave and free man, male and female, disappear; you are all one in Christ Jesus.

GALATIANS 3:29
29 And if you belong to Christ, then you are indeed true descendants of Abraham, and are heirs in fulfilment of the promise.

CHAPTER 4

GALATIANS 4:1
1 Now I say that so long as an heir is a child, he in no respect differs from a slave, although he is the owner of everything,

GALATIANS 4:2
2 but he is under the control of guardians and trustees until the time his father has appointed.

GALATIANS 4:3
3 So we also, when spiritually we were children, were subject to the world's rudimentary notions, and were enslaved.

GALATIANS 4:4
4 But, when the time was fully come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born subject to Law,

GALATIANS 4:5
5 in order to purchase the freedom of all who were subject to Law, so that we might receive recognition as sons.

GALATIANS 4:6
6 And because you are sons, God has sent out the Spirit of His Son to enter your hearts and cry "Abba! our Father!"

GALATIANS 4:7
7 Therefore you are no longer a slave, but a son; and if a son, then an heir also through God's own act.

GALATIANS 4:8
8 But at one time, you Gentiles, having no knowledge of God, were slaves to gods which in reality do not exist.

GALATIANS 4:9
9 Now, however, having come to know God - or rather to be known by Him - how is it you are again turning back to weak and worthless
rudimentary notions to which you are once more willing to be enslaved?

GALATIANS 4:10
10 You scrupulously observe days and months, special seasons, and years.

GALATIANS 4:11
11 I am alarmed about you, and am afraid that I have perhaps bestowed labor upon you to no purpose.

GALATIANS 4:12
12 Brethren, become as I am, I beseech you; for I have also become like you. In no respect did you behave badly to me.

GALATIANS 4:13
13 And you know that in those early days it was on account of bodily infirmity that I proclaimed the Good News to you,

GALATIANS 4:14
14 and yet (c)
 Copyright  the2005-2009,
                bodily infirmity which
                           Infobase    was
                                    Media  such a trial to you, you did not regard with contempt or loathing, but you received me as
                                          Corp.                                                                                      if I had
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                                                                                                                                                / 567
angel of God or Christ Jesus Himself!
13 And you know that in those early days it was on account of bodily infirmity that I proclaimed the Good News to you,

GALATIANS 4:14
14 and yet the bodily infirmity which was such a trial to you, you did not regard with contempt or loathing, but you received me as if I had been an
angel of God or Christ Jesus Himself!

GALATIANS 4:15
15 I ask you, then, what has become of your self-congratulations? For I bear you witness that had it been possible you would have torn out your own
eyes and have given them to me.

GALATIANS 4:16
16 Can it be that I have become your enemy through speaking the truth to you?

GALATIANS 4:17
17 These men pay court to you, but not with honorable motives. They want to exclude you, so that you may pay court to them.

GALATIANS 4:18
18 It is always an honorable thing to be courted in an honorable cause; always, and not only when I am with you, my children -

GALATIANS 4:19
19 you for whom I am again, as it were, undergoing the pains of childbirth, until Christ is fully formed within you.

GALATIANS 4:20
20 Would that I were with you and could change my tone, for I am perplexed about you.

GALATIANS 4:21
21 Tell me - you who want to continue to be subject to Law - will you not listen to the Law?

GALATIANS 4:22
22 For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the slave-girl and one by the free woman.

GALATIANS 4:23
23 But we see that the child of the slave-girl was born in the common course of nature; but the child of the free woman in fulfilment of the promise.

GALATIANS 4:24
24 All this is allegorical; for the women represent two Covenants. One has its origin on Mount Sinai, and bears children destined for slavery.

GALATIANS 4:25
25 This is Hagar; for the name Hagar stands for Mount Sinai in Arabia, and corresponds to the present Jerusalem, which is in bondage together with
her children.

GALATIANS 4:26
26 But the Jerusalem which is above is free, and she is our mother.

GALATIANS 4:27
27 For it is written, "Rejoice, thou barren woman that bearest not, break forth into a joyful cry, thou that dost not travail with child. For the desolate
woman has many children - more indeed than she who has the husband."

GALATIANS 4:28
28 But you, brethren, like Isaac, are children born in fulfilment of a promise.

GALATIANS 4:29
29 Yet just as, at that time, the child born in the common course of nature persecuted the one whose birth was due to the power of the Spirit, so it is
now.

GALATIANS 4:30
30 But what says the Scripture? "Send away the slave-girl and her son, for never shall the slave-girl's son share the inheritance with the son of the free
woman."

GALATIANS 4:31
31 Therefore, brethren, since we are not the children of a slave-girl, but of the free woman -

CHAPTER 5

GALATIANS 5:1
1 Christ having made us gloriously free - stand fast and do not again be hampered with the yoke of slavery.

GALATIANS 5:2
2 Remember that it is I Paul who tell you that if you receive circumcision Christ will avail you nothing.

GALATIANS 5:3
3 I once more protest to every man who receives circumcision that he is under obligation to obey the whole Law of Moses.

GALATIANS      5:4
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4 Christ has become nothing to any of you who are seeking acceptance with God through the Law: you have fallen away from grace.

GALATIANS 5:5
GALATIANS 5:3
3 I once more protest to every man who receives circumcision that he is under obligation to obey the whole Law of Moses.

GALATIANS 5:4
4 Christ has become nothing to any of you who are seeking acceptance with God through the Law: you have fallen away from grace.

GALATIANS 5:5
5 We have not, for through the Spirit we wait with longing hope for an acceptance with God which is to come through faith.

GALATIANS 5:6
6 For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any importance; but only faith working through love.

GALATIANS 5:7
7 You were running the race nobly! Who has interfered and caused you to swerve from the truth?

GALATIANS 5:8
8 No such teaching ever proceeded from Him who is calling you.

GALATIANS 5:9
9 A little yeast corrupts the whole of the dough.

GALATIANS 5:10
10 For my part I have strong confidence in you in the Lord that you will adopt my view of the matter. But the man - be he who he may - who is
troubling you, will have to bear the full weight of the judgment to be pronounced on him.

GALATIANS 5:11
11 As for me, brethren, if I am still a preacher of circumcision, how is it that I am still suffering persecution? In that case the Cross has ceased to be a
stumbling-block!

GALATIANS 5:12
12 Would to God that those who are unsettling your faith would even mutilate themselves.

GALATIANS 5:13
13 You however, brethren, were called to freedom. Only do not turn your freedom into an excuse for giving way to your lower natures; but become
bondservants to one another in a spirit of love.

GALATIANS 5:14
14 For the entire Law has been obeyed when you have kept the single precept, which says, "You are to love your fellow man equally with yourself."

GALATIANS 5:15
15 But if you are perpetually snarling and snapping at one another, beware lest you are destroyed by one another.

GALATIANS 5:16
16 This then is what I mean. Let your lives be guided by the Spirit, and then you will certainly not indulge the cravings of your lower natures.

GALATIANS 5:17
17 For the cravings of the lower nature are opposed to those of the Spirit, and the cravings of the Spirit are opposed to those of the lower nature;
because these are antagonistic to each other, so that you cannot do everything to which you are inclined.

GALATIANS 5:18
18 But if the Spirit is leading you, you are not subject to Law.

GALATIANS 5:19
19 Now you know full well the doings of our lower natures. Fornication, impurity, indecency, idol-worship, sorcery;

GALATIANS 5:20
20 enmity, strife, jealousy, outbursts of passion, intrigues, dissensions, factions, envyings;

GALATIANS 5:21
21 hard drinking, riotous feasting, and the like. And as to these I forewarn you, as I have already forewarned you, that those who are guilty of such
things will have no share in the Kingdom of God.

GALATIANS 5:22
22 The Spirit, on the other hand, brings a harvest of love, joy, peace; patience towards others, kindness, benevolence;

GALATIANS 5:23
23 good faith, meekness, self-restraint.

GALATIANS 5:24
24 Against such things as these there is no law. Now those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified their lower nature with its passions and
appetites.

GALATIANS 5:25
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GALATIANS 5:26
appetites.

GALATIANS 5:25
25 If we are living by the Spirit's power, let our conduct also be governed by the Spirit's power.

GALATIANS 5:26
26 Let us not become vain-glorious, challenging one another, envying one another.

CHAPTER 6

GALATIANS 6:1
1 Brethren, if anybody be detected in any misconduct, you who are spiritual should restore such a one in a spirit of meekness. And let each of you
keep watch over himself, lest he also fall into temptation.

GALATIANS 6:2
2 Always carry one another's burdens, and so obey the whole of Christ's Law.

GALATIANS 6:3
3 For if there is any one who thinks himself to be somebody when he is nobody, he is deluding himself.

GALATIANS 6:4
4 But let every man scrutinize his own conduct, and then he will find out, not with reference to another but with reference to himself, what he has to
boast of.

GALATIANS 6:5
5 For every man will have to carry his own load.

GALATIANS 6:6
6 But let those who receive instruction in Christian truth share with their instructors all temporal blessings.

GALATIANS 6:7
7 Do not deceive yourselves. God is not to be scoffed at. For whatever a man sows, that he will also reap.

GALATIANS 6:8
8 He who sows in the field of his lower nature, will from that nature reap destruction; but he who sows to serve the Spirit will from the Spirit reap the
Life of the Ages.

GALATIANS 6:9
9 Let us not abate our courage in doing what is right; for in due time we shall reap a reward, if we do not faint.

GALATIANS 6:10
10 So then, as we have opportunity, let us labor for the good of all, and especially of those who belong to the household of the faith.

GALATIANS 6:11
11 See in what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand.

GALATIANS 6:12
12 All who desire to display their zeal for external observances try to compel you to receive circumcision, but their real object is simply to escape
being persecuted for the Cross of Christ.

GALATIANS 6:13
13 For these very men do not really keep the Law of Moses, but they would have you receive circumcision in order that they may glory in your
bodies.

GALATIANS 6:14
14 But as for me, God forbid that I should glory in anything except the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, upon which the world is crucified to me, and I
am crucified to the world.

GALATIANS 6:15
15 For neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any importance; but only a renewed nature.

GALATIANS 6:16
16 And all who shall regulate their lives by this principle - may peace and mercy be given to them - and to the true Israel of God.

GALATIANS 6:17
17 From this time onward let no one trouble me; for, as for me, I bear, branded on my body, the scars of Jesus as my Master.

GALATIANS 6:18
18 May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirits, brethren. Amen.


Weymouth EPHESIANS
Paul's Letter
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Ephesians
Weymouth EPHESIANS
Paul's Letter
To The
Ephesians

This appears to have been a kind of circular Letter to the Churches in Roman Asia, and was not addressed exclusively t the Church in Ephesus.

Ephesus was a well-known seaport and the principal city in Roman Asia. It was famous alike for its wonderful temple, containing the shrine of Artemis, and for its vast
theatre, which was capable of accommodating 50,000 persons.

Paul was forbidden at first to preach in Roman Asia (Acts 16:6), but he afterwards visited Ephesus in company with Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:19). About three
years later (Acts 19:1) he came again and remained for some time - probably from 54 to 57 A. D. - preaching and arguing in the school of Tyrannus, until driven away
through the tumult raised by Demetrius. He then went to Jerusalem, by way of Miletus, but was arrested in the uproar created by the Jews and was taken first to
Caesarea (Acts 23:23), and thence to Rome (Acts 28:16). This was probably in the spring of 61 A.D.

Late in 62 or early in 63 A.D., this Letter was written together with the companion Letters to the Colossians and Philemon.

CHAPTER 1

EPHESIANS 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God: To God's people who are in Ephesus - believers in Christ Jesus.

EPHESIANS 1:2
2 May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

EPHESIANS 1:3
3 Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has crowned us with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly realms in Christ;

EPHESIANS 1:4
4 even as, in His love, He chose us as His own in Christ before the creation of the world, that we might be holy and without blemish in His presence.

EPHESIANS 1:5
5 For He pre-destined us to be adopted by Himself as sons through Jesus Christ - such being His gracious will and pleasure -

EPHESIANS 1:6
6 to the praise of the splendour of His grace with which He has enriched us in the beloved One.

EPHESIANS 1:7
7 It is in Him, and through the shedding of His blood, that we have our deliverance - the forgiveness of our offenses - so abundant was God's grace,

EPHESIANS 1:8
8 the grace which He, the possessor of all wisdom and understanding, lavished upon us,

EPHESIANS 1:9
9 when He made known to us the secret of His will. And this is in harmony with God's merciful purpose

EPHESIANS 1:10
10 for the government of the world when the times are ripe for it - the purpose which He has cherished in His own mind of restoring the whole
creation to find its one Head in Christ; yes, things in Heaven and things on earth, to find their one Head in Him.

EPHESIANS 1:11
11 In Him we Jews have been made heirs, having been chosen beforehand in accordance with the intention of Him whose might carries out in
everything the design of His own will,

EPHESIANS 1:12
12 so that we should be devoted to the extolling of His glorious attributes - we who were the first to fix our hopes on Christ.

EPHESIANS 1:13
13 And in Him you Gentiles also, after listening to the Message of the truth, the Good News of your salvation - having believed in Him - were sealed
with the promised Holy Spirit;

EPHESIANS 1:14
14 that Spirit being a pledge and foretaste of our inheritance, in anticipation of its full redemption - the inheritance which He has purchased to be
specially His for the extolling of His glory.

EPHESIANS 1:15
15 For this reason I too, having heard of the faith in the Lord Jesus which prevails among you, and of your love for all God's people,

EPHESIANS 1:16
16 offer never ceasing thanks on your behalf while I make mention of you in my prayers.

EPHESIANS 1:17
17 For I always beseech the God of our Lord Jesus Christ - the Father most glorious - to give you a spirit of wisdom and penetration through an
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                     of Him,                                                                                                       Page 372 / 567

EPHESIANS 1:18
EPHESIANS 1:17
17 For I always beseech the God of our Lord Jesus Christ - the Father most glorious - to give you a spirit of wisdom and penetration through an
intimate knowledge of Him,

EPHESIANS 1:18
18 the eyes of your understanding being enlightened so that you may know what is the hope which His call to you inspires, what the wealth of the
glory of His inheritance in God's people,

EPHESIANS 1:19
19 and what the transcendent greatness of His power in us believers as seen in the working of His infinite might

EPHESIANS 1:20
20 when He displayed it in Christ by raising Him from the dead and seating Him at His own right hand in the heavenly realms,

EPHESIANS 1:21
21 high above all other government and authority and power and dominion, and every title of sovereignty used either in this Age or in the Age to
come.

EPHESIANS 1:22
22 God has put all things under His feet, and has appointed Him universal and supreme Head of the Church, which is His Body,

EPHESIANS 1:23
23 the completeness of Him who everywhere fills the universe with Himself.

CHAPTER 2

EPHESIANS 2:1
1 To you Gentiles also, who were dead through your offenses and sins,

EPHESIANS 2:2
2 which were once habitual to you while you walked in the ways of this world and obeyed the Prince of the powers of the air, the spirits that are now
at work in the hearts of the sons of disobedience - to you God has given Life.

EPHESIANS 2:3
3 Among them all of us also formerly passed our lives, governed by the inclinations of our lower natures, indulging the cravings of those natures and
of our own thoughts, and were in our original state deserving of anger like all others.

EPHESIANS 2:4
4 But God, being rich in mercy, because of the intense love which He bestowed on us,

EPHESIANS 2:5
5 caused us, dead though we were through our offenses, to live with Christ - it is by grace that you have been saved -

EPHESIANS 2:6
6 raised us with Him from the dead, and enthroned us with Him in the heavenly realms as being in Christ Jesus,

EPHESIANS 2:7
7 in order that, by His goodness to us in Christ Jesus, He might display in the Ages to come the transcendent riches of His grace.

EPHESIANS 2:8
8 For it is by grace that you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves. It is God's gift, and is not on the ground of merit -

EPHESIANS 2:9
9 so that it may be impossible for any one to boast.

EPHESIANS 2:10
10 For we are God's own handiwork, created in Christ Jesus for good works which He has pre-destined us to practise.

EPHESIANS 2:11
11 Therefore, do not forget that formerly you were Gentiles as to your bodily condition. You were called the Uncircumcision by those who style
themselves the Circumcised - their circumcision being one which the knife has effected.

EPHESIANS 2:12
12 At that time you were living apart from Christ, estranged from the Commonwealth of Israel, with no share by birth in the Covenants which are
based on the Promises, and you had no hope and no God, in all the world.

EPHESIANS 2:13
13 But now in Christ Jesus you who once were so far away have been brought near through the death of Christ.

EPHESIANS 2:14
14 For He is our peace - He who has made Jews and Gentiles one, and in His own human nature has broken down the hostile dividing wall,

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EPHESIANS 2:15
15 by setting aside the Law with its commandments, expressed, as they were, in definite decrees. His design was to unite the two sections of
humanity in Himself so as to form one new man,
EPHESIANS 2:14
14 For He is our peace - He who has made Jews and Gentiles one, and in His own human nature has broken down the hostile dividing wall,

EPHESIANS 2:15
15 by setting aside the Law with its commandments, expressed, as they were, in definite decrees. His design was to unite the two sections of
humanity in Himself so as to form one new man,

EPHESIANS 2:16
16 thus effecting peace, and to reconcile Jews and Gentiles in one body to God, by means of His cross - slaying by it their mutual enmity.

EPHESIANS 2:17
17 So He came and proclaimed good news of peace to you who were so far away, and peace to those who were near;

EPHESIANS 2:18
18 because it is through Him that Jews and Gentiles alike have access through one Spirit to the Father.

EPHESIANS 2:19
19 You are therefore no longer mere foreigners or persons excluded from civil rights. On the contrary you share citizenship with God's people and are
members of His family.

EPHESIANS 2:20
20 You are a building which has been reared on the foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, the cornerstone being Christ Jesus Himself,

EPHESIANS 2:21
21 in union with whom the whole fabric, fitted and closely joined together, is growing so as to form a holy sanctuary in the Lord;

EPHESIANS 2:22
22 in whom you also are being built up together to become a fixed abode for God through the Spirit.

CHAPTER 3

EPHESIANS 3:1
1 For this reason I Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus on behalf of you Gentiles -

EPHESIANS 3:2
2 if, that is, you have heard of the work which God has graciously entrusted to me for your benefit,

EPHESIANS 3:3
3 and that by a revelation the truth hitherto kept secret was made known to me as I have already briefly explained it to you.

EPHESIANS 3:4
4 By means of that explanation, as you read it, you can judge of my insight into the truth of Christ

EPHESIANS 3:5
5 which in earlier ages was not made known to the human race, as it has now been revealed to His holy Apostles and Prophets through the Spirit -

EPHESIANS 3:6
6 I mean the truth that the Gentiles are joint heirs with us Jews, and that they form one body with us, and have the same interest as we have in the
promise which has been made good in Christ Jesus through the Good News,

EPHESIANS 3:7
7 in which I have been appointed to serve, in virtue of the work which God, in the exercise of His power within me, has graciously entrusted to me.

EPHESIANS 3:8
8 To me who am less than the least of all God's people has this work been graciously entrusted - to proclaim to the Gentiles the Good News of the
exhaustless wealth of Christ,

EPHESIANS 3:9
9 and to show all men in a clear light what my stewardship is. It is the stewardship of the truth which from all the Ages lay concealed in the mind of
God, the Creator of all things -

EPHESIANS 3:10
10 concealed in order that the Church might now be used to display to the powers and authorities in the heavenly realms the innumerable aspects of
God's wisdom.

EPHESIANS 3:11
11 Such was the eternal purpose which He had formed in Christ Jesus our Lord,

EPHESIANS 3:12
12 in whom we have this bold and confident access through our faith in Him.

EPHESIANS 3:13
13 Therefore I entreat you not to lose heart in the midst of my sufferings on your behalf, for they bring you honor.
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EPHESIANS 3:14
14 For this reason, on bended knee I beseech the Father,
EPHESIANS 3:13
13 Therefore I entreat you not to lose heart in the midst of my sufferings on your behalf, for they bring you honor.

EPHESIANS 3:14
14 For this reason, on bended knee I beseech the Father,

EPHESIANS 3:15
15 from whom the whole family in Heaven and on earth derives its name,

EPHESIANS 3:16
16 to grant you - in accordance with the wealth of His glorious perfections - to be strengthened by His Spirit with power penetrating to your inmost
being.

EPHESIANS 3:17
17 I pray that Christ may make His home in your hearts through your faith; so that having your roots deep and your foundations strong, in love,
you may become mighty to grasp the idea,

EPHESIANS 3:18
18 as it is grasped by all God's people, of the breadth and length, the height and depth -

EPHESIANS 3:19
19 yes, to attain to a knowledge of the knowledge-surpassing love of Christ, so that you may be made complete in accordance with God's own
standard of completeness.

EPHESIANS 3:20
20 Now to Him who, in exercise of His power that is at work within us, is able to do infinitely beyond all our highest prayers or thoughts -

EPHESIANS 3:21
21 to Him be the glory in the Church and in Christ Jesus to all generations, world without end! Amen.

CHAPTER 4

EPHESIANS 4:1
1 I, then, the prisoner for the Master's sake, entreat you to live and act as becomes those who have received the call that you have received -

EPHESIANS 4:2
2 with all lowliness of mind and unselfishness, and with patience, bearing with one another lovingly, and earnestly striving to maintain,

EPHESIANS 4:3
3 in the uniting bond of peace, the unity given by the Spirit.

EPHESIANS 4:4
4 There is but one body and but one Spirit, as also when you were called you had one and the same hope held out to you.

EPHESIANS 4:5
5 There is but one Lord, one faith, one baptism,

EPHESIANS 4:6
6 and one God and Father of all, who rules over all, acts through all, and dwells in all.

EPHESIANS 4:7
7 Yet to each of us individually grace was given, measured out with the munificence of Christ.

EPHESIANS 4:8
8 For this reason Scripture says: "He re-ascended on high, He led captive a host of captives, and gave gifts to men."

EPHESIANS 4:9
9 (Now this "re-ascended" - what does it mean but that He had first descended into the lower regions of the earth?

EPHESIANS 4:10
10 He who descended is the same as He who ascended again far above all the Heavens in order to fill the universe.)

EPHESIANS 4:11
11 And He Himself appointed some to be Apostles, some to be Prophets, some to be evangelists, some to be pastors and teachers,

EPHESIANS 4:12
12 in order fully to equip His people for the work of serving - for the building up of Christ's body -

EPHESIANS 4:13
13 till we all of us arrive at oneness in faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God, and at mature manhood and the stature of full-grown men in
Christ.

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14 So we shall no longer be babes nor shall we resemble mariners tossed on the waves and carried about with every changing wind of doctrine
according to men's cleverness and unscrupulous cunning, making use of every shifting device to mislead.
EPHESIANS 4:13
13 till we all of us arrive at oneness in faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God, and at mature manhood and the stature of full-grown men in
Christ.

EPHESIANS 4:14
14 So we shall no longer be babes nor shall we resemble mariners tossed on the waves and carried about with every changing wind of doctrine
according to men's cleverness and unscrupulous cunning, making use of every shifting device to mislead.

EPHESIANS 4:15
15 But we shall lovingly hold to the truth, and shall in all respects grow up into union with Him who is our Head, even Christ.

EPHESIANS 4:16
16 Dependent on Him, the whole body - its various parts closely fitting and firmly adhering to one another - grows by the aid of every contributory
link, with power proportioned to the need of each individual part, so as to build itself up in a spirit of love.

EPHESIANS 4:17
17 Therefore I warn you, and I implore you in the name of the Master, no longer to live as the Gentiles in their perverseness live,

EPHESIANS 4:18
18 with darkened understandings, having by reason of the ignorance which is deep-seated in them and the insensibility of their moral nature, no
share in the Life which God gives.

EPHESIANS 4:19
19 Such men being past feeling have abandoned themselves to impurity, greedily indulging in every kind of profligacy.

EPHESIANS 4:20
20 But these are not the lessons which you have learned from Christ;

EPHESIANS 4:21
21 if at least you have heard His voice and in Him have been taught - and this is true Christian teaching -

EPHESIANS 4:22
22 to put away, in regard to your former mode of life, your original evil nature which is doomed to perish as befits its misleading impulses,

EPHESIANS 4:23
23 and to get yourselves renewed in the temper of your minds and clothe yourselves

EPHESIANS 4:24
24 with that new and better self which has been created to resemble God in the righteousness and holiness which come from the truth.

EPHESIANS 4:25
25 For this reason, laying aside falsehood, every one of you should speak the truth to his fellow man; for we are, as it were, parts of one another.

EPHESIANS 4:26
26 If angry, beware of sinning. Let not your irritation last until the sun goes down;

EPHESIANS 4:27
27 and do not leave room for the Devil.

EPHESIANS 4:28
28 He who has been a thief must steal no more, but, instead of that, should work with his own hands in honest industry, so that he may have
something of which he can give the needy a share.

EPHESIANS 4:29
29 Let no unwholesome words ever pass your lips, but let all your words be good for benefiting others according to the need of the moment, so that
they may be a means of blessing to the hearers.

EPHESIANS 4:30
30 And beware of grieving the Holy Spirit of God, in whom you have been sealed in preparation for the day of Redemption.

EPHESIANS 4:31
31 Let all bitterness and all passionate feeling, all anger and loud insulting language, be unknown among you - and also every kind of malice.

EPHESIANS 4:32
32 On the contrary learn to be kind to one another, tender-hearted, forgiving one another, just as God in Christ has also forgiven you.

CHAPTER 5

EPHESIANS 5:1
1 Therefore be imitators of God, as His dear children.

EPHESIANS 5:2
2 And live and act lovingly, as Christ also loved you and gave Himself up to death on our behalf as an offering and sacrifice to God, yielding a
fragrant odor.
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EPHESIANS 5:3
3 But fornication and every kind of impurity, or covetousness, let them not even be mentioned among you, for they ought not to be named among
EPHESIANS 5:2
2 And live and act lovingly, as Christ also loved you and gave Himself up to death on our behalf as an offering and sacrifice to God, yielding a
fragrant odor.

EPHESIANS 5:3
3 But fornication and every kind of impurity, or covetousness, let them not even be mentioned among you, for they ought not to be named among
God's people.

EPHESIANS 5:4
4 Avoid shameful and foolish talk and low jesting - they are all alike discreditable - and in place of these give thanks.

EPHESIANS 5:5
5 For be well assured that no fornicator or immoral person and no money-grubber - or in other words idol-worshipper - has any share awaiting him
in the Kingdom of Christ and of God.

EPHESIANS 5:6
6 Let no one deceive you with empty words, for it is on account of these very sins that God's anger is coming upon the disobedient.

EPHESIANS 5:7
7 Therefore do not become sharers with them.

EPHESIANS 5:8
8 There was a time when you were nothing but darkness. Now, as Christians, you are Light itself.

EPHESIANS 5:9
9 Live and act as sons of Light - for the effect of the Light is seen in every kind of goodness, uprightness and truth -

EPHESIANS 5:10
10 and learn in your own experiences what is fully pleasing to the Lord.

EPHESIANS 5:11
11 Have nothing to do with the barren unprofitable deeds of darkness, but, instead of that, set your faces against them;

EPHESIANS 5:12
12 for the things which are done by these people in secret it is disgraceful even to speak of.

EPHESIANS 5:13
13 But everything can be tested by the light and thus be shown in its true colors; for whatever shines of itself is light.

EPHESIANS 5:14
14 For this reason it is said, "Rise, sleeper; rise from among the dead, and Christ will shed light upon you."

EPHESIANS 5:15
15 Therefore be very careful how you live and act. Let it not be as unwise men, but as wise.

EPHESIANS 5:16
16 Buy up your opportunities, for these are evil times.

EPHESIANS 5:17
17 On this account do not prove yourselves wanting in sense, but try to understand what the Lord's will is.

EPHESIANS 5:18
18 Do not over-indulge in wine - a thing in which excess is so easy -

EPHESIANS 5:19
19 but drink deeply of God's Spirit. Speak to one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. Sing and offer praise in your hearts to the
Lord.

EPHESIANS 5:20
20 Always and for everything let your thanks to God the Father be presented in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ;

EPHESIANS 5:21
21 and submit to one another out of reverence for Christ.

EPHESIANS 5:22
22 Married women, submit to your own husbands as if to the Lord;

EPHESIANS 5:23
23 because a husband is the Head of his wife as Christ also is the Head of the Church, being indeed the Savior of this His Body.

EPHESIANS 5:24
24 And just as the Church submits to Christ, so also married women should be entirely submissive to their husbands.

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25 Married men, love your wives, as Christ also loved the Church and gave Himself up to death for her;
EPHESIANS 5:24
24 And just as the Church submits to Christ, so also married women should be entirely submissive to their husbands.

EPHESIANS 5:25
25 Married men, love your wives, as Christ also loved the Church and gave Himself up to death for her;

EPHESIANS 5:26
26 in order to make her holy, cleansing her with the baptismal water by the word,

EPHESIANS 5:27
27 that He might present the Church to Himself a glorious bride, without spot or wrinkle or any other defect, but to be holy and unblemished.

EPHESIANS 5:28
28 So too married men ought to love their wives as much as they love themselves. He who loves his wife loves himself.

EPHESIANS 5:29
29 For never yet has a man hated his own body. On the contrary he feeds and cherishes it, just as Christ feeds and cherishes the Church;

EPHESIANS 5:30
30 because we are, as it were, parts of His Body.

EPHESIANS 5:31
31 "For this reason a man is to leave his father and his mother and be united to his wife, and the two shall be as one."

EPHESIANS 5:32
32 That is a great truth hitherto kept secret: I mean the truth concerning Christ and the Church.

EPHESIANS 5:33
33 Yet I insist that among you also, each man is to love his own wife as much as he loves himself, and let a married woman see to it that she treats her
husband with respect.

CHAPTER 6

EPHESIANS 6:1
1 Children, be obedient to your parents as a Christian duty, for it is a duty.

EPHESIANS 6:2
2 "Honor your father and your mother" - this is the first Commandment which has a promise added to it -

EPHESIANS 6:3
3 "so that it may be well with you, and that you may live long on the earth."

EPHESIANS 6:4
4 And you, fathers, do not irritate your children, but bring them up tenderly with true Christian training and advice.

EPHESIANS 6:5
5 Slaves, be obedient to your earthly masters, with respect and eager anxiety to please and with simplicity of motive as if you were obeying Christ.

EPHESIANS 6:6
6 Let it not be in acts of eye-service as if you had but to please men, but as Christ's bondservants who are doing God's will from the heart.

EPHESIANS 6:7
7 With right good will, be faithful to your duty as service rendered to the Lord and not to man.

EPHESIANS 6:8
8 You well know that whatever right thing any one does, he will receive a requital for it from the Lord, whether he is a slave or a free man.

EPHESIANS 6:9
9 And you masters, act towards your slaves on the same principles, and refrain from threats. For you know that in Heaven there is One who is your
Master as well as theirs, and that merely earthly distinctions there are none with Him.

EPHESIANS 6:10
10 In conclusion, strengthen yourselves in the Lord and in the power which His supreme might imparts.

EPHESIANS 6:11
11 Put on the complete armour of God, so as to be able to stand firm against all the stratagems of the Devil.

EPHESIANS 6:12
12 For ours is not a conflict with mere flesh and blood, but with the despotisms, the empires, the forces that control and govern this dark world - the
spiritual hosts of evil arrayed against us in the heavenly warfare.

EPHESIANS 6:13
13 Therefore put on the complete armour of God, so that you may be able to stand your ground on the day of battle, and, having fought to the end,
to remain victors
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EPHESIANS 6:14
14 Stand therefore, first fastening round you the girdle of truth and putting on the breastplate of uprightness
EPHESIANS 6:13
13 Therefore put on the complete armour of God, so that you may be able to stand your ground on the day of battle, and, having fought to the end,
to remain victors on the field.

EPHESIANS 6:14
14 Stand therefore, first fastening round you the girdle of truth and putting on the breastplate of uprightness

EPHESIANS 6:15
15 as well as the shoes of the Good News of peace - a firm foundation for your feet.

EPHESIANS 6:16
16 And besides all these take the great shield of faith, on which you will be able to quench all the flaming darts of the Wicked one;

EPHESIANS 6:17
17 and take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit which is the word of God.

EPHESIANS 6:18
18 Pray with unceasing prayer and entreaty on every fitting occasion in the Spirit, and be always on the alert to seize opportunities for doing so, with
unwearied persistence and entreaty on behalf of all God's people,

EPHESIANS 6:19
19 and ask on my behalf that words may be given to me so that, outspoken and fearless, I may make known the truths (hitherto kept secret) of the
Good News -

EPHESIANS 6:20
20 to spread which I am an ambassador in chains - so that when telling them I may speak out boldly as I ought.

EPHESIANS 6:21
21 But in order that you also may know how I am doing, Tychicus our dearly-loved brother and faithful helper in the Lord's service will tell you
everything.

EPHESIANS 6:22
22 I have sent him to you for the very purpose - that you may know about us and that he may encourage you.

EPHESIANS 6:23
23 Peace be to the brethren, and love combined with faith, from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

EPHESIANS 6:24
24 May grace be with all who love our Lord Jesus Christ with perfect sincerity.


Weymouth PHILIPPIANS
Paul's Letter
To The
Philippians

This Letter was written shortly before that to the Ephesians, probably late in 61 or early in 62 A.D. Epaphroditus had been sent to Rome to assure the Apostle, in his
imprisonment, of the tender and practical sympathy of the Philippian disciples (Philippians 2:25; 4:15,16). The messenger, however, fell ill upon his arrival, and only on
his recovery could Paul, as in this Letter express his appreciation of the thoughtful love of the Philippians.

The Apostle appears to have visited the city three times. In 52 A.D. it was the place of his first preaching in Europe (Act 16:12); but he came again in 57 and in 58
A.D. (Acts 20:2,6), on the last occasion spending the Passover season there.

Two special traits in the Macedonian character are recognized by the Apostle in this Letter; the position and influence of women, and the financial liberality of the
Philippians. It is remarkable that a Church displaying such characteristics, and existing in a Roman "colonia," should have lived, as this one did, "without a history, and
have perished without a memorial."

CHAPTER 1

PHILIPPIANS 1:1
1 Paul and Timothy, bondservants of Christ Jesus: To all God's people in Christ Jesus who are at Philippi, with the ministers of the Church and their
assistants.

PHILIPPIANS 1:2
2 May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

PHILIPPIANS 1:3
3 I thank my God at my every remembrance of you -

PHILIPPIANS 1:4
4 always when offering any prayer on behalf of you all, finding a joy in offering it.

PHILIPPIANS     1:5
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5 I thank my God, I say, for your cooperation in spreading the Good News, from the time it first came to you even until now.
PHILIPPIANS 1:4
4 always when offering any prayer on behalf of you all, finding a joy in offering it.

PHILIPPIANS 1:5
5 I thank my God, I say, for your cooperation in spreading the Good News, from the time it first came to you even until now.

PHILIPPIANS 1:6
6 For of this I am confident, that He who has begun a good work within you will go on to perfect it in preparation for the day of Jesus Christ.

PHILIPPIANS 1:7
7 And I am justified in having this confidence about you all, because, both during my imprisonment and when I stand up in defense of the Good
News or to confirm its truth, I have you in my heart, sharers as you all are in the same grace as myself.

PHILIPPIANS 1:8
8 For God is my witness how I yearn over all of you with tender Christian affection.

PHILIPPIANS 1:9
9 And it is my prayer that your love may be more and more accompanied by clear knowledge and keen perception, for testing things that differ,

PHILIPPIANS 1:10
10 so that you may be men of transparent character, and may be blameless, in preparation for the day of Christ,

PHILIPPIANS 1:11
11 being filled with these fruits of righteousness which come through Jesus Christ - to the glory and praise of God.

PHILIPPIANS 1:12
12 Now I would have you know, brethren, that what I have gone through has turned out to the furtherance of the Good News rather than otherwise.

PHILIPPIANS 1:13
13 And thus it has become notorious among all the Imperial Guards, and everywhere, that it is for the sake of Christ that I am a prisoner;

PHILIPPIANS 1:14
14 and the greater part of the brethren, made confident in the Lord through my imprisonment, now speak of God's Message without fear, more
boldly than ever.

PHILIPPIANS 1:15
15 Some indeed actually preach Christ out of envy and contentiousness but there are also others who do it from good will.

PHILIPPIANS 1:16
16 These latter preach Him from love to me, knowing that I am here for the defense of the Good News;

PHILIPPIANS 1:17
17 while the others proclaim Him from motives of rivalry, and insincerely, supposing that by this they are embittering my imprisonment.

PHILIPPIANS 1:18
18 What does it matter, however? In any case Christ is preached - either perversely or in honest truth; and in that I rejoice, yes, and will rejoice.

PHILIPPIANS 1:19
19 For I know that it will result in my salvation through your prayers and a bountiful supply of the Spirit of Jesus Christ,

PHILIPPIANS 1:20
20 in fulfilment of my eager expectation and hope that I shall never have reason to feel ashamed, but that by my perfect freedom of speech Christ
will be glorified in me, now as always, either by my life or by my death.

PHILIPPIANS 1:21
21 For, with me, to live is Christ and to die is gain.

PHILIPPIANS 1:22
22 But since to live means a longer stay on earth, that implies more labor for me - and not unsuccessful labor; and which I am to choose I cannot tell.

PHILIPPIANS 1:23
23 I am in a dilemma, my earnest desire being to depart and be with Christ, for that is far, far better.

PHILIPPIANS 1:24
24 But for your sakes it is more important that I should still remain in the body.

PHILIPPIANS 1:25
25 I am convinced of this, and I know that I shall remain, and shall go on working side by side with you all, to promote your progress and joy in the
faith;

PHILIPPIANS 1:26
26 so that, as Christians, you may have additional reason for glorying about me as the result of my being with you again.

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27 Only let the lives you live be worthy of the Good News of the Christ, in order that, whether I come and see you or, being absent, only hear of you,
I may know that you are standing fast in one spirit and with one mind, fighting shoulder to shoulder for the faith of the Good News.
PHILIPPIANS 1:26
26 so that, as Christians, you may have additional reason for glorying about me as the result of my being with you again.

PHILIPPIANS 1:27
27 Only let the lives you live be worthy of the Good News of the Christ, in order that, whether I come and see you or, being absent, only hear of you,
I may know that you are standing fast in one spirit and with one mind, fighting shoulder to shoulder for the faith of the Good News.

PHILIPPIANS 1:28
28 Never for a moment quail before your antagonists. Your fearlessness will be to them a sure token of impending destruction, but to you it will be a
sure token of your salvation - a token coming from God.

PHILIPPIANS 1:29
29 For you have had the privilege granted you on behalf of Christ - not only to believe in Him, but also to suffer on His behalf;

PHILIPPIANS 1:30
30 maintaining, as you do, the same kind of conflict that you once saw in me and which you still hear that I am engaged in.

CHAPTER 2

PHILIPPIANS 2:1
1 If then I can appeal to you as the followers of Christ, if there is any persuasive power in love and any common sharing of the Spirit, or if you have
any tender-heartedness and compassion, make my joy complete by being of one mind,

PHILIPPIANS 2:2
2 united by mutual love, with harmony of feeling giving your minds to one and the same object.

PHILIPPIANS 2:3
3 Do nothing in a spirit of factiousness or of vainglory, but, with true humility, let every one regard the rest as being of more account than himself;

PHILIPPIANS 2:4
4 each fixing his attention, not simply on his own interests, but on those of others also.

PHILIPPIANS 2:5
5 Let the same disposition be in you which was in Christ Jesus.

PHILIPPIANS 2:6
6 Although from the beginning He had the nature of God He did not reckon His equality with God a treasure to be tightly grasped.

PHILIPPIANS 2:7
7 Nay, He stripped Himself of His glory, and took on Him the nature of a bondservant by becoming a man like other men.

PHILIPPIANS 2:8
8 And being recognized as truly human, He humbled Himself and even stooped to die; yes, to die on a cross.

PHILIPPIANS 2:9
9 It is in consequence of this that God has also so highly exalted Him, and has conferred on Him the Name which is supreme above every other,

PHILIPPIANS 2:10
10 in order that in the Name of Jesus every knee should bow, of beings in Heaven, of those on the earth, and of those in the underworld,

PHILIPPIANS 2:11
11 and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.

PHILIPPIANS 2:12
12 Therefore, my dearly-loved friends, as I have always found you obedient, labor earnestly with fear and trembling - not merely as though I were
present with you, but much more now since I am absent from you - labor earnestly, I say, to make sure of your own salvation.

PHILIPPIANS 2:13
13 For it is God Himself whose power creates within you the desire to do His gracious will and also brings about the accomplishment of the desire.

PHILIPPIANS 2:14
14 Be ever on your guard against a grudging and contentious spirit,

PHILIPPIANS 2:15
15 so that you may always prove yourselves to be blameless and spotless - irreproachable children of God in the midst of a crooked and perverse
generation, among whom you are seen as heavenly lights in the world,

PHILIPPIANS 2:16
16 holding out to them a Message of Life. It will then be my glory on the day of Christ that I did not run my race in vain nor toil in vain.

PHILIPPIANS 2:17
17 Nay, even if my life is to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I rejoice, and I congratulate you all.

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PHILIPPIANS     2:18      Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                              Page 381 / 567
18 And I bid you also share my gladness, and congratulate me.
PHILIPPIANS 2:17
17 Nay, even if my life is to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I rejoice, and I congratulate you all.

PHILIPPIANS 2:18
18 And I bid you also share my gladness, and congratulate me.

PHILIPPIANS 2:19
19 But, if the Lord permits it, I hope before long to send Timothy to you, that I, in turn, may be cheered by getting news of you.

PHILIPPIANS 2:20
20 For I have no one likeminded with him, who will cherish a genuine care for you.

PHILIPPIANS 2:21
21 Everybody concerns himself about his own interests, not about those of Jesus Christ.

PHILIPPIANS 2:22
22 But you know Timothy's approved worth - how, like a child working with his father, he has served with me in furtherance of the Good News.

PHILIPPIANS 2:23
23 So it is he that I hope to send as soon as ever I see how things go with me;

PHILIPPIANS 2:24
24 but trusting, as I do, in the Lord, I believe that I shall myself also come to you before long.

PHILIPPIANS 2:25
25 Yet I deem it important to send Epaphroditus to you now - he is my brother and comrade both in labor and in arms, and is your messenger who
has ministered to my needs.

PHILIPPIANS 2:26
26 I send him because he is longing to see you all and is distressed at your having heard of his illness.

PHILIPPIANS 2:27
27 For it is true that he has been ill, and was apparently at the point of death; but God had pity on him, and not only on him, but also on me, to save
me from having sorrow upon sorrow.

PHILIPPIANS 2:28
28 I am therefore all the more eager to send him, in the hope that when you see him again you may be glad and I may have the less sorrow.

PHILIPPIANS 2:29
29 Receive him therefore with heartfelt Christian joy, and hold in honor men like him;

PHILIPPIANS 2:30
30 because it was for the sake of Christ's work that he came so near death, hazarding, as he did, his very life in endeavouring to make good any
deficiency that there might be in your gifts to me.

CHAPTER 3

PHILIPPIANS 3:1
1 In conclusion, my brethren, be joyful in the Lord. For me to give you the same warnings as before is not irksome to me, while so far as you are
concerned it is a safe precaution.

PHILIPPIANS 3:2
2 Beware of 'the dogs,' the bad workmen, the self-mutilators.

PHILIPPIANS 3:3
3 For we are the true circumcision - we who render to God a spiritual worship and make our boast in Christ Jesus and have no confidence in outward
ceremonies:

PHILIPPIANS 3:4
4 although I myself might have some excuse for confidence in outward ceremonies. If any one else claims a right to trust in them, far more may I:

PHILIPPIANS 3:5
5 circumcised, as I was, on the eighth day, a member of the race of Israel and of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew sprung from Hebrews; as to the
Law a Pharisee;

PHILIPPIANS 3:6
6 as to zeal, a persecutor of the Church; as to the righteousness which comes through Law, blameless.

PHILIPPIANS 3:7
7 Yet all that was gain to me - for Christ's sake I have reckoned it loss.

PHILIPPIANS 3:8
8 Nay, I even reckon all things as pure loss because of the priceless privilege of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. And for His sake I have suffered the
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loss       (c) 2005-2009,
     of everything,       Infobase
                    and reckon  it allMedia Corp.
                                       as mere refuse, in order that I may win Christ and be found in union with Him,                Page 382 / 567

PHILIPPIANS 3:9
PHILIPPIANS 3:8
8 Nay, I even reckon all things as pure loss because of the priceless privilege of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. And for His sake I have suffered the
loss of everything, and reckon it all as mere refuse, in order that I may win Christ and be found in union with Him,

PHILIPPIANS 3:9
9 not having a righteousness of my own, derived from the Law, but that which arises from faith in Christ - the righteousness which comes from God
through faith.

PHILIPPIANS 3:10
10 I long to know Christ and the power which is in His resurrection, and to share in His sufferings and die even as He died;

PHILIPPIANS 3:11
11 in the hope that I may attain to the resurrection from among the dead.

PHILIPPIANS 3:12
12 I do not say that I have already won the race or have already reached perfection. But I am pressing on, striving to lay hold of the prize for which
also Christ has laid hold of me.

PHILIPPIANS 3:13
13 Brethren, I do not imagine that I have yet laid hold of it. But this one thing I do - forgetting everything which is past and stretching forward to
what lies in front of me,

PHILIPPIANS 3:14
14 with my eyes fixed on the goal I push on to secure the prize of God's heavenward call in Christ Jesus.

PHILIPPIANS 3:15
15 Therefore let all of us who are mature believers cherish these thoughts; and if in any respect you think differently, that also God will make clear to
you.

PHILIPPIANS 3:16
16 But whatever be the point that we have already reached, let us persevere in the same course.

PHILIPPIANS 3:17
17 Brethren, vie with one another in imitating me, and carefully observe those who follow the example which we have set you.

PHILIPPIANS 3:18
18 For there are many whom I have often described to you, and I now even with tears describe them, as being enemies to the Cross of Christ.

PHILIPPIANS 3:19
19 Their end is destruction, their bellies are their God, their glory is in their shame, and their minds are devoted to earthly things.

PHILIPPIANS 3:20
20 We, however, are free citizens of Heaven, and we are waiting with longing expectation for the coming from Heaven of a Savior, the Lord Jesus
Christ,

PHILIPPIANS 3:21
21 who, in the exercise of the power which He has even to subject all things to Himself, will transform this body of our humiliation until it resembles
His own glorious body.

CHAPTER 4

PHILIPPIANS 4:1
1 Therefore, my brethren, dearly loved and longed for, my joy and crown, so stand firm in the Lord, my dearly-loved ones.

PHILIPPIANS 4:2
2 I entreat Euodia, and I entreat Syntyche, to be of one mind, as sisters in Christ.

PHILIPPIANS 4:3
3 Yes, and I beg you also, my faithful yoke-fellow, to help these women who have shared my toil in connection with the Good News, together with
Clement and the rest of my fellow laborers, whose names are recorded in the Book of Life.

PHILIPPIANS 4:4
4 Always be glad in the Lord: I will repeat it, be glad.

PHILIPPIANS 4:5
5 Let your forbearing spirit be known to every one - the Lord is near.

PHILIPPIANS 4:6
6 Do not be over-anxious about anything, but by prayer and earnest pleading, together with thanksgiving, let your request be unreservedly made
known in the presence of God.

PHILIPPIANS     4:7
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7 And then the peace of God, which transcends all our powers of thought, will be a garrison to guard your hearts and minds in union with383 / 567
                                                                                                                                         Christ
Jesus.
known in the presence of God.

PHILIPPIANS 4:7
7 And then the peace of God, which transcends all our powers of thought, will be a garrison to guard your hearts and minds in union with Christ
Jesus.

PHILIPPIANS 4:8
8 Finally, brethren, whatever is true, whatever wins respect, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovable, whatever is of good repute - if
there is any virtue or anything deemed worthy of praise - cherish the thought of these things.

PHILIPPIANS 4:9
9 The doctrines and the line of conduct which I taught you - both what you heard and what you saw in me - hold fast to them; and God who gives
peace will be with you.

PHILIPPIANS 4:10
10 But I rejoice with a deep and holy joy that now at length you have revived your thoughtfulness for my welfare. Indeed you have always been
thoughtful for me, although opportunity failed you.

PHILIPPIANS 4:11
11 I do not refer to this through fear of privation, for (for my part) I have learned, whatever be my outward experiences, to be content.

PHILIPPIANS 4:12
12 I know both how to live in humble circumstances and how to live amid abundance. I am fully initiated into all the mysteries both of fulness and of
hunger, of abundance and of want.

PHILIPPIANS 4:13
13 I have strength for anything through Him who gives me power.

PHILIPPIANS 4:14
14 Yet I thank you for taking your share in my troubles.

PHILIPPIANS 4:15
15 And you men and women of Philippi also know that at the first preaching of the Good News, when I had left Macedonia, no other Church except
yourselves held communication with me about giving and receiving;

PHILIPPIANS 4:16
16 because even in Thessalonica you sent several times to minister to my needs.

PHILIPPIANS 4:17
17 Not that I crave for gifts from you, but I do want to see abundant fruit bring you honor.

PHILIPPIANS 4:18
18 I have enough of everything - and more than enough. My wants are fully satisfied now that I have received from the hands of Epaphroditus the
generous gifts which you sent me - they are a fragrant odor, an acceptable sacrifice, truly pleasing to God.

PHILIPPIANS 4:19
19 But my God - so great is His wealth of glory in Christ Jesus - will fully supply every need of yours.

PHILIPPIANS 4:20
20 And to our God and Father be the glory throughout the Ages of the Ages! Amen.

PHILIPPIANS 4:21
21 My Christian greetings to every one of God's people. The brethren who are with me send their greetings.

PHILIPPIANS 4:22
22 All God's people here greet you - especially the members of Caesar's household.

PHILIPPIANS 4:23
23 May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirits.


Weymouth COLOSSIANS
Paul's Letter
To The
Colossians

This Letter belongs to the same group as those to the Ephesians and Philemon, and was probably written from Rome about 63 A. D. Colossae was a town in Phrygia
(Roman Asia), on the river Lycus, and was destroyed by an earthquake in the seventh year of Nero's reign. The Church there was not founded by Paul himself
(Colossians 2:1), but by Epaphras (Colossians 1:7; 4:12), and this Letter arose out of a visit which Epaphras paid to the Apostle, for the purpose of discussing with him
the development, at Colossae, of certain strange doctrines which may possibly have been a kind of early Gnosticism. Paul here writes to support the authority and
confirm the teaching of Epaphras.

CHAPTER 1
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COLOSSIANS 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God - and Timothy our brother:
confirm the teaching of Epaphras.

CHAPTER 1

COLOSSIANS 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God - and Timothy our brother:

COLOSSIANS 1:2
2 To the people of God and the believing brethren at Colossae who are in Christ. May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father.

COLOSSIANS 1:3
3 We give thanks to God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, constantly praying for you as we do,

COLOSSIANS 1:4
4 because we have heard of your faith in Christ Jesus and of the love which you cherish towards all God's people,

COLOSSIANS 1:5
5 on account of the hope treasured up for you in Heaven. Of this hope you have already heard in the Message of the truth of the Good News.

COLOSSIANS 1:6
6 For it has reached you, and remains with you, just as it has also spread through the whole world, yielding fruit there and increasing, as it has done
among you from the day when first you heard it and came really to know the grace of God,

COLOSSIANS 1:7
7 as you learned it from Epaphras our dearly-loved fellow servant. He is to you a faithful minister of Christ in our stead,

COLOSSIANS 1:8
8 and moreover he has informed us of your love, which is inspired by the Spirit.

COLOSSIANS 1:9
9 For this reason we also, from the day we first received these tidings, have never ceased to pray for you and to entreat that you may be filled with a
clear knowledge of His will accompanied by thorough wisdom and discernment in spiritual things;

COLOSSIANS 1:10
10 so that your lives may be worthy of the Lord and perfectly pleasing to Him, while you exhibit the results of right action of every sort and grow
into a fuller knowledge of God.

COLOSSIANS 1:11
11 Since His power is so glorious, may you be strengthened with strength of every kind, and be prepared for cheerfully enduring all things with
patience and long-suffering;

COLOSSIANS 1:12
12 and give thanks to the Father who has made us fit to receive our share of the inheritance of God's people in Light.

COLOSSIANS 1:13
13 It is God who has delivered us out of the dominion of darkness, and has transferred us into the Kingdom of His dearly-loved Son,

COLOSSIANS 1:14
14 in whom we have our redemption - the forgiveness of our sins.

COLOSSIANS 1:15
15 Christ is the visible representation of the invisible God, the Firstborn and Lord of all creation.

COLOSSIANS 1:16
16 For in Him was created the universe of things in heaven and on earth, things seen and things unseen, thrones, dominions, princedoms, powers - all
were created, and exist through and for Him.

COLOSSIANS 1:17
17 And He Is before all things and in and through Him the universe is a harmonious whole.

COLOSSIANS 1:18
18 Moreover He is the Head of His Body, the Church. He is the Beginning, the Firstborn from among the dead, in order that He Himself may in all
things occupy the foremost place.

COLOSSIANS 1:19
19 For it was the Father's gracious will that the whole of the divine perfections should dwell in Him.

COLOSSIANS 1:20
20 And God purposed through Him to reconcile the universe to Himself, making peace through His blood, which was shed upon the Cross - to
reconcile to Himself through Him, I say, things on earth and things in Heaven.

COLOSSIANS 1:21
21 And you, estranged as you once were and even hostile in your minds, amidst your evil deeds,
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COLOSSIANS 1:22
22 He has now, in His human body, reconciled to God by His death, to bring you, holy and faultless and irreproachable, into His presence;
COLOSSIANS 1:21
21 And you, estranged as you once were and even hostile in your minds, amidst your evil deeds,

COLOSSIANS 1:22
22 He has now, in His human body, reconciled to God by His death, to bring you, holy and faultless and irreproachable, into His presence;

COLOSSIANS 1:23
23 if, indeed, you are still firmly holding to faith as your foundation, without ever shifting from your hope that rests on the Good News that you have
heard, which has been proclaimed in the whole creation under Heaven, and in which I Paul have been appointed to serve.

COLOSSIANS 1:24
24 Now I can find joy amid my sufferings for you, and I fill up in my own person whatever is lacking in Christ's afflictions on behalf of His Body, the
Church.

COLOSSIANS 1:25
25 I have been appointed to serve the Church in the position of responsibility entrusted to me by God for your benefit, so that I may fully deliver
God's Message -

COLOSSIANS 1:26
26 the truth which has been kept secret from all ages and generations, but has now been revealed to His people,

COLOSSIANS 1:27
27 to whom it was His will to make known how vast a wealth of glory for the Gentile world is implied in this truth - the truth that 'Christ is in you,
the hope of glory.'

COLOSSIANS 1:28
28 Him we preach, admonishing every one and instructing every one, with all possible wisdom, so that we may bring every one into God's presence,
made perfect through Christ.

COLOSSIANS 1:29
29 To this end, like an earnest wrestler, I exert all my strength in reliance upon the power of Him who is mightily at work within me.

CHAPTER 2

COLOSSIANS 2:1
1 For I would have you know in how severe a struggle I am engaged on behalf of you and the brethren in Laodicea and of all who have not known
me personally,

COLOSSIANS 2:2
2 in order that their hearts may be cheered, they themselves being welded together in love and enjoying all the advantages of a reasonable certainty,
till at last they attain the full knowledge of God's truth, which is Christ Himself.

COLOSSIANS 2:3
3 In Him all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge are stored up, hidden from view.

COLOSSIANS 2:4
4 I say this to prevent your being misled by any one's plausible sophistry.

COLOSSIANS 2:5
5 For although, as you say, I am absent from you in body, yet in spirit I am present with you and am delighted to witness your good discipline and
the solid front presented by your faith in Christ.

COLOSSIANS 2:6
6 As therefore you have received the Christ, even Jesus our Lord, live and act in vital union with Him;

COLOSSIANS 2:7
7 having the roots of your being firmly planted in Him, and continually building yourselves up in Him, and always being increasingly confirmed in
the faith as you were taught it, and abounding in it with thanksgiving.

COLOSSIANS 2:8
8 Take care lest there be some one who leads you away as prisoners by means of his philosophy and idle fancies, following human traditions and the
world's crude notions instead of following Christ.

COLOSSIANS 2:9
9 For it is in Christ that the fulness of God's nature dwells embodied, and in Him you are made complete,

COLOSSIANS 2:10
10 and He is the Lord of all princes and rulers.

COLOSSIANS 2:11
11 In Him also you were circumcised with a circumcision not performed by hand, when you threw off your sinful nature in true Christian
circumcision;
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COLOSSIANS 2:12
12 having been buried with Him in your baptism, in which you were also raised with Him through faith produced within you by God who raised
COLOSSIANS 2:11
11 In Him also you were circumcised with a circumcision not performed by hand, when you threw off your sinful nature in true Christian
circumcision;

COLOSSIANS 2:12
12 having been buried with Him in your baptism, in which you were also raised with Him through faith produced within you by God who raised
Him from among the dead.

COLOSSIANS 2:13
13 And to you - dead as you once were in your transgressions and in the uncircumcision of your natural state - He has nevertheless given Life with
Himself, having forgiven us all our transgressions.

COLOSSIANS 2:14
14 The bond, with its requirements, which was in force against us and was hostile to us, He cancelled, and cleared it out of the way, nailing it to His
Cross.

COLOSSIANS 2:15
15 And the hostile princes and rulers He shook off from Himself, and boldly displayed them as His conquests, when by the Cross He triumphed over
them.

COLOSSIANS 2:16
16 Therefore suffer no one to sit in judgment on you as to eating or drinking or with regard to a festival, a new moon or a sabbath.

COLOSSIANS 2:17
17 These were a shadow of things that were soon to come, but the substance belongs to Christ.

COLOSSIANS 2:18
18 Let no one defraud you of your prize, priding himself on his humility and on his worship of the angels, and taking his stand on the visions he has
seen, and idly puffed up with his unspiritual thoughts.

COLOSSIANS 2:19
19 Such a one does not keep his hold upon Christ, the Head, from whom the Body, in all its parts nourished and strengthened by its points of contact
and its connections, grows with a divine growth.

COLOSSIANS 2:20
20 If you have died with Christ and have escaped from the world's rudimentary notions, why, as though your life still belonged to the world, do you
submit to such precepts as

COLOSSIANS 2:21
21 "Do not handle this;" "Do not taste that;" "Do not touch that other thing" -

COLOSSIANS 2:22
22 referring to things which are all intended to be used up and perish - in obedience to mere human injunctions and teachings?

COLOSSIANS 2:23
23 These rules have indeed an appearance of wisdom where self-imposed worship exists, and an affectation of humility and an ascetic severity. But
not one of them is of any value in combating the indulgence of our lower natures.

CHAPTER 3

COLOSSIANS 3:1
1 If however you have risen with Christ, seek the things that are above, where Christ is, enthroned at God's right hand.

COLOSSIANS 3:2
2 Give your minds to the things that are above, not to the things that are on the earth.

COLOSSIANS 3:3
3 For you have died, and your life is hidden with Christ in God.

COLOSSIANS 3:4
4 When Christ appears - He is our true Life - then you also will appear with Him in glory.

COLOSSIANS 3:5
5 Therefore put to death your earthward inclinations - fornication, impurity, sensual passion, unholy desire, and all greed, for that is a form of
idolatry.

COLOSSIANS 3:6
6 It is on account of these very sins that God's anger is coming,

COLOSSIANS 3:7
7 and you also were once addicted to them, while you were living under their power.

COLOSSIANS       3:8
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8 But now you must rid yourselves of every kind of sin - angry and passionate outbreaks, ill-will, evil speaking, foul-mouthed abuse - so that these
may never soil your lips.
COLOSSIANS 3:7
7 and you also were once addicted to them, while you were living under their power.

COLOSSIANS 3:8
8 But now you must rid yourselves of every kind of sin - angry and passionate outbreaks, ill-will, evil speaking, foul-mouthed abuse - so that these
may never soil your lips.

COLOSSIANS 3:9
9 Do not speak falsehoods to one another, for you have stripped off the old self with its doings,

COLOSSIANS 3:10
10 and have clothed yourselves with the new self which is being remoulded into full knowledge so as to become like Him who created it.

COLOSSIANS 3:11
11 In that new creation there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, Scythian, slave nor free man, but Christ is
everything and is in all of us.

COLOSSIANS 3:12
12 Clothe yourselves therefore, as God's own people holy and dearly loved, with tender-heartedness, kindness, lowliness of mind, meekness, long-
suffering;

COLOSSIANS 3:13
13 bearing with one another and readily forgiving each other, if any one has a grievance against another. Just as the Lord has forgiven you, you also
must forgive.

COLOSSIANS 3:14
14 And over all these put on love, which is the perfect bond of union;

COLOSSIANS 3:15
15 and let the peace which Christ gives settle all questionings in your hearts, to which peace indeed you were called as belonging to His one Body;
and be thankful.

COLOSSIANS 3:16
16 Let the teaching concerning Christ remain as a rich treasure in your hearts. In all wisdom teach and admonish one another with psalms, hymns,
and spiritual songs, and sing with grace in your hearts to God.

COLOSSIANS 3:17
17 And whatever you do, in word or in deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, and let it be through Him that you give thanks to God the
Father.

COLOSSIANS 3:18
18 Married women, be submissive to your husbands, as is fitting in the Lord.

COLOSSIANS 3:19
19 Married men, be affectionate to your wives, and do not treat them harshly.

COLOSSIANS 3:20
20 Children be obedient to your parents in everything; for that is right for Christians.

COLOSSIANS 3:21
21 Fathers, do not fret and harass your children, or you may make them sullen and morose.

COLOSSIANS 3:22
22 Slaves, be obedient in everything to your earthly masters; not in acts of eye service, as aiming only to please men, but with simplicity of purpose,
because you fear the Lord.

COLOSSIANS 3:23
23 Whatever you are doing, let your hearts be in your work, as a thing done for the Lord and not for men.

COLOSSIANS 3:24
24 For you know that it is from the Lord you will receive the inheritance as your reward. Christ is the Master whose bondservants you are.

COLOSSIANS 3:25
25 The man who perpetrates a wrong will find the wrong repaid to him; and with God there are no merely earthly distinctions.

CHAPTER 4

COLOSSIANS 4:1
1 Masters, deal justly and equitably with your slaves, knowing that you too have a Master in Heaven.

COLOSSIANS 4:2
2 Be earnest and unwearied in prayer, being on the alert in it and in your giving of thanks.
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COLOSSIANS 4:3
3 And pray at the same time for us also, that God may open for us a door for preaching, for us to tell the truth concerning Christ for the sake of
which I am even a prisoner.
COLOSSIANS 4:2
2 Be earnest and unwearied in prayer, being on the alert in it and in your giving of thanks.

COLOSSIANS 4:3
3 And pray at the same time for us also, that God may open for us a door for preaching, for us to tell the truth concerning Christ for the sake of
which I am even a prisoner.

COLOSSIANS 4:4
4 Then I shall proclaim it fully, as it is my duty to do.

COLOSSIANS 4:5
5 Behave wisely in relation to the outside world, buying up your opportunities.

COLOSSIANS 4:6
6 Let your language be always seasoned with the salt of grace, so that you may know how to give every man a fitting answer.

COLOSSIANS 4:7
7 Tychicus, our much-loved brother, a trusty assistant and fellow servant with us in the Lord's work, will give you every information about me.

COLOSSIANS 4:8
8 And for this very purpose I send him to you that you may know how we are faring; and that he may cheer your hearts.

COLOSSIANS 4:9
9 And with him I send our dear and trusty brother Onesimus, who is one of yourselves. They will inform you of everything here.

COLOSSIANS 4:10
10 Aristarchus my fellow prisoner sends greeting to you, and so does Barnabas's cousin Mark. You have received instructions as to him; if he comes
to you, give him a welcome.

COLOSSIANS 4:11
11 Jesus, called Justus, also sends greeting. These three are Hebrew converts. They alone among such have worked loyally with me for the Kingdom
of God - they are men who have been a comfort to me.

COLOSSIANS 4:12
12 Epaphras, who is one of yourselves, a bondservant of Jesus Christ, sends greetings to you, always wrestling on your behalf in his prayers, that you
may stand firm - Christians of ripe character and of clear conviction as to everything which is God's will.

COLOSSIANS 4:13
13 For I can bear witness to the deep interest he takes in you and in the brethren at Laodicea and in those at Hierapolis.

COLOSSIANS 4:14
14 Luke, the dearly-loved physician, salutes you, and so does Demas.

COLOSSIANS 4:15
15 Christian greetings to the brethren at Laodicea, especially to Nymphas, and to the Church that meets at their house.

COLOSSIANS 4:16
16 And when this Letter has been read among you, let it be read also in the Church of the Laodiceans, and you in turn must read the one I am
sending to Laodicea.

COLOSSIANS 4:17
17 And tell Archippus to discharge carefully the duties devolving upon him as a servant of the Lord.

COLOSSIANS 4:18
18 I Paul add with my own hand this final greeting. Be mindful of me in my imprisonment. Grace be with you.


Weymouth 1 THESSALONIANS
Paul's First Letter
To The
Thessalonians

During his second missionary tour (Acts 17), Paul came to Thessalonica and preached the Good News there with no little success. The city - which had had its name
given it by Cassander, after his wife, the sister of Alexander the Great - was the most populous in Macedonia, besides being a "free city" and the seat of the Roman
pro-consular administration. Its modern name is Saloniki.

Very soon the unbelieving Jews stirred up the mob against Paul and Silas, and dragged Jason before the magistrates. Hence the brethren sent the missionaries away by
night to Beroea, being alarmed for their safety. As the Apostle was naturally anxious about the persecuted flock which he had been obliged to leave behind, he made
two attempts to return to them, but these being frustrated (1Thessalonians 2:18), he then sent Timothy, from Athens, to inquire after their welfare and encourage them.

The report brought back was on the whole satisfactory, but left occasion for the self-defense, the warnings and the exhortations of this Letter, which was then sent from
Corinth, probably in 53 A.D.

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CHAPTER        1         Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                      Page 389 / 567

1 THESSALONIANS 1:1
1 Paul, Silas, and Timothy: To the Church of the Thessalonians which is in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. May grace and peace be
The report brought back was on the whole satisfactory, but left occasion for the self-defense, the warnings and the exhortations of this Letter, which was then sent from
Corinth, probably in 53 A.D.

CHAPTER 1

1 THESSALONIANS 1:1
1 Paul, Silas, and Timothy: To the Church of the Thessalonians which is in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. May grace and peace be
granted to you.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:2
2 We continually give thanks to God because of you all, while we make mention of you in our prayers.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:3
3 For we never fail to remember your works of faith and labors of love and your persistent and unwavering hope in our Lord Jesus Christ in the
presence of our God and Father;

1 THESSALONIANS 1:4
4 knowing as we do, brethren, that you are beloved by God and that He has chosen you.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:5
5 The Good News that we brought you did not come to you in words only, but also with power and with the Holy Spirit and with much certainty,
for you know the sort of men we became among you, as examples for your sakes.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:6
6 And you followed the pattern set you by us and by the Master, after you had received the Message amid severe persecution, and yet with the joy
which the Holy Spirit gives,

1 THESSALONIANS 1:7
7 so that you became a pattern to all the believers throughout Macedonia and Greece.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:8
8 For it was not only from you that the Master's Message sounded forth throughout Macedonia and Greece; but everywhere your faith in God has
become known, so that it is unnecessary for us to say anything about it.

1 THESSALONIANS 1:9
9 For when others speak of us they report the reception we had from you, and how you turned from your idols to God, to be bondservants of the true
and ever-living God,

1 THESSALONIANS 1:10
10 and to await the return from Heaven of His Son, whom He raised from among the dead - even Jesus, our Deliverer from God's coming anger.

CHAPTER 2

1 THESSALONIANS 2:1
1 For you yourselves, brethren, know that our visit to you did not fail of its purpose.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:2
2 But, as you will remember, after we had already met with suffering and outrage at Philippi, we summoned up boldness, by the help of our God, to
tell you God's Good News amid much opposition.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:3
3 For our preaching was not grounded on a delusion, nor prompted by mingled motives, nor was there fraud in it.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:4
4 But as God tested and approved us before entrusting us with His Good News, so in what we say we are seeking not to please men but to please
God, who tests and approves our motives.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:5
5 For, as you are well aware, we have never used the language of flattery nor have we found pretexts for enriching ourselves - God is our witness;

1 THESSALONIANS 2:6
6 nor did we seek glory either from you or from any other mere men, although we might have stood on our dignity as Christ's Apostles.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:7
7 On the contrary, in our relations to you we showed ourselves as gentle as a mother is when she tenderly nurses her own children.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:8
8 Seeing that we were thus drawn affectionately towards you, it would have been a joy to us to have imparted to you not only God's Good News, but
to have given our very lives also, because you had become very dear to us.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:9
9 For you remember, brethren, our labor and toil: how, working night and day so as not to become a burden to any one of you, we came and
proclaimed among you God's Good News.
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1 THESSALONIANS 2:10
10 You yourselves are witnesses - and God is witness - how holy and upright and blameless our dealings with you believers were.
1 THESSALONIANS 2:9
9 For you remember, brethren, our labor and toil: how, working night and day so as not to become a burden to any one of you, we came and
proclaimed among you God's Good News.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:10
10 You yourselves are witnesses - and God is witness - how holy and upright and blameless our dealings with you believers were.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:11
11 For you know that we acted towards every one of you as a father does towards his own children, encouraging and cheering you,

1 THESSALONIANS 2:12
12 and imploring you to live lives worthy of fellowship with God who is inviting you to share His own Kingship and glory.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:13
13 And for this further reason we render unceasing thanks to God, that when you received God's Message from our lips, it was as no mere message
from men that you embraced it, but as - what it really is - God's Message, which also does its work in the hearts of you who believe.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:14
14 For you, brethren, followed the example of the Churches of God in Christ Jesus which are in Judaea; seeing that you endured the same ill-
treatment at the hands of your countrymen, as they did at the hands of the Jews.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:15
15 Those Jewish persecutors killed both the Lord Jesus and the Prophets, and drove us out of their midst. They are displeasing to God, and are the
enemies of all mankind;

1 THESSALONIANS 2:16
16 for they still try to prevent our preaching to the Gentiles so that they may find salvation. They thus continually fill up the measure of their own
sins, and God's anger in its severest form has overtaken them.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:17
17 But we, brethren, having been for a short time separated from you in bodily presence, though not in heart, endeavored all the more earnestly,
with intense longing, to see you face to face.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:18
18 On this account we wanted to come to you - at least I Paul wanted again and again to do so - but Satan hindered us.

1 THESSALONIANS 2:19
19 For what is our hope or joy, or the crown of which we boast? Is it not you yourselves in the presence of our Lord Jesus at His Coming?

1 THESSALONIANS 2:20
20 Yes, you are our glory and our joy.

CHAPTER 3

1 THESSALONIANS 3:1
1 So when we could endure it no longer, we decided to remain behind in Athens alone;

1 THESSALONIANS 3:2
2 and sent Timothy our brother and God's minister in the service of Christ's Good News, that he might help you spiritually and encourage you in
your faith;

1 THESSALONIANS 3:3
3 that none of you might be unnerved by your present trials: for you yourselves know that they are our appointed lot.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:4
4 For even when we were with you, we forewarned you, saying, "We are soon to suffer affliction;" and this actually happened, as you well know.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:5
5 For this reason I also, when I could no longer endure the uncertainty, sent to know the condition of your faith, lest perchance the Tempter might
have tempted you and our labor have been lost.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:6
6 But now that Timothy has recently come back to us from you, and has brought us the happy tidings of your faith and love, and has told us how
you still cherish a constant and affectionate recollection of us, and are longing to see us as we also long to see you -

1 THESSALONIANS 3:7
7 for this reason in our distress and trouble we have been comforted about you, brethren, by your faith.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:8
8 For now life is for us life indeed, since you are standing fast in the Lord.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:9
9 For what thanksgiving on your behalf can we possibly offer to God in return for all the joy which fills our souls before our God for you,
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1 THESSALONIANS 3:10
10 while night and day, with intense earnestness, we pray that we may see your faces, and may bring to perfection whatever may be still lacking in
1 THESSALONIANS 3:9
9 For what thanksgiving on your behalf can we possibly offer to God in return for all the joy which fills our souls before our God for you,

1 THESSALONIANS 3:10
10 while night and day, with intense earnestness, we pray that we may see your faces, and may bring to perfection whatever may be still lacking in
your faith?

1 THESSALONIANS 3:11
11 But may our God and Father Himself - and our Lord Jesus - guide us on our way to you;

1 THESSALONIANS 3:12
12 and as for you, may the Lord teach you to love one another and all men, with a growing and a glowing love, resembling our love for you.

1 THESSALONIANS 3:13
13 Thus He will build up your characters, so that you will be faultlessly holy in the presence of our God and Father at the Coming of our Lord Jesus
with all His holy ones.

CHAPTER 4

1 THESSALONIANS 4:1
1 Moreover, brethren, as you learnt from our lips the lives which you ought to live, and do live, so as to please God, we beg and exhort you in the
name of the Lord Jesus to live them more and more truly.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:2
2 For you know the commands which we laid upon you by the authority of the Lord Jesus.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:3
3 For this is God's will - your purity of life, that you abstain from fornication;

1 THESSALONIANS 4:4
4 that each man among you shall know how to procure a wife who shall be his own in purity and honor;

1 THESSALONIANS 4:5
5 that you be not overmastered by lustful cravings, like the Gentiles who have no knowledge of God;

1 THESSALONIANS 4:6
6 and that in this matter there be no encroaching on the rights of a brother Christian and no overreaching him. For the Lord is an avenger in all such
cases, as we have already taught you and solemnly warned you.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:7
7 God has not called us to an unclean life, but to one of purity.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:8
8 Therefore a defiant spirit in such a case provokes not man but God, who puts His Holy Spirit into your hearts.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:9
9 But on the subject of love for the brotherhood it is unnecessary for me to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love one
another;

1 THESSALONIANS 4:10
10 and indeed you do love all the brethren throughout Macedonia. And we exhort you to do so more and more,

1 THESSALONIANS 4:11
11 and to vie with one another in eagerness for peace, every one minding his own business and working with his hands, as we ordered you to do:

1 THESSALONIANS 4:12
12 so as to live worthy lives in relation to outsiders, and not be a burden to any one.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:13
13 Now, concerning those who from time to time pass away, we would not have you to be ignorant, brethren, lest you should mourn as others do
who have no hope.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:14
14 For if we believe that Jesus has died and risen again, we also believe that, through Jesus, God will bring with Him those who shall have passed
away.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:15
15 For this we declare to you on the Lord's own authority - that we who are alive and continue on earth until the Coming of the Lord, shall certainly
not forestall those who shall have previously passed away.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:16
16 For the Lord Himself will come down from Heaven with a loud word of command, and with an archangel's voice and the trumpet of God, and the
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dead in Christ will rise first.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:17
1 THESSALONIANS 4:16
16 For the Lord Himself will come down from Heaven with a loud word of command, and with an archangel's voice and the trumpet of God, and the
dead in Christ will rise first.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:17
17 Afterwards we who are alive and are still on earth will be caught up in their company amid clouds to meet the Lord in the air.

1 THESSALONIANS 4:18
18 And so we shall be with the Lord for ever. Therefore encourage one another with these words.

CHAPTER 5

1 THESSALONIANS 5:1
1 But as to times and dates it is unnecessary that anything be written to you.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:2
2 For you yourselves know perfectly well that the day of the Lord comes like a thief in the night.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:3
3 While they are saying "Peace and safety!" then in a moment destruction falls upon them, like birth-pains on a woman who is with child; and escape
there is none.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:4
4 But you, brethren, are not in darkness, that daylight should surprise you like a thief;

1 THESSALONIANS 5:5
5 for all of you are sons of Light and sons of the day. We belong neither to the night nor to darkness.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:6
6 So then let us not sleep, like the rest of the world, but let us keep awake and be sober.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:7
7 For those who sleep, sleep at night, and those who drink freely, drink at night.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:8
8 But let us, belonging - as we do - to the day, be sober, putting on the breastplate of faith and love, and for a helmet the hope of salvation.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:9
9 For God has not pre-destined us to meet His anger, but to obtain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ;

1 THESSALONIANS 5:10
10 who died on our behalf, so that whether we are awake or are sleeping we may share His Life.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:11
11 Therefore encourage one another, and let each one help to strengthen his friend, as in fact you do.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:12
12 Now we beg you, brethren, to show respect for those who labor among you and are your leaders in Christian work, and are your advisers;

1 THESSALONIANS 5:13
13 and to esteem them very highly in love for their work's sake. Be at peace among yourselves.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:14
14 And we exhort you, brethren, admonish the unruly, comfort the timid, sustain the weak, and be patient towards all.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:15
15 See to it that no one ever repays another with evil for evil; but always seek opportunities of doing good both to one another and to all the world.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:16
16 Be always joyful.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:17
17 Be unceasing in prayer.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:18
18 In every circumstance of life be thankful; for this is God's will in Christ Jesus respecting you.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:19
19 Do not quench the Spirit.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:20
20 Do not think meanly of utterances of prophecy;
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1 THESSALONIANS 5:21
21 but test all such, and retain hold of the good.
1 THESSALONIANS 5:20
20 Do not think meanly of utterances of prophecy;

1 THESSALONIANS 5:21
21 but test all such, and retain hold of the good.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:22
22 Hold yourselves aloof from every form of evil.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:23
23 And may God Himself who gives peace, make you entirely holy; and may your spirits, souls and bodies be preserved complete and be found
blameless at the Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:24
24 Faithful is He who calls you, and He will also perfect His work.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:25
25 Brethren, pray for us.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:26
26 Greet all the brethren with a holy kiss.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:27
27 I solemnly charge you in the Lord's name to have this Letter read to all the brethren.

1 THESSALONIANS 5:28
28 May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you.


Weymouth 2 THESSALONIANS
Paul's Second Letter
To The
Thessalonians

This Letter was written from Corinth not long after the preceding one, and probably in the year 54 A.D. Its occasion was the reception of tidings from Thessalonica
which showed that there had been a measure of misapprehension of the Apostle's teaching in regard to the Return of the Lord Jesus, and also that there was a definitely
disorderly section in the Church there, capable of doing great harm.

Hence Paul writes to correct the error into which his converts had fallen, and at the same time he uses strong language as to the treatment to be dealt out to those
members of the Church who were given to idleness and insubordination.

CHAPTER 1

2 THESSALONIANS 1:1
1 Paul, Silas, and Timothy: To the Church of the Thessalonians which is in God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:2
2 May grace and peace be granted to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:3
3 Unceasing thanks are due from us to God on your behalf, brethren. They are appropriate because your faith is growing greatly, and the love of
every one of you for all the others goes on increasing.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:4
4 It so increases that we ourselves make honorable mention of you among the Churches of God because of your patience and faith amid all your
persecutions and amid the afflictions which you are enduring.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:5
5 For these are a plain token of God's righteous judgment, which has in view your being deemed worthy of admission to God's Kingdom, for the sake
of which, indeed, you are sufferers.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:6
6 A plain token of God's righteous judgment, I say, since it is a righteous thing for Him to requite with affliction those who are now afflicting you;

2 THESSALONIANS 1:7
7 and to requite with rest you who are suffering affliction now - rest with us at the re-appearing of the Lord Jesus from Heaven, attended by His
mighty angels.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:8
8 He will come in flames of fire to take vengeance on those who have no knowledge of God, and do not obey the Good News as to Jesus, our Lord.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:9
9Copyright
  They will(c)
            pay  the penalty
               2005-2009,    of eternal
                          Infobase      destruction,
                                    Media Corp.      being banished from the presence of the Lord and from His glorious majesty, Page 394 / 567

2 THESSALONIANS 1:10
10 when He comes on that day to be glorified in His people and to be wondered at among all who have believed, including you - because you
8 He will come in flames of fire to take vengeance on those who have no knowledge of God, and do not obey the Good News as to Jesus, our Lord.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:9
9 They will pay the penalty of eternal destruction, being banished from the presence of the Lord and from His glorious majesty,

2 THESSALONIANS 1:10
10 when He comes on that day to be glorified in His people and to be wondered at among all who have believed, including you - because you
believed the testimony which we brought for your acceptance.

2 THESSALONIANS 1:11
11 It is with this view also that we continually pray to our God for you, asking that He will count you worthy of His call, and by His mighty power
fully gratify your every desire for what is truly good and make your work of faith complete;

2 THESSALONIANS 1:12
12 in order that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you, and that you may be glorified in Him - so wonderful is the grace of our God and
of the Lord Jesus Christ!

CHAPTER 2

2 THESSALONIANS 2:1
1 But with respect to the Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered to meet Him, we entreat you, brethren,

2 THESSALONIANS 2:2
2 not readily to become unsettled in mind or troubled - either by any pretended spiritual revelation or by any message or letter claiming to have been
sent by us - through fancying that the day of the Lord is now here.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:3
3 Let no one in any way deceive you, for that day cannot come without the coming of the apostasy first, and the appearing of the man of sin, the son
of perdition, who sets himself against,

2 THESSALONIANS 2:4
4 and exalts himself above, every so-called 'god' or object of worship, and goes the length of taking his seat in the very temple of God, giving it out
that he himself is God.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:5
5 Do you not remember that while I was still with you I used to tell you all this?

2 THESSALONIANS 2:6
6 And now you know what restrains him, in order that his true character may be revealed at his appointed time.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:7
7 For lawlessness is already at work in secret; but only until the man who is now exercising a restraining influence is removed,

2 THESSALONIANS 2:8
8 and then the Lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus will sweep away with the tempest of His anger, and utterly overwhelm by the
awful splendour of His Coming.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:9
9 The appearing of the Lawless one will be attended by various miracles and tokens and delusive marvels - for so Satan works -

2 THESSALONIANS 2:10
10 and by every kind of wicked deception for those who are on the way to perdition because they did not welcome into their hearts the love of the
truth, so that they might be saved.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:11
11 And for this reason God sends them a misleading influence that they may believe the lie;

2 THESSALONIANS 2:12
12 in order that all may come under judgment who have refused to believe the truth and have taken pleasure in unrighteousness.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:13
13 And from us thanks are always due to God on your behalf - brethren whom the Lord loves - because God from the beginning has chosen you for
salvation through the Spirit's sanctifying influence and your belief in the truth.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:14
14 To this blessing God has called you by our Good News, so that you may have a share in the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:15
15 So then, brethren, stand your ground, and hold fast to the teachings which you have received from us, whether by word of mouth or by letter.

2 THESSALONIANS 2:16
16 And may our Lord Jesus Christ Himself - and God our Father who has loved us and has given us in His grace eternal consolation and a bright
hope -
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2 THESSALONIANS 2:17
17 comfort your hearts and make you stedfast in every good work and word.
2 THESSALONIANS 2:16
16 And may our Lord Jesus Christ Himself - and God our Father who has loved us and has given us in His grace eternal consolation and a bright
hope -

2 THESSALONIANS 2:17
17 comfort your hearts and make you stedfast in every good work and word.

CHAPTER 3

2 THESSALONIANS 3:1
1 Finally, brethren, pray for us, asking that the Lord's Message may be spread rapidly and its glory be displayed, as it was displayed among you;

2 THESSALONIANS 3:2
2 and that we may be delivered from wrong-headed and wicked men; for it is not everybody who has faith.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:3
3 But the Lord is faithful, and He will make you stedfast and will guard you from the Evil one.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:4
4 And we have confidence in the Lord in regard to you that you are doing, and will do, what we command.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:5
5 And may the Lord guide your hearts into the love of God and into the patience of Christ.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:6
6 But, by the authority of the Lord, we command you, brethren, to stand aloof from every brother whose life is disorderly and not in accordance with
the teaching which all received from us.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:7
7 For you yourselves know that it is your duty to follow our example. There was no disorder in our lives among you,

2 THESSALONIANS 3:8
8 nor did we eat any one's bread without paying for it, but we labored and toiled, working hard night and day in order not to be a burden to any of
you.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:9
9 This was not because we had not a claim upon you, but it arose from a desire to set you an example - for you to imitate us.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:10
10 For even when we were with you, we laid down this rule for you: "If a man does not choose to work, neither shall he eat."

2 THESSALONIANS 3:11
11 For we hear that there are some of you who live disorderly lives and are mere idle busybodies.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:12
12 To persons of that sort our injunction - and our command by the authority of the Lord Jesus Christ - is that they are to work quietly and eat their
own honestly-earned bread.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:13
13 But you, brethren, must not grow weary in the path of duty;

2 THESSALONIANS 3:14
14 and if any one refuses to obey these our written instructions, mark that man and hold no communication with him - so that he may be made to
feel ashamed.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:15
15 And yet do not regard him as an enemy, but caution him as a brother.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:16
16 And may the Lord of peace Himself continually grant you peace in every sense. The Lord be with you all.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:17
17 I Paul add the greeting with my own hand, which is the credential in every letter of mine.

2 THESSALONIANS 3:18
18 This is my handwriting. May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all.


Weymouth 1 TIMOTHY
Paul's First Letter
To
Timothy
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There has never been any real doubt among Christian people as to the authorship of the three "pastoral" Letters. But definite objections to their genuineness    have/ been
                                                                                                                                                                       567
made in recent times upon the ground of such internal evidence as their style, the indications they present of advanced organization, their historic standpoint and their
references to developed heresy.
Paul's First Letter
To
Timothy

There has never been any real doubt among Christian people as to the authorship of the three "pastoral" Letters. But definite objections to their genuineness have been
made in recent times upon the ground of such internal evidence as their style, the indications they present of advanced organization, their historic standpoint and their
references to developed heresy.

Says one scholar, "While there is probably nothing in them to which the Apostle would have objected, they must be regarded on account of their style as the product of
one who had been taught by Paul and now desired to convey certain teachings under cover of his name. The date need not be later than 80 A.D."

Yet a thorough examination of the matter does not support such objections. It is certain that the three Letters stand or fall together, and there is no sufficient reason for
dismissing the ancient conclusion that they are all the genuine work of Paul, and belong to the last years of his life, 66-67 A.D.

This first Letter was probably written from Macedonia.

CHAPTER 1

1 TIMOTHY 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God our Savior and Christ Jesus our hope:

1 TIMOTHY 1:2
2 To Timothy, my own true son in the faith. May grace, mercy and peace be granted to you from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

1 TIMOTHY 1:3
3 When I was on my journey to Macedonia I begged you to remain on in Ephesus that you might remonstrate with certain persons because of their
erroneous teaching

1 TIMOTHY 1:4
4 and the attention they bestow on mere fables and endless pedigrees, such as lead to controversy rather than to a true stewardship for God, which
only exists where there is faith. And I make the same request now.

1 TIMOTHY 1:5
5 But the end sought to be secured by exhortation is the love which springs from a pure heart, a clear conscience and a sincere faith.

1 TIMOTHY 1:6
6 From these some have drifted away, and have wandered into empty words.

1 TIMOTHY 1:7
7 They are ambitious to be teachers of the Law, although they do not understand either their own words or what the things are about which they
make such confident assertions.

1 TIMOTHY 1:8
8 Now we know that the Law is good, if a man uses it in the way it should be used,

1 TIMOTHY 1:9
9 and remembers that a law is not enacted to control a righteous man, but for the lawless and rebellious, the irreligious and sinful, the godless and
profane - for those who strike their fathers or their mothers, for murderers,

1 TIMOTHY 1:10
10 fornicators, sodomites, slave-dealers, liars and false witnesses; and for whatever else is opposed to wholesome teaching

1 TIMOTHY 1:11
11 and is not in accordance with the Good News of the blessed God with which I have been entrusted.

1 TIMOTHY 1:12
12 I am thankful to Him who made me strong - even Christ Jesus our Lord - because He has judged me to be faithful and has put me into His service,

1 TIMOTHY 1:13
13 though I was previously a blasphemer and a persecutor and had been insolent in outrage. Yet mercy was shown me, because I had acted
ignorantly, not having as yet believed;

1 TIMOTHY 1:14
14 and the grace of our Lord came to me in overflowing fulness, conferring faith on me and the love which is in Christ Jesus.

1 TIMOTHY 1:15
15 Faithful is the saying, and deserving of universal acceptance, that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners; among whom I stand foremost.

1 TIMOTHY 1:16
16 But mercy was shown me in order that in me as the foremost of sinners Christ Jesus might display the fulness of His long-suffering patience as an
example to encourage those who would afterwards be resting their faith on Him with a view to the Life of the Ages.

1 TIMOTHY 1:17
17 Now to the immortal and invisible King of the Ages, who alone is God, be honor and glory to the Ages of the Ages! Amen.
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1 TIMOTHY 1:18
18 This is the charge which I entrust to you, my son Timothy, in accordance with the inspired instructions concerning you which were given me long
ago, that being equipped with them as your armour you may be continually fighting the good fight,
1 TIMOTHY 1:17
17 Now to the immortal and invisible King of the Ages, who alone is God, be honor and glory to the Ages of the Ages! Amen.

1 TIMOTHY 1:18
18 This is the charge which I entrust to you, my son Timothy, in accordance with the inspired instructions concerning you which were given me long
ago, that being equipped with them as your armour you may be continually fighting the good fight,

1 TIMOTHY 1:19
19 holding fast to faith and a clear conscience, which some have cast aside and have made shipwreck of their faith.

1 TIMOTHY 1:20
20 Among these are Hymenaeus and Alexander, whom I have delivered to Satan so that they may be taught not to blaspheme.

CHAPTER 2

1 TIMOTHY 2:1
1 I exhort then, first of all, that supplications, prayers, intercessions and thanksgivings be offered on behalf of all men;

1 TIMOTHY 2:2
2 including kings and all who are in high station, in order that we may live peaceful and tranquil lives with all godliness and gravity.

1 TIMOTHY 2:3
3 This is right, and is pleasing in the sight of God our Savior,

1 TIMOTHY 2:4
4 who is willing for all mankind to be saved and come to a full knowledge of the truth.

1 TIMOTHY 2:5
5 For there is but one God and but one Mediator between God and men - Christ Jesus, Himself man;

1 TIMOTHY 2:6
6 who gave Himself as the redemption price for all - a fact testified to at its own appointed time,

1 TIMOTHY 2:7
7 and of which I have been appointed a herald and an Apostle (I am speaking the truth: it is not a fiction), a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth.

1 TIMOTHY 2:8
8 So then I would have the men everywhere pray, lifting to God holy hands which are unstained with anger or strife;

1 TIMOTHY 2:9
9 and I would have the women dress becomingly, with modesty and self-control, not with plaited hair or gold or pearls or costly clothes,

1 TIMOTHY 2:10
10 but - as befits women making a claim to godliness - with the ornament of good works.

1 TIMOTHY 2:11
11 A woman should quietly learn from others with entire submissiveness.

1 TIMOTHY 2:12
12 I do not permit a woman to teach, nor have authority over a man, but she must remain silent.

1 TIMOTHY 2:13
13 For Adam was formed first, and then Eve;

1 TIMOTHY 2:14
14 and Adam was not deceived, but his wife was thoroughly deceived, and so became involved in transgression.

1 TIMOTHY 2:15
15 Yet a woman will be brought safely through childbirth if she and her husband continue to live in faith and love and growing holiness, with
habitual self-restraint.

CHAPTER 3

1 TIMOTHY 3:1
1 Faithful is the saying, "If any one is eager to have the oversight of a Church, he desires a noble work."

1 TIMOTHY 3:2
2 A minister then must be a man of irreproachable character, true to his one wife, temperate, sober-minded, well-behaved, hospitable to strangers,
and with a gift for teaching;

1 TIMOTHY 3:3
3 not a hard drinker nor given to blows; not selfish or quarrelsome or covetous;
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1 TIMOTHY 3:4
4 but ruling his own household wisely and well, with children kept under control with true dignity.
1 TIMOTHY 3:3
3 not a hard drinker nor given to blows; not selfish or quarrelsome or covetous;

1 TIMOTHY 3:4
4 but ruling his own household wisely and well, with children kept under control with true dignity.

1 TIMOTHY 3:5
5 (If a man does not know how to rule his own household, how shall he have the Church of God given into his care?)

1 TIMOTHY 3:6
6 He ought not to be a new convert, for fear he should be blinded with pride and come under the same condemnation as the Devil.

1 TIMOTHY 3:7
7 It is needful also that he bear a good character with people outside the Church, lest he fall into reproach or a snare of the Devil.

1 TIMOTHY 3:8
8 Deacons, in the same way, must be men of serious demeanour, not double-tongued, nor addicted to much wine, nor greedy of base gain,

1 TIMOTHY 3:9
9 but holding the secret truths of the faith with a clear conscience.

1 TIMOTHY 3:10
10 And they must also be well-tried men, and when found to be of unblemished character then let them serve as deacons.

1 TIMOTHY 3:11
11 Deaconesses, in the same way, must be sober-minded women, not slanderers, but in every way temperate and trustworthy.

1 TIMOTHY 3:12
12 A deacon must be true to his one wife, and rule his children and his own household wisely and well.

1 TIMOTHY 3:13
13 For those who have filled the deacon's office wisely and well, are already gaining for themselves an honorable standing, and are acquiring great
freedom of speech in proclaiming the faith which rests on Christ Jesus.

1 TIMOTHY 3:14
14 All this I write to you, though I am hoping before long to come to see you.

1 TIMOTHY 3:15
15 But, for fear I may be hindered, I now write, so that you may have rules to guide you in dealing with God's household. For this is what the Church
of the ever-living God is, and it is the pillar and foundation-stone of the truth.

1 TIMOTHY 3:16
16 And, beyond controversy, great is the mystery of our religion - that Christ appeared in human form, and His claims justified by the Spirit, was
seen by angels and proclaimed among Gentile nations, was believed on in the world, and received up again into glory.

CHAPTER 4

1 TIMOTHY 4:1
1 Now the Spirit expressly declares that in later times some will fall away from the faith, giving heed to deceiving spirits and the teachings of demons;

1 TIMOTHY 4:2
2 through the hypocrisy of men who teach falsely and have their own consciences seared as with a hot iron;

1 TIMOTHY 4:3
3 forbidding people to marry, and insisting on abstinence from foods which God has created to be partaken of, with thankfulness, by those who
believe and have a clear knowledge of the truth.

1 TIMOTHY 4:4
4 For everything that God has created is good, and nothing is to be cast aside, if only it is received with thanksgiving.

1 TIMOTHY 4:5
5 For it is made holy by the word of God and by prayer.

1 TIMOTHY 4:6
6 If you warn the brethren of these dangers you will be a good and faithful servant of Christ Jesus, inwardly feeding on the lessons of the faith and of
the sound teaching of which you have been, and are, so close a follower.

1 TIMOTHY 4:7
7 But worldly stories, fit only for credulous old women, have nothing to do with.

1 TIMOTHY 4:8
8 Train yourself in godliness. Exercise for the body is not useless, but godliness is useful in every respect, possessing, as it does, the promise of Life
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1 TIMOTHY 4:9
1 TIMOTHY 4:8
8 Train yourself in godliness. Exercise for the body is not useless, but godliness is useful in every respect, possessing, as it does, the promise of Life
now and of the Life which is soon coming.

1 TIMOTHY 4:9
9 Faithful is this saying and deserving of universal acceptance:

1 TIMOTHY 4:10
10 and here is the motive of our toiling and wrestling, because we have our hopes fixed on the ever-living God, who is the Savior of all mankind, and
especially of believers.

1 TIMOTHY 4:11
11 Command this and teach this.

1 TIMOTHY 4:12
12 Let no one think slightingly of you because you are a young man; but in speech, conduct, love, faith and purity, be an example for your fellow
Christians to imitate.

1 TIMOTHY 4:13
13 Till I come, bestow your attention on reading, exhortation and teaching.

1 TIMOTHY 4:14
14 Do not be careless about the gifts with which you are endowed, which were conferred on you through a divine revelation when the hands of the
elders were placed upon you.

1 TIMOTHY 4:15
15 Habitually practise these duties, and be absorbed in them; so that your growing proficiency in them may be evident to all.

1 TIMOTHY 4:16
16 Be on your guard as to yourself and your teaching. Persevere in these things; for by doing this you will make certain your own salvation and that
of your hearers.

CHAPTER 5

1 TIMOTHY 5:1
1 Never administer a sharp reprimand to a man older than yourself; but entreat him as if he were your father, and the younger men as brothers;

1 TIMOTHY 5:2
2 the elder women too as mothers, and the younger women as sisters, with perfect modesty.

1 TIMOTHY 5:3
3 Honor widows who are really in need.

1 TIMOTHY 5:4
4 But if a widow has children or grandchildren, let these learn first to show piety towards their own homes and to prove their gratitude to their
parents; for this is well pleasing in the sight of God.

1 TIMOTHY 5:5
5 A widow who is really in need, friendless and desolate, has her hopes fixed on God, and continues at her supplications and prayers, night and day;

1 TIMOTHY 5:6
6 but a pleasure-loving widow is dead even while still alive.

1 TIMOTHY 5:7
7 Press these facts upon them, so that they may live lives free from reproach.

1 TIMOTHY 5:8
8 But if a man makes no provision for those dependent on him, and especially for his own family, he has disowned the faith and is behaving worse
than an unbeliever.

1 TIMOTHY 5:9
9 No widow is to be put on the roll who is under sixty years of age.

1 TIMOTHY 5:10
10 She must have been true to her one husband, and well reported of for good deeds, as having brought up children, received strangers hospitably,
washed the feet of God's people, given relief to the distressed, and devoted herself to good works of every kind.

1 TIMOTHY 5:11
11 But the younger widows you must not enrol; for as soon as they begin to chafe against the yoke of Christ, they want to marry,

1 TIMOTHY 5:12
12 and they incur disapproval for having broken their original vow.
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1 TIMOTHY 5:13
13 And at the same time they also learn to be idle as they go round from house to house; and they are not only idle, but are gossips also and
1 TIMOTHY 5:12
12 and they incur disapproval for having broken their original vow.

1 TIMOTHY 5:13
13 And at the same time they also learn to be idle as they go round from house to house; and they are not only idle, but are gossips also and
busybodies, speaking of things that ought not to be spoken of.

1 TIMOTHY 5:14
14 I would therefore have the younger women marry, bear children, rule in domestic matters, and furnish the Adversary with no excuse for slander.

1 TIMOTHY 5:15
15 For already some of them have gone astray, following Satan.

1 TIMOTHY 5:16
16 If a believing woman has widows dependent on her, she should relieve their wants, and save the Church from being burdened - so that the Church
may relieve the widows who are really in need.

1 TIMOTHY 5:17
17 Let the Elders who perform their duties wisely and well be held worthy of double honor, especially those who labor in preaching and teaching.

1 TIMOTHY 5:18
18 For the Scripture says, "You are not to muzzle the ox while it is treading out the grain;" and the workman deserves his pay.

1 TIMOTHY 5:19
19 Never entertain an accusation against an Elder except on the evidence of two of three witnesses.

1 TIMOTHY 5:20
20 Those who persist in sin reprove in the presence of all, so that it may also be a warning to the rest.

1 TIMOTHY 5:21
21 I solemnly call upon you, in the presence of God and of Christ Jesus and of the elect angels, to carry out these instructions of mine without
prejudice, and to do nothing from partiality.

1 TIMOTHY 5:22
22 Do not ordain any one hastily; and do not be a partaker in the sins of others; keep yourself pure.

1 TIMOTHY 5:23
23 (No longer be a water-drinker; but take a little wine for the sake of your digestion and your frequent ailments.)

1 TIMOTHY 5:24
24 The sins of some men are evident to the world, leading the way to your estimate of their characters, but the sins of others lag behind.

1 TIMOTHY 5:25
25 So also the right actions of some are evident to the world, and those that are not cannot remain for ever out of sight.

CHAPTER 6

1 TIMOTHY 6:1
1 Let all who are under the yoke of slavery hold their own masters to be deserving of honor, so that the name of God and the Christian teaching may
not be spoken against.

1 TIMOTHY 6:2
2 And those who have believing masters should not be wanting in respect towards them because they are their brethren, but should serve them all
the more willingly because those who profit by the faithful service rendered are believers and are friends.

1 TIMOTHY 6:3
3 So teach and exhort. If any one is a teacher of any other kind of doctrine, and refuses assent to wholesome instructions - those of our Lord Jesus
Christ - and the teaching that harmonizes with true godliness,

1 TIMOTHY 6:4
4 he is puffed up with pride and has no true knowledge, but is crazy over discussions and controversies about words which give rise to envy,
quarrelling, revilings, ill-natured suspicions,

1 TIMOTHY 6:5
5 and persistent wranglings on the part of people whose intellects are disordered and they themselves blinded to all knowledge of the truth; who
imagine that godliness means gain.

1 TIMOTHY 6:6
6 And godliness is gain, when associated with contentment;

1 TIMOTHY 6:7
7 for we brought nothing into the world, nor can we carry anything out of it;
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1 TIMOTHY 6:8
8 and if we have food and clothing, with these we will be satisfied.
1 TIMOTHY 6:7
7 for we brought nothing into the world, nor can we carry anything out of it;

1 TIMOTHY 6:8
8 and if we have food and clothing, with these we will be satisfied.

1 TIMOTHY 6:9
9 But people who are determined to be rich fall into temptation and a snare, and into many unwise and pernicious ways which sink mankind in
destruction and ruin.

1 TIMOTHY 6:10
10 For from love of money all sorts of evils arise; and some have so hankered after money as to be led astray from the faith and be pierced through
with countless sorrows.

1 TIMOTHY 6:11
11 But you, O man of God, must flee from these things; and strive for uprightness, godliness, good faith, love, fortitude, and a forgiving temper.

1 TIMOTHY 6:12
12 Exert all your strength in the honorable struggle for the faith; lay hold of the Life of the Ages, to which you were called, when you made your
noble profession of faith before many witnesses.

1 TIMOTHY 6:13
13 I charge you - as in the presence of God who gives life to all creatures, and of Christ Jesus who at the bar of Pontius Pilate made a noble profession
of faith -

1 TIMOTHY 6:14
14 that you keep God's commandments stainlessly and without reproach till the Appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 TIMOTHY 6:15
15 For, as its appointed time, this will be brought about by the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords,

1 TIMOTHY 6:16
16 who alone possesses immortality, dwelling in unapproachable light, and whom no man has seen or can see. To Him be eternal honor and power!
Amen.

1 TIMOTHY 6:17
17 Impress on those who are rich in the present age that they must not be haughty nor set their hopes on riches - that unstable foundation - but on
God who provides us richly with all things for our enjoyment.

1 TIMOTHY 6:18
18 They must be beneficent, rich in noble deeds, open-handed and liberal;

1 TIMOTHY 6:19
19 storing up for themselves that which shall be a solid foundation for the future, that they may lay hold of the Life which is life indeed.

1 TIMOTHY 6:20
20 O Timothy, guard the truths entrusted to you, shunning irreligious and frivolous talk, and controversy with what is falsely called 'knowledge';

1 TIMOTHY 6:21
21 of which some have spoken boastfully in connexion with the true faith, and have erred. Grace be with you all.


Weymouth 2 TIMOTHY
Paul's Second Letter
To
Timothy

The marks of genuineness in this Letter are very pronounced. For instance, the thanksgiving, the long list of proper names - twenty-three in number - the personal
details and the manifest tone of sincerity and earnestness. Hence it is accepted as Paul's even by some who reject the former Letter and that addressed to Titus. But it is
inseparable from the others, and was probably written from Rome during the Apostle's second imprisonment. It is his last Letter known to us, and its apparent date is
67 A.D.

CHAPTER 1

2 TIMOTHY 1:1
1 Paul, an Apostle of Christ Jesus, by the will of God, for proclaiming the promise of the Life which is in Christ Jesus:

2 TIMOTHY 1:2
2 To Timothy my dearly-loved child. May grace, mercy and peace be granted to you from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

2 TIMOTHY 1:3
3 I thank God, whom I serve with a pure conscience - as my forefathers did - that night and day I unceasingly remember you in my prayers,
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2 TIMOTHY 1:4
4 being always mindful of your tears, and longing to see you that I may be filled with joy.
2 TIMOTHY 1:3
3 I thank God, whom I serve with a pure conscience - as my forefathers did - that night and day I unceasingly remember you in my prayers,

2 TIMOTHY 1:4
4 being always mindful of your tears, and longing to see you that I may be filled with joy.

2 TIMOTHY 1:5
5 For I recall the sincere faith which is in your heart - a faith which dwelt first in your grandmother Lois and then in your mother Eunice, and, I am
fully convinced, now dwells in you also.

2 TIMOTHY 1:6
6 For this reason let me remind you to rekindle God's gift which is yours through the laying on of my hands.

2 TIMOTHY 1:7
7 For the Spirit which God has given us is not a spirit of cowardice, but one of power and of love and of sound judgment.

2 TIMOTHY 1:8
8 Do not be ashamed then to bear witness for our Lord and for me His prisoner; but rather share suffering with me in the service of the Good News,
strengthened by the power of God.

2 TIMOTHY 1:9
9 For He saved us and called us with a holy call, not in accordance with our desserts, but in accordance with His own purpose and the free grace
which He bestowed on us in Christ Jesus before the commencement of the Ages,

2 TIMOTHY 1:10
10 but which has now been plainly revealed through the Appearing of our Savior, Christ Jesus. He has put an end to death and has brought Life and
Immortality to light through the Good News,

2 TIMOTHY 1:11
11 of which I have been appointed a preacher, Apostle and teacher, to the Gentiles.

2 TIMOTHY 1:12
12 That indeed is the reason why I suffer as I do. But I am not ashamed, for I know in whom my trust reposes, and I am confident that He has it in
His power to keep what I have entrusted to Him safe until that day.

2 TIMOTHY 1:13
13 Provide yourself with an outline of the sound teaching which you have heard from my lips, and be true to the faith and love which are in Christ
Jesus.

2 TIMOTHY 1:14
14 That precious treasure which is in your charge, guard through the Holy Spirit who has His home in our hearts.

2 TIMOTHY 1:15
15 Of this you are aware, that all the Christians in Roman Asia have deserted me: and among them Phygelus and Hermogenes.

2 TIMOTHY 1:16
16 May the Lord show mercy to the household of Onesiphorus; for many a time he cheered me and he was not ashamed of my chain.

2 TIMOTHY 1:17
17 Nay, when he was here in Rome, he took great pains to inquire where I was living, and at last he found me.

2 TIMOTHY 1:18
18 (The Lord grant that he may obtain mercy at His hands on that day!) And you yourself well know all the services which he rendered me in
Ephesus.

CHAPTER 2

2 TIMOTHY 2:1
1 You then, my child, must be strong in the grace that is in Christ Jesus.

2 TIMOTHY 2:2
2 All that you have been taught by me in the hearing of many witnesses, you must hand on to trusty men who shall themselves, in turn, be
competent to instruct others also.

2 TIMOTHY 2:3
3 As a good soldier of Christ Jesus accept your share of suffering.

2 TIMOTHY 2:4
4 Every one who serves as a soldier keeps himself from becoming entangled in the world's business - so that he may satisfy the officer who enlisted
him.

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2 TIMOTHY 2:6
him.

2 TIMOTHY 2:5
5 And if any one takes part in an athletic contest, he gets no prize unless he obeys the rules.

2 TIMOTHY 2:6
6 The harvestman who labors in the field must be the first to get a share of the crop.

2 TIMOTHY 2:7
7 Mark well what I am saying: the Lord will give you discernment in everything.

2 TIMOTHY 2:8
8 Never forget that Jesus Christ has risen from among the dead and is a descendant of David, as is declared in the Good News which I preach.

2 TIMOTHY 2:9
9 For preaching the Good News I suffer, and am even put in chains, as if I were a criminal: yet the word of God is not imprisoned.

2 TIMOTHY 2:10
10 For this reason I endure all things for the sake of God's own people; so that they also may obtain salvation - even the salvation which is in Christ
Jesus - and with it eternal glory.

2 TIMOTHY 2:11
11 Faithful is the saying: "If we died with Him, we shall also live with Him;

2 TIMOTHY 2:12
12 "If we patiently endure pain, we shall also share His Kingship; "If we disown Him, He will also disown us;

2 TIMOTHY 2:13
13 "And even if our faith fails, He remains true - He cannot prove false to Himself."

2 TIMOTHY 2:14
14 Bring all this to men's remembrances, solemnly charging them in the presence of God not to waste time in wrangling about mere words, a course
which is altogether unprofitable and tends only to the ruin of the hearers.

2 TIMOTHY 2:15
15 Earnestly seek to commend yourself to God as a servant who, because of his straightforward dealing with the word of truth, has no reason to feel
any shame.

2 TIMOTHY 2:16
16 But from irreligious and frivolous talk hold aloof, for those who indulge in it will proceed from bad to worse in impiety,

2 TIMOTHY 2:17
17 and their teaching will spread like a running sore. Hymenaeus and Philetus are men of that stamp.

2 TIMOTHY 2:18
18 In the matter of the truth they have gone astray, saying that the Resurrection is already past, and so they are overthrowing the faith of some.

2 TIMOTHY 2:19
19 Yet God's solid foundation stands unmoved, bearing this inscription, "The Lord knows those who really belong to Him." And this also, "Let every
one who names the Name of the Lord renounce all wickedness."

2 TIMOTHY 2:20
20 Now in a great house there are not only articles of gold and silver, but also others of wood and of earthenware; and some are for specially
honorable, and others for common use.

2 TIMOTHY 2:21
21 If therefore a man keeps himself clear of these latter, he himself will be for specially honorable use, consecrated, fit for the Master's service, and
fully equipped for every good work.

2 TIMOTHY 2:22
22 Keep a strong curb, however, on your youthful cravings; and strive for integrity, good faith, love, peace, in company with all who pray to the
Lord with pure hearts.

2 TIMOTHY 2:23
23 But avoid foolish discussions with ignorant men, knowing - as you do - that these lead to quarrels;

2 TIMOTHY 2:24
24 and a bondservant of the Lord must not quarrel, but must be inoffensive towards all men, a skilful teacher, and patient under wrongs.

2 TIMOTHY 2:25
25 He must speak in a gentle tone when correcting the errors of opponents, in the hope that God will at last give them repentance, for them to come
to a full knowledge of the truth

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2 TIMOTHY 2:26
26 and recover sober-mindedness and freedom from the Devil's snare, though they are now entrapped by him to do his will.
2 TIMOTHY 2:25
25 He must speak in a gentle tone when correcting the errors of opponents, in the hope that God will at last give them repentance, for them to come
to a full knowledge of the truth

2 TIMOTHY 2:26
26 and recover sober-mindedness and freedom from the Devil's snare, though they are now entrapped by him to do his will.

CHAPTER 3

2 TIMOTHY 3:1
1 But of this be assured: in the last days grievous times will set in.

2 TIMOTHY 3:2
2 For men will be lovers of self, lovers of money, boastful, haughty, profane. They will be disobedient to parents, thankless, irreligious,

2 TIMOTHY 3:3
3 destitute of natural affection, unforgiving, slanderers. They will have no self-control, but will be brutal, opposed to goodness,

2 TIMOTHY 3:4
4 treacherous, headstrong, self-important. They will love pleasure instead of loving God,

2 TIMOTHY 3:5
5 and will keep up a make-believe of piety and yet live in defiance of its power. Turn away from people of this sort.

2 TIMOTHY 3:6
6 Among them are included the men who make their way into private houses and carry off weak women as their prisoners - women who, weighed
down by the burden of their sins, are led by ever-changing caprice,

2 TIMOTHY 3:7
7 and are always learning something new, and yet are never able to arrive at real knowledge of the truth.

2 TIMOTHY 3:8
8 And just as Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses, so also these false teachers withstand the truth - being, as they are, men of debased intellects, and
of no real worth so far as faith is concerned.

2 TIMOTHY 3:9
9 But they will have no further success; for their folly will be as clearly manifest to all men, as that of the opponents of Moses came to be.

2 TIMOTHY 3:10
10 But you have intimately known my teaching, life, aims, faith, patience, love, resignation,

2 TIMOTHY 3:11
11 and the persecutions and sufferings which I have endured; the things which happened to me in Antioch, Iconium and Lystra. You know the
persecutions I endured, and how the Lord delivered me out of them all.

2 TIMOTHY 3:12
12 And indeed every one who is determined to live a godly life as a follower of Christ Jesus will be persecuted.

2 TIMOTHY 3:13
13 But bad men and impostors will go on from bad to worse, misleading and being misled.

2 TIMOTHY 3:14
14 But you must cling to the things which you have learnt and have been taught to believe, knowing who your teachers were,

2 TIMOTHY 3:15
15 and that from infancy you have known the sacred writings which are able to make you wise to obtain salvation through faith in Christ Jesus.

2 TIMOTHY 3:16
16 Every Scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for convincing, for correction of error, and for instruction in right doing;

2 TIMOTHY 3:17
17 so that the man of God may himself be complete and may be perfectly equipped for every good work.

CHAPTER 4

2 TIMOTHY 4:1
1 I solemnly implore you, in the presence of God and of Christ Jesus who is about to judge the living and the dead, and by His Appearing and His
Kingship:

2 TIMOTHY 4:2
2 proclaim God's message, be zealous in season and out of season; convince, rebuke, encourage, with the utmost patience as a teacher.

2 TIMOTHY 4:3
3 For a time is coming when they will not tolerate wholesome instruction, but, wanting to have their ears tickled, they will find a multitude of
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2 TIMOTHY 4:4
2 TIMOTHY 4:3
3 For a time is coming when they will not tolerate wholesome instruction, but, wanting to have their ears tickled, they will find a multitude of
teachers to satisfy their own fancies;

2 TIMOTHY 4:4
4 and will turn away from listening to the truth and will turn aside to fables.

2 TIMOTHY 4:5
5 But as for you, you must exercise habitual self-control, and not live a self-indulgent life, but do the duty of an evangelist and fully discharge the
obligations of your office.

2 TIMOTHY 4:6
6 I for my part am like a drink-offering which is already being poured out; and the time for my departure is now close at hand.

2 TIMOTHY 4:7
7 I have gone through the glorious contest; I have run the race; I have guarded the faith.

2 TIMOTHY 4:8
8 From this time onward there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will award to me on that day, and
not only to me, but also to all who love the thought of His Appearing.

2 TIMOTHY 4:9
9 Make an effort to come to me speedily.

2 TIMOTHY 4:10
10 For Demas has deserted me - loving, as he does, the present age - and has gone to Thessalonica; Crescens has gone to Galatia, and Titus to
Dalmatia.

2 TIMOTHY 4:11
11 Luke is the only friend I now have with me. Call for Mark on your way and bring him with you, for he is a great help to me in my ministry.

2 TIMOTHY 4:12
12 Tychicus I have sent to Ephesus.

2 TIMOTHY 4:13
13 When you come, bring with you the cloak which I left behind at Troas at the house of Carpus, and the books, but especially the parchments.

2 TIMOTHY 4:14
14 Alexander the metal-worker showed bitter hostility towards me: the Lord will requite him according to his doings.

2 TIMOTHY 4:15
15 You also should beware of him; for he has violently opposed our preaching.

2 TIMOTHY 4:16
16 At my first defense I had no one at my side, but all deserted me. May it not be laid to their charge.

2 TIMOTHY 4:17
17 The Lord, however, stood by me and filled me with inward strength, that through me the Message might be fully proclaimed and that all the
Gentiles might hear it; and I was rescued from the lion's jaws.

2 TIMOTHY 4:18
18 The Lord will deliver me from every cruel attack and will keep me safe in preparation for His heavenly Kingdom. To Him be the glory until the
Ages of the Ages! Amen.

2 TIMOTHY 4:19
19 Greet Prisca and Aquila, and the household of Onesiphorus.

2 TIMOTHY 4:20
20 Erastus stayed in Corinth; Trophimus I left behind me at Miletus, ill.

2 TIMOTHY 4:21
21 Make an effort to come before winter. Eubulus greets you, and so do Pudens, Linus, Claudia, and all the brethren.

2 TIMOTHY 4:22
22 The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you all.


Weymouth TITUS
Paul's Letter
To
Titus
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This Letter was probably written from Ephesus in 67 A.D. Titus, who was a Greek by birth, is mentioned in eleven other places in the Pauline Letters and 406
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                                                                                                                                                                 with
marked approval (2 Corinthians 2:13; 7:6,13,14; 8:6,16,23; 12:18; Galatians 2:1,3; 2 Timothy 4:10). He was often a trusted messenger to the Churches, his last errand
being to Dalmatia. Tradition confirms the inference commonly drawn from this Letter that he was long the Bishop of the Church in Crete, and regards Candia as having
Paul's Letter
To
Titus

This Letter was probably written from Ephesus in 67 A.D. Titus, who was a Greek by birth, is mentioned in eleven other places in the Pauline Letters and always with
marked approval (2 Corinthians 2:13; 7:6,13,14; 8:6,16,23; 12:18; Galatians 2:1,3; 2 Timothy 4:10). He was often a trusted messenger to the Churches, his last errand
being to Dalmatia. Tradition confirms the inference commonly drawn from this Letter that he was long the Bishop of the Church in Crete, and regards Candia as having
been his birthplace.

CHAPTER 1

TITUS 1:1
1 Paul, a bondservant of God and an Apostle of Jesus Christ for building up the faith of God's own people and spreading a full knowledge of the
truths of religion,

TITUS 1:2
2 in hope of the Life of the Ages which God, who is never false to His word, promised before the commencement of the Ages.

TITUS 1:3
3 And at the appointed time He clearly made known His Message in the preaching with which I was entrusted by the command of God our Savior:

TITUS 1:4
4 To Titus my own true child in our common faith. May grace and peace be granted to you from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Savior.

TITUS 1:5
5 I have left you behind in Crete in order that you may set right the things which still require attention, and appoint Elders in every town, as I
directed you to do;

TITUS 1:6
6 wherever there is a man of blameless life, true to his one wife, having children who are themselves believers and are free from every reproach of
profligacy or of stubborn self-will.

TITUS 1:7
7 For, as God's steward, a minister must be of blameless life, not over-fond of having his own way, not a man of a passionate temper nor a hard
drinker, not given to blows nor greedy of gain,

TITUS 1:8
8 but hospitable to strangers, a lover of goodness, sober-minded, upright, saintly, self-controlled;

TITUS 1:9
9 holding fast to the faithful Message which he has received, so that he may be well qualified both to encourage others with sound teaching and to
reply successfully to opponents.

TITUS 1:10
10 For there are many that spurn authority - idle, talkative and deceitful persons, who, for the most part, are adherents of the Circumcision.

TITUS 1:11
11 You must stop the mouths of such men, for they overthrow the faith of whole families, teaching what they ought not, just for the sake of making
money.

TITUS 1:12
12 One of their own number - a Prophet who is a countryman of theirs - has said, "Cretans are always liars, dangerous animals, idle gluttons."

TITUS 1:13
13 This testimony is true. Therefore sternly denounce them, that they may be robust in their faith,

TITUS 1:14
14 and not give attention to Jewish legends and the maxims of men who turn their backs on the truth.

TITUS 1:15
15 To the pure everything is pure; but to the polluted and unbelieving nothing is pure, but on the contrary their very minds and consciences are
polluted.

TITUS 1:16
16 They profess to know God; but in their actions they disown Him, and are detestable and disobedient men, and for any good work are utterly
useless.

CHAPTER 2

TITUS 2:1
1 But as for you, you must speak in a manner that befits wholesome teaching.

TITUS 2:2
2 Exhort aged men to be temperate, grave, sober-minded, robust in their faith, their love and their patience.
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TITUS 2:3
3 In the same way exhort aged women to let their conduct be such as becomes consecrated persons. They must not be slanderers nor enslaved to
TITUS 2:2
2 Exhort aged men to be temperate, grave, sober-minded, robust in their faith, their love and their patience.

TITUS 2:3
3 In the same way exhort aged women to let their conduct be such as becomes consecrated persons. They must not be slanderers nor enslaved to
wine-drinking. They must be teachers of what is right.

TITUS 2:4
4 They should school the young women to be affectionate to their husbands and to their children, to be sober-minded, pure in their lives,

TITUS 2:5
5 industrious in their homes, kind, submissive to their husbands, so that the Christian teaching may not be exposed to reproach.

TITUS 2:6
6 In the same way exhort the younger men to be discreet,

TITUS 2:7
7 and above all make your own life a pattern of right conduct, having in your teaching no taint of insincerity, but a serious tone,

TITUS 2:8
8 and healthy language which no one can censure, so that our opponents may feel ashamed at having nothing evil to say against us.

TITUS 2:9
9 Exhort slaves to be always obedient to their owners, and to give them satisfaction in everything, not contradicting and not pilfering,

TITUS 2:10
10 but manifesting perfect fidelity and kind feeling, in order to bring honor to the teaching of our Savior, God, in all things.

TITUS 2:11
11 For the grace of God has displayed itself with healing power to all mankind,

TITUS 2:12
12 training us to renounce ungodliness and all the pleasures of this world, and to live sober, upright, and pious lives at the present time,

TITUS 2:13
13 in expectation of the fulfilment of our blessed hope - the Appearing in glory of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ;

TITUS 2:14
14 who gave Himself for us to purchase our freedom from all iniquity, and purify for Himself a people who should be specially His own, zealous for
doing good works.

TITUS 2:15
15 Thus speak, exhort, reprove, with all impressiveness. Let no one make light of your authority.

CHAPTER 3

TITUS 3:1
1 Remind people that they must submit to the rulers who are in authority over them; that they must obey the magistrates, be prepared for every
right action,

TITUS 3:2
2 not speak evil of any one, nor be contentious, but yield unselfishly to others and constantly manifest a forgiving spirit towards all men.

TITUS 3:3
3 For there was a time when we also were deficient in understanding, obstinate, deluded, the slaves of various cravings and pleasures, spending our
lives in malice and envy, hateful ourselves and hating one another.

TITUS 3:4
4 But when the goodness of God our Savior, and His love to man, dawned upon us, not in consequence of things which we,

TITUS 3:5
5 as righteous men, had done, but as the result of His own mercy He saved us by means of the bath of regeneration and the renewal of our natures
by the Holy Spirit,

TITUS 3:6
6 which He poured out on us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior;

TITUS 3:7
7 in order that having been declared righteous through His grace we might become heirs to the Life of the Ages in fulfilment of our hopes.

TITUS 3:8
8 This is a faithful saying, and on these various points I would have you insist strenuously, in order that those who have their faith fixed on God may
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TITUS 3:9
TITUS 3:8
8 This is a faithful saying, and on these various points I would have you insist strenuously, in order that those who have their faith fixed on God may
be careful to set an example of good actions. For these are not only good in themselves, but are also useful to mankind.

TITUS 3:9
9 But hold yourself aloof from foolish controversies and pedigrees and discussions and wrangling about the Law, for they are useless and vain.

TITUS 3:10
10 After a first and second admonition, have nothing further to do with any one who will not be taught;

TITUS 3:11
11 for, as you know, a man of that description has turned aside from the right path and is a sinner self-condemned.

TITUS 3:12
12 After I have sent Artemas or Tychicus to you, lose no time in joining me at Nicopolis; for I have decided to pass the winter there.

TITUS 3:13
13 Help Zenas the lawyer forward on his journey with special care, and Apollos, so that they may have all they require.

TITUS 3:14
14 And let our people too learn to set a good example in following honest occupations for the supply of their necessities, so that they may not live
useless lives.

TITUS 3:15
15 Every one here sends you greeting. Greet the believers who hold us dear. May grace be with you all.


Weymouth PHILEMON
Paul's Letter
To
Philemon

This Letter (63 A.D.) was written as the result of Paul's deep interest in Onesimus, a slave who had fled from Colossae to Rome to get free from Philemon his master
(Colossians 4:9).

"A Phrygian slave was one of the lowest known types to be found in the Roman world, displaying all the worst features of character which the servile condition
developed. Onesimus had proved no exception. He ran away from his master, and, as Paul thought probable (verses 18,19), not without helping himself to a share of
his master's possessions. By the help of what he had stolen, and by the cleverness which afterwards made him so helpful to Paul, he made his way to Rome, naturally
drawn to the great centre, and prompted both by a desire to hide himself and by a youthful yearning to see the utmost the world could show of glory and of vice.

"But whether feeling his loneliness, or wearied with a life of vice, or impoverished and reduced to want, or seized with a fear of detection, he made his way to Paul, or
unbosomed himself to some Asiatic he saw on the street. And as he stepped out of the coarse debauchery and profanity of the crowded resorts of the metropolis into
the room hallowed by the presence of Paul, he saw the foulness of the one life and the beauty of the other, and was persuaded to accept the gospel he had so often
heard in his master's house.

"How long he remained with Paul does not appear, but it was long enough to impress on the Apostle's mind that this slave was no common man. Paul had devoted and
active friends by him, but this slave, trained to watch his master's wants and to execute promptly all that was entrusted to him, became almost indispensable to the
Apostle. But to retain him, he feels, would be to steal him, or at any rate to deprive Philemon of the pleasure of voluntarily sending him to minister to him (verse 14). He
therefore sends him back with this Letter, so exquisitely worded that it cannot but have secured the forgiveness and cordial reception of Onesimus" (Marcus Dods,
D.D., New Testament Introduction).

CHAPTER 1

PHILEMON 1:1
1 Paul, a prisoner for Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother: To Philemon our dearly-loved fellow laborer -

PHILEMON 1:2
2 and to our sister Apphia and our comrade Archippus - as well as to the Church in your house.

PHILEMON 1:3
3 May grace be granted to you all, and peace, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

PHILEMON 1:4
4 I give continual thanks to my God while making mention of you, my brother, in my prayers,

PHILEMON 1:5
5 because I hear of your love and of the faith which you have towards the Lord Jesus and which you manifest towards all God's people;

PHILEMON 1:6
6 praying as I do, that their participation in your faith may result in others fully recognizing all the right affection that is in us toward Christ.

PHILEMON 1:7
7 For I have found great joy and comfort in your love, because the hearts of God's people have been, and are, refreshed through you, my brother.
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PHILEMON 1:8
8 Therefore, though I might with Christ's authority speak very freely and order you to do what is fitting,
PHILEMON 1:7
7 For I have found great joy and comfort in your love, because the hearts of God's people have been, and are, refreshed through you, my brother.

PHILEMON 1:8
8 Therefore, though I might with Christ's authority speak very freely and order you to do what is fitting,

PHILEMON 1:9
9 it is for love's sake that - instead of that - although I am none other than Paul the aged, and am now also a prisoner for Christ Jesus,

PHILEMON 1:10
10 I entreat you on behalf of my own child whose father I have become while in my chains - I mean Onesimus.

PHILEMON 1:11
11 Formerly he was useless to you, but now - true to his name - he is of great use to you and to me.

PHILEMON 1:12
12 I am sending him back to you, though in so doing I send part of myself.

PHILEMON 1:13
13 It was my wish to keep him at my side for him to attend to my wants, as your representative, during my imprisonment for the Good News.

PHILEMON 1:14
14 Only I wished to do nothing without your consent, so that his kind action of yours might not be done under pressure, but might be a voluntary
one.

PHILEMON 1:15
15 For perhaps it was for this reason he was parted from you for a time, that you might receive him back wholly and for ever yours;

PHILEMON 1:16
16 no longer as a slave, but as something better than a slave - a brother peculiarly dear to me, and even dearer to you, both as a servant and as a
fellow Christian.

PHILEMON 1:17
17 If therefore you regard me as a comrade, receive him as if he were I myself.

PHILEMON 1:18
18 And if he was ever dishonest or is in your debt, debit me with the amount.

PHILEMON 1:19
19 I Paul write this with my own hand - I will pay you in full. (I say nothing of the fact that you owe me even your own self.)

PHILEMON 1:20
20 Yes, brother, do me this favor for the Lord's sake. Refresh my heart in Christ.

PHILEMON 1:21
21 I write to you in the full confidence that you will meet my wishes, for I know you will do even more than I say.

PHILEMON 1:22
22 And at the same time provide accommodation for me; for I hope that through your prayers I shall be permitted to come to you.

PHILEMON 1:23
23 Greetings to you, my brother, from Epaphras my fellow prisoner for the sake of Christ Jesus;

PHILEMON 1:24
24 and from Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke, my fellow workers.

PHILEMON 1:25
25 May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with the spirit of every one of you.


Weymouth HEBREWS
The Letter
To The
Hebrews

As regards the date of this Letter, the only sure conclusion appears to be that it was before 70 A.D. The book itself claims to have been written at the end of the Jewish
Age (1:2; 9:26), whilst the earthly temple was still in existence (9:8), and it is inconceivable that such an overwhelming comment upon the writer's whole position as that
afforded by the destruction of Jerusalem would have been overlooked, had it been available. Hence 67-68 A.D. may with probability be alleged as the time of
composition. The only fact clear as to the author is that he was not the Apostle Paul. The early Fathers did not attribute the book to Paul, nor was it until the seventh
century that the tendency to do this, derived from Jerome, swelled into an ecclesiastical practice. From the book itself we see that the author must have been a Jew and
a Hellenist, familiar with Philo as well as with the Old Testament, a friend of Timothy and well-known to many of those whom he addressed, and not an Apostle but
decidedly acquainted with Apostolic thoughts; and that he not only wrote before the destruction of Jerusalem but apparently himself was never in Palestine. The name
of Barnabas,(c)
 Copyright     and also that ofInfobase
                 2005-2009,     Priscilla, Media
                                           has been suggested, but in reality all these distinctive marks appear to be found only in Apollos. So that with Luther, and not a
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few modern scholars, we must either attribute it to him or give up the quest.

There has never been any question as to the canonicity of this Letter, nor can there be any doubt as to its perennial value to the Church of Christ. Where it was written
composition. The only fact clear as to the author is that he was not the Apostle Paul. The early Fathers did not attribute the book to Paul, nor was it until the seventh
century that the tendency to do this, derived from Jerome, swelled into an ecclesiastical practice. From the book itself we see that the author must have been a Jew and
a Hellenist, familiar with Philo as well as with the Old Testament, a friend of Timothy and well-known to many of those whom he addressed, and not an Apostle but
decidedly acquainted with Apostolic thoughts; and that he not only wrote before the destruction of Jerusalem but apparently himself was never in Palestine. The name
of Barnabas, and also that of Priscilla, has been suggested, but in reality all these distinctive marks appear to be found only in Apollos. So that with Luther, and not a
few modern scholars, we must either attribute it to him or give up the quest.

There has never been any question as to the canonicity of this Letter, nor can there be any doubt as to its perennial value to the Church of Christ. Where it was written
cannot be decided. "The brethren from Italy" (13:24) proves nothing. Nor is it possible to decide to whom it was sent. "The Hebrews," to whom it was addressed, may
have been resident in Jerusalem, Alexandria, Ephesus, or Rome. The most remarkable feature of the Letter is manifestly its references to the old Covenant. Here there
is a mingling of reverence and iconoclasm. The unquestionably divine origin of the Jewish dispensation is made use of for laying emphasis upon the infinitely superior
glory of the Christian order. Thus an a fortiori argument pervades the whole - if the shadow was divine, how much more must the substance be! "The language of the
Epistle, both in vocabulary and style, is purer and more vigorous than that of any other book of the New Testament" (Westcott).

CHAPTER 1

HEBREWS 1:1
1 God, who in ancient days spoke to our forefathers in many distinct messages and by various methods through the Prophets,

HEBREWS 1:2
2 has at the end of these days spoken to us through a Son, who is the pre-destined Lord of the universe, and through whom He made the Ages.

HEBREWS 1:3
3 He brightly reflects God's glory and is the exact representation of His being, and upholds the universe by His all-powerful word. After securing
man's purification from sin He took His seat at the right hand of the Majesty on high,

HEBREWS 1:4
4 having become as far superior to the angels as the Name He possesses by inheritance is more excellent than theirs.

HEBREWS 1:5
5 For to which of the angels did God ever say, "My Son art Thou: I have this day become Thy Father;" and again, "I will be a Father to Him, and He
shall be My Son"?

HEBREWS 1:6
6 But speaking of the time when He once more brings His Firstborn into the world, He says, "And let all God's angels worship Him."

HEBREWS 1:7
7 Moreover of the angels He says, "He changes His angels into winds, and His ministering servants into a flame of fire."

HEBREWS 1:8
8 But of His Son, He says, "Thy throne, O God, is for ever and for ever, and the sceptre of Thy Kingdom is a sceptre of absolute justice.

HEBREWS 1:9
9 Thou hast loved righteousness and hated lawlessness; therefore God, Thy God, has anointed Thee with the oil of gladness beyond Thy companions."

HEBREWS 1:10
10 It is also of His Son that God says, "Thou, O Lord, in the beginning didst lay the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of Thy
hands.

HEBREWS 1:11
11 The heavens will perish, but Thou remainest; and they will all grow old like a garment,

HEBREWS 1:12
12 and, as though they were a mantle Thou wilt roll them up; yes, like a garment, and they will undergo change. But Thou art the same, and Thy
years will never come to an end."

HEBREWS 1:13
13 To which of the angels has He ever said, "Sit at My right hand till I make Thy foes a footstool for Thy feet"?

HEBREWS 1:14
14 Are not all angels spirits that serve Him - whom He sends out to render service for the benefit of those who, before long, will inherit salvation?

CHAPTER 2

HEBREWS 2:1
1 For this reason we ought to pay the more earnest heed to the things which we have heard, for fear we should drift away from them.

HEBREWS 2:2
2 For if the message delivered through angels proved to be true, and every transgression and act of disobedience met with just retribution,

HEBREWS 2:3
3 how shall we escape if we are indifferent to a salvation as great as that now offered to us? This, after having first of all been announced by the Lord
Himself, had its truth made sure to us by those who heard Him,

HEBREWS
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4 while God corroborated their testimony by signs and marvels and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed in accordance with
His own will.
HEBREWS 2:3
3 how shall we escape if we are indifferent to a salvation as great as that now offered to us? This, after having first of all been announced by the Lord
Himself, had its truth made sure to us by those who heard Him,

HEBREWS 2:4
4 while God corroborated their testimony by signs and marvels and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed in accordance with
His own will.

HEBREWS 2:5
5 It is not to angels that God has assigned the sovereignty of that coming world, of which we speak.

HEBREWS 2:6
6 But, as we know, a writer has solemnly said, "How poor a creature is man, and yet Thou dost remember him, and a son of man, and yet Thou dost
come to him!

HEBREWS 2:7
7 Thou hast made him only a little inferior to the angels; with glory and honor Thou hast crowned him, and hast set him to govern the works of Thy
hands.

HEBREWS 2:8
8 Thou hast put everything in subjection under his feet." For this subjecting of the universe to man implies the leaving nothing not subject to him. But
we do not as yet see the universe subject to him.

HEBREWS 2:9
9 But Jesus - who was made a little inferior to the angels in order that through God's grace He might taste death for every human being - we already
see wearing a crown of glory and honor because of His having suffered death.

HEBREWS 2:10
10 For it was fitting that He for whom, and through whom, all things exist, after He had brought many sons to glory, should perfect by suffering the
Prince Leader who had saved them.

HEBREWS 2:11
11 For both He who sanctifies and those whom He is sanctifying have all one Father; and for this reason He is not ashamed to speak of them as His
brothers;

HEBREWS 2:12
12 as when He says: "I will proclaim Thy name to My brothers: in the midst of the congregation I will hymn Thy praises;"

HEBREWS 2:13
13 and again, "As for Me, I will be one whose trust reposes in God;" and again, "Here am I, and here are the children God has given Me."

HEBREWS 2:14
14 Since then the children referred to are all alike sharers in perishable human nature, He Himself also, in the same way, took on Him a share of it, in
order that through death He might render powerless him who had authority over death, that is, the Devil,

HEBREWS 2:15
15 and might set at liberty all those who through fear of death had been subject to lifelong slavery.

HEBREWS 2:16
16 For assuredly it is not to angels that He is continually reaching a helping hand, but it is to the descendants of Abraham.

HEBREWS 2:17
17 And for this purpose it was necessary that in all respects He should be made to resemble His brothers, so that He might become a compassionate
and faithful High Priest in things relating to God, in order to atone for the sins of the people.

HEBREWS 2:18
18 For inasmuch as He has Himself felt the pain of temptation and trial, He is also able instantly to help those who are tempted and tried.

CHAPTER 3

HEBREWS 3:1
1 Therefore, holy brethren, sharers with others in a heavenly invitation, fix your thoughts on Jesus, the Apostle and High Priest whose followers we
profess to be.

HEBREWS 3:2
2 How faithful He was to Him who appointed Him, just as Moses also was faithful in all God's house!

HEBREWS 3:3
3 For Jesus has been counted worthy of greater glory than Moses, in so far as he who has built a house has higher honor than the house itself.

HEBREWS 3:4
4 For every house has had a builder, and the builder of all things is God.

HEBREWS
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5 Moreover, Moses was faithful in all God's house as a servant in delivering the message given him to speak;

HEBREWS 3:6
HEBREWS 3:4
4 For every house has had a builder, and the builder of all things is God.

HEBREWS 3:5
5 Moreover, Moses was faithful in all God's house as a servant in delivering the message given him to speak;

HEBREWS 3:6
6 but Christ was faithful as a Son having authority over God's house, and we are that house, if we hold firm to the End the boldness and the hope
which we boast of as ours.

HEBREWS 3:7
7 For this reason - as the Holy Spirit warns us, "To-day, if you hear His voice,

HEBREWS 3:8
8 do not harden your hearts as your forefathers did in the time of the provocation on the day of the temptation in the Desert,

HEBREWS 3:9
9 where your forefathers so sorely tried My patience and saw all that I did during forty years.

HEBREWS 3:10
10 Therefore I was greatly grieved with that generation, and I said, 'They are ever going astray in heart, and have not learnt to know My paths.'

HEBREWS 3:11
11 As I swore in My anger, they shall not be admitted to My rest" -

HEBREWS 3:12
12 see to it, brethren, that there is never in any one of you - as perhaps there may be - a sinful and unbelieving heart, manifesting itself in revolt from
the ever-living God.

HEBREWS 3:13
13 On the contrary encourage one another, day after day, so long as To-day lasts, so that not one of you may be hardened through the deceitful
character of sin.

HEBREWS 3:14
14 For we have, all alike, become sharers with Christ, if we really hold our first confidence firm to the End;

HEBREWS 3:15
15 seeing that the warning still comes to us, "To-day, if you hear His voice, do not harden your hearts as your forefathers did in the time of the
provocation."

HEBREWS 3:16
16 For who were they that heard, and yet provoked God? Was it not the whole of the people who had come out of Egypt under the leadership of
Moses?

HEBREWS 3:17
17 And with whom was God so greatly grieved for forty years? Was it not with those who had sinned, and whose dead bodies fell in the Desert?

HEBREWS 3:18
18 And to whom did He swear that they should not be admitted to His rest, if it was not to those who were disobedient?

HEBREWS 3:19
19 And so we see that it was owing to lack of faith that they could not be admitted.

CHAPTER 4

HEBREWS 4:1
1 Therefore let us be on our guard lest perhaps, while He still leaves us a promise of being admitted to His rest, some one of you should be found to
have fallen short of it.

HEBREWS 4:2
2 For Good News has been brought to us as truly as to them; but the message they heard failed to benefit them, because they were not one in faith
with those who gave heed to it.

HEBREWS 4:3
3 We who have believed are soon to be admitted to the true rest; as He has said, "As I swore in My anger, they shall not be admitted to My rest,"
although God's works had been going on ever since the creation of the world.

HEBREWS 4:4
4 For, as we know, when speaking of the seventh day He has used the words, "And God rested on the seventh day from all His works;"

HEBREWS 4:5
5 and He has also declared, "They shall not be admitted to My rest."
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HEBREWS 4:6
6 Since, then, it is still true that some will be admitted to that rest, and that because of disobedience those who formerly had Good News proclaimed
to them were not admitted,
HEBREWS 4:5
5 and He has also declared, "They shall not be admitted to My rest."

HEBREWS 4:6
6 Since, then, it is still true that some will be admitted to that rest, and that because of disobedience those who formerly had Good News proclaimed
to them were not admitted,

HEBREWS 4:7
7 He again definitely mentions a certain day, "To-day," saying long afterwards, by David's lips, in the words already quoted, "To-day, if you hear His
voice, do not harden your hearts."

HEBREWS 4:8
8 For if Joshua had given them the true rest, we should not afterwards hear God speaking of another still future day.

HEBREWS 4:9
9 It follows that there still remains a sabbath rest for the people of God.

HEBREWS 4:10
10 For He who has been admitted to His rest, has rested from His works as God did from His.

HEBREWS 4:11
11 Let it then be our earnest endeavour to be admitted to that rest, so that no one may perish through following the same example of unbelief.

HEBREWS 4:12
12 For God's Message is full of life and power, and is keener than the sharpest two-edged sword. It pierces even to the severance of soul from spirit,
and penetrates between the joints and the marrow, and it can discern the secret thoughts and purposes of the heart.

HEBREWS 4:13
13 And no created thing is able to escape its scrutiny; but everything lies bare and completely exposed before the eyes of Him with whom we have to
do.

HEBREWS 4:14
14 Inasmuch, then, as we have in Jesus, the Son of God, a great High Priest who has passed into Heaven itself, let us hold firmly to our profession of
faith.

HEBREWS 4:15
15 For we have not a High Priest who is unable to feel for us in our weaknesses, but one who was tempted in every respect just as we are tempted,
and yet did not sin.

HEBREWS 4:16
16 Therefore let us come boldly to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help us in our times of need.

CHAPTER 5

HEBREWS 5:1
1 For every High Priest is chosen from among men, and is appointed to act on behalf of men in matters relating to God, in order to offer both gifts
and sin-offerings,

HEBREWS 5:2
2 and must be one who is able to bear patiently with the ignorant and erring, because he himself also is beset with infirmity.

HEBREWS 5:3
3 And for this reason he is required to offer sin-offerings not only for the people but also for himself.

HEBREWS 5:4
4 And no one takes this honorable office upon himself, but only accepts it when called to it by God, as Aaron was.

HEBREWS 5:5
5 So Christ also did not claim for Himself the honor of being made High Priest, but was appointed to it by Him who said to Him, "My Son art Thou:
I have to-day become Thy Father;"

HEBREWS 5:6
6 as also in another passage He says, "Thou art a priest for ever, belonging to the order of Melchizedek."

HEBREWS 5:7
7 For Jesus during his earthly life offered up prayers and entreaties, crying aloud and weeping as He pleaded with Him who was able to bring Him
in safety out of death, and He was delivered from the terror from which He shrank.

HEBREWS 5:8
8 Although He was God's Son, yet He learned obedience from the sufferings which He endured;

HEBREWS 5:9
9 and so, having been made perfect, He became to all who obey Him the source and giver of eternal salvation.
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HEBREWS 5:10
10 For God Himself addresses Him as a High Priest for ever, belonging to the order of Melchizedek.
HEBREWS 5:9
9 and so, having been made perfect, He became to all who obey Him the source and giver of eternal salvation.

HEBREWS 5:10
10 For God Himself addresses Him as a High Priest for ever, belonging to the order of Melchizedek.

HEBREWS 5:11
11 Concerning Him we have much to say, and much that it would be difficult to make clear to you, since you have become so dull of apprehension.

HEBREWS 5:12
12 For although, considering the long time you have been believers, you ought now to be teachers of others, you really need some one to teach you
over again the very rudiments of the truths of God, and you have come to require milk instead of solid food.

HEBREWS 5:13
13 By people who live on milk I mean those who are imperfectly acquainted with the teaching concerning righteousness.

HEBREWS 5:14
14 Such persons are mere babes. But solid food is for adults - that is, for those who through constant practice have their spiritual faculties carefully
trained to distinguish good from evil.

CHAPTER 6

HEBREWS 6:1
1 Therefore leaving elementary instruction about the Christ, let us advance to mature manhood and not be continually re-laying a foundation of
repentance from lifeless works and of faith in God,

HEBREWS 6:2
2 or of teaching about ceremonial washings, the laying on of hands, the resurrection of the dead, and the last judgment.

HEBREWS 6:3
3 And advance we will, if God permits us to do so.

HEBREWS 6:4
4 For it is impossible, in the case of those who have once for all been enlightened, and have tasted the sweetness of the heavenly gift, and have been
made partakers of the Holy Spirit,

HEBREWS 6:5
5 and have realized how good the word of God is and how mighty are the powers of the coming Age, and then fell away -

HEBREWS 6:6
6 it is impossible, I say, to keep bringing them back to a new repentance, for, to their own undoing, they are repeatedly crucifying the Son of God
afresh and exposing Him to open shame.

HEBREWS 6:7
7 For land which has drunk in the rain that often falls upon it, and brings forth vegetation useful to those for whose sakes, indeed, it is tilled, has a
share in God's blessing.

HEBREWS 6:8
8 But if it only yields a mass of thorns and briers, it is considered worthless, and is in danger of being cursed, and in the end will be destroyed by fire.

HEBREWS 6:9
9 But we, even while we speak in this tone, have a happier conviction concerning you, my dearly-loved friends - a conviction of things which point
towards salvation.

HEBREWS 6:10
10 For God is not unjust so that He is unmindful of your labor and of the love which you have manifested towards Himself in having rendered
services to His people and in still rendering them.

HEBREWS 6:11
11 But we long for each of you to continue to manifest the same earnestness, with a view to your enjoying fulness of hope to the very End;

HEBREWS 6:12
12 so that you may not become half-hearted, but be imitators of those who through faith and patient endurance are now heirs to the promises.

HEBREWS 6:13
13 For when God gave the promise to Abraham, since He had no one greater to swear by, He swore by Himself,

HEBREWS 6:14
14 saying, "Assuredly I will bless you and bless you, I will increase you and increase you."

HEBREWS 6:15
15 And so, as the result of patient waiting, our forefather obtained what God had promised.
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HEBREWS 6:16
16 For men swear by what is greater than themselves; and with them an oath in confirmation of a statement always puts an end to a dispute.
HEBREWS 6:15
15 And so, as the result of patient waiting, our forefather obtained what God had promised.

HEBREWS 6:16
16 For men swear by what is greater than themselves; and with them an oath in confirmation of a statement always puts an end to a dispute.

HEBREWS 6:17
17 In the same way, since it was God's desire to display more convincingly to the heirs of the promise how unchangeable His purpose was,

HEBREWS 6:18
18 He added an oath, in order that, through two unchangeable things, in which it is impossible for Him to prove false, we may possess mighty
encouragement - we who, for safety, have hastened to lay hold of the hope set before us.

HEBREWS 6:19
19 That hope we have as an anchor of the soul - an anchor that can neither break nor drag. It passes in behind the veil,

HEBREWS 6:20
20 where Jesus has entered as a forerunner on our behalf, having become, like Melchizedek, a High Priest for ever.

CHAPTER 7

HEBREWS 7:1
1 For this man, Melchizedek, King of Salem and priest of the Most High God - he who when Abraham was returning after defeating the kings met
him and pronounced a blessing on him -

HEBREWS 7:2
2 to whom also Abraham presented a tenth part of all - being first, as his name signifies, King of righteousness, and secondly King of Salem, that is,
King of peace:

HEBREWS 7:3
3 with no father or mother, and no record of ancestry: having neither beginning of days nor end of life, but made a type of the Son of God - this man
Melchizedek remains a priest for ever.

HEBREWS 7:4
4 Now think how great this priest-king must have been to whom Abraham the patriarch gave a tenth part of the best of the spoil.

HEBREWS 7:5
5 And those of the descendants of Levi who receive the priesthood are authorized by the Law to take tithes from the people, that is, from their
brethren, though these have sprung from Abraham.

HEBREWS 7:6
6 But, in this instance, one who does not trace his origin from them takes tithes from Abraham, and pronounces a blessing on him to whom the
promises belong.

HEBREWS 7:7
7 And beyond all dispute it is always the inferior who is blessed by the superior.

HEBREWS 7:8
8 Moreover here frail mortal men receive tithes: there one receives them about whom there is evidence that he is alive.

HEBREWS 7:9
9 And Levi too - if I may so speak - pays tithes through Abraham:

HEBREWS 7:10
10 for Levi was yet in the loins of his forefather when Melchizedek met Abraham.

HEBREWS 7:11
11 Now if the crowning blessing was attainable by means of the Levitical priesthood - for as resting on this foundation the people received the Law,
to which they are still subject - what further need was there for a Priest of a different kind to be raised up belonging to the order of Melchizedek
instead of being said to belong to the order of Aaron?

HEBREWS 7:12
12 For when the priesthood changes, a change of Law also of necessity takes place.

HEBREWS 7:13
13 He, however, to whom that prophecy refers is associated with a different tribe, not one member of which has anything to do with the altar.

HEBREWS 7:14
14 For it is undeniable that our Lord sprang from Judah, a tribe of which Moses said nothing in connection with priests.

HEBREWS 7:15
15 And this is still more abundantly clear when we read that it is as belonging to the order of Melchizedek that a priest of a different kind is to arise,
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HEBREWS 7:16
16 and hold His office not in obedience to any temporary Law, but by virtue of an indestructible Life.
HEBREWS 7:15
15 And this is still more abundantly clear when we read that it is as belonging to the order of Melchizedek that a priest of a different kind is to arise,

HEBREWS 7:16
16 and hold His office not in obedience to any temporary Law, but by virtue of an indestructible Life.

HEBREWS 7:17
17 For the words are in evidence, "Thou art a priest for ever, belonging to the order of Melchizedek."

HEBREWS 7:18
18 On the one hand we have here the abrogation of an earlier code because it was weak and ineffective -

HEBREWS 7:19
19 for the Law brought no perfect blessing - but on the other hand we have the bringing in of a new and better hope by means of which we draw
near to God.

HEBREWS 7:20
20 And since it was not without an oath being taken -

HEBREWS 7:21
21 for these men hold office without any oath having been taken, but He holds it attested by an oath from Him who said to Him, "The Lord has
sworn and will not recall His words, Thou art a Priest for ever" -

HEBREWS 7:22
22 so much the more also is the Covenant of which Jesus has become the guarantor, a better covenant.

HEBREWS 7:23
23 And they have been appointed priests many in number, because death prevents their continuance in office:

HEBREWS 7:24
24 but He, because He continues for ever, has a priesthood which does not pass to any successor.

HEBREWS 7:25
25 Hence too He is able to save to the uttermost those who come to God through Him, seeing that He ever lives to plead for them.

HEBREWS 7:26
26 Moreover we needed just such a High Priest as this - holy, guileless, undefiled, far removed from sinful men and exalted above the heavens;

HEBREWS 7:27
27 who, unlike other High Priests, is not under the necessity of offering up sacrifices day after day, first for His own sins, and afterwards for those of
the people; for this latter thing He did once for all when He offered up Himself.

HEBREWS 7:28
28 For the Law constitutes men High Priests - men with all their infirmity - but the utterance of the oath, which came later than the Law, constitutes
High Priest a Son who has been made for ever perfect.

CHAPTER 8

HEBREWS 8:1
1 Now in connexion with what we have been saying the chief point is that we have a High Priest who has taken His seat at the right hand of the
throne of God's Majesty in the heavens,

HEBREWS 8:2
2 and ministers in the Holy place and in the true tabernacle which not man, but the Lord pitched.

HEBREWS 8:3
3 Every High Priest, however, is appointed to offer both bloodless gifts and sacrifices. Therefore this High Priest also must have some offering to
present.

HEBREWS 8:4
4 If then He were still on earth, He would not be a priest at all, since here there are already those who present the offerings in obedience to the Law,

HEBREWS 8:5
5 and serve a copy and type of the heavenly things, just as Moses was divinely instructed when about to build the tabernacle. For God said, "See that
you make everything in imitation of the pattern shown you on the mountain."

HEBREWS 8:6
6 But, as a matter of fact, the ministry which Christ has obtained is all the nobler a ministry, in that He is at the same time the negotiator of a
sublimer covenant, based upon sublimer promises.

HEBREWS 8:7
7 For if that first Covenant had been free from imperfection, there would have been no attempt to introduce another.
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HEBREWS 8:8
8 For, being dissatisfied with His people, God says, "'There are days coming,' says the Lord, 'When I will establish with the house of Israel and with
HEBREWS 8:7
7 For if that first Covenant had been free from imperfection, there would have been no attempt to introduce another.

HEBREWS 8:8
8 For, being dissatisfied with His people, God says, "'There are days coming,' says the Lord, 'When I will establish with the house of Israel and with
the house of Judah a new Covenant -

HEBREWS 8:9
9 a Covenant unlike the one which I made with their forefathers on the day when I took them by the hand to lead them out from the land of Egypt;
for they would not remain faithful to that.' 'So I turned from them,' says the Lord.

HEBREWS 8:10
10 'But this is the Covenant that I will covenant with the house of Israel after those days,' says the Lord: I will put My laws into their minds and will
write them upon their hearts. And I will indeed be their God and they shall be My People.

HEBREWS 8:11
11 And there shall be no need for them to teach each one his fellow citizen and each one his brother, saying, Know the Lord. For all will know Me
from the least of them to the greatest;

HEBREWS 8:12
12 Because I will be merciful to their wrongdoings, and their sins I will remember no longer.'"

HEBREWS 8:13
13 By using the words, "a new Covenant," He has made the first one obsolete; but whatever is decaying and showing signs of old age is not far from
disappearing altogether.

CHAPTER 9

HEBREWS 9:1
1 Now even the first Covenant had regulations for divine worship, and had also its sanctuary - a sanctuary belonging to this world.

HEBREWS 9:2
2 For a sacred tent was constructed - the outer one, in which were the lamp and the table and the presented loaves; and this is called the Holy place.

HEBREWS 9:3
3 And behind the second veil was a sacred tent called the Holy of holies.

HEBREWS 9:4
4 This had a censer of gold, and the ark of the Covenant lined with gold and completely covered with gold, and in it were a gold vase which held the
manna, and Aaron's rod which budded and the tables of the Covenant.

HEBREWS 9:5
5 And above the ark were the Cherubim denoting God's glorious presence and overshadowing the Mercy-seat. But I cannot now speak about all
these in detail.

HEBREWS 9:6
6 These arrangements having long been completed, the priests, when conducting the divine services, continually enter the outer tent.

HEBREWS 9:7
7 But into the second, the High Priest goes only on one day of the year, and goes alone, taking with him blood, which he offers on his own behalf and
on account of the sins which the people have ignorantly committed.

HEBREWS 9:8
8 And the lesson which the Holy Spirit teaches is this - that the way into the true Holy place is not yet open so long as the outer tent still remains in
existence.

HEBREWS 9:9
9 And this is a figure - for the time now present - answering to which both gifts and sacrifices are offered, unable though they are to give complete
freedom from sin to him who ministers.

HEBREWS 9:10
10 For their efficacy depends only on meats and drinks and various washings, ceremonies pertaining to the body and imposed until a time of
reformation.

HEBREWS 9:11
11 But Christ appeared as a High Priest of the blessings that are soon to come by means of the greater and more perfect Tent of worship, a tent which
has not been built with hands - that is to say does not belong to this material creation -

HEBREWS 9:12
12 and once for all entered the Holy place, taking with Him not the blood of goats and calves, but His own blood, and thus procuring eternal
redemption for us.
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HEBREWS 9:13
13 For if the blood of goats and bulls and the ashes of a heifer sprinkling those who have contracted defilement make them holy so as to bring about
HEBREWS 9:12
12 and once for all entered the Holy place, taking with Him not the blood of goats and calves, but His own blood, and thus procuring eternal
redemption for us.

HEBREWS 9:13
13 For if the blood of goats and bulls and the ashes of a heifer sprinkling those who have contracted defilement make them holy so as to bring about
ceremonial purity,

HEBREWS 9:14
14 how much more certainly shall the blood of Christ, who strengthened by the eternal Spirit offered Himself to God, free from blemish, purify your
consciences from lifeless works for you to serve the ever-living God?

HEBREWS 9:15
15 And because of this He is the negotiator of a new Covenant, in order that, since a life has been given in atonement for the offenses committed
under the first Covenant, those who have been called may receive the eternal inheritance which has been promised to them.

HEBREWS 9:16
16 For where there is a legal 'will,' there must also be a death brought forward in evidence - the death of him who made it.

HEBREWS 9:17
17 And a will is only of force in the case of a deceased person, being never of any avail so long as he who made it lives.

HEBREWS 9:18
18 Accordingly we find that the first Covenant was not inaugurated without blood.

HEBREWS 9:19
19 For when Moses had proclaimed to all the people every commandment contained in the Law, he took the blood of the calves and of the goats and
with them water, scarlet wool and hyssop, and sprinkled both the book itself and all the people,

HEBREWS 9:20
20 saying, "This is the blood which confirms the Covenant that God has made binding upon you."

HEBREWS 9:21
21 And in the same way he also sprinkled blood upon the Tent of worship and upon all the vessels used in the ministry.

HEBREWS 9:22
22 Indeed we may almost say that in obedience to the Law everything is sprinkled with blood, and that apart from the outpouring of blood there is
no remission of sins.

HEBREWS 9:23
23 It was needful therefore that the copies of the things in Heaven should be cleansed in this way, but that the heavenly things themselves should be
cleansed with more costly sacrifices.

HEBREWS 9:24
24 For not into a Holy place built by men's hands - a mere copy of the reality - did Christ enter, but He entered Heaven itself, now to appear in the
presence of God on our behalf.

HEBREWS 9:25
25 Nor did He enter for the purpose of many times offering Himself in sacrifice, just as the High Priest enters the Holy place, year after year, taking
with him blood not his own.

HEBREWS 9:26
26 In that case Christ would have needed to suffer many times, from the creation of the world onwards; but as a matter of fact He has appeared once
for all, at the Close of the Ages, in order to do away with sin by the sacrifice of Himself.

HEBREWS 9:27
27 And since it is reserved for all mankind once to die, and afterwards to be judged;

HEBREWS 9:28
28 so the Christ also, having been once offered in sacrifice in order that He might bear the sins of many, will appear a second time, separated from
sin, to those who are eagerly expecting Him, to make their salvation complete.

CHAPTER 10

HEBREWS 10:1
1 For, since the Law exhibits only an outline of the blessings to come and not a perfect representation of the things themselves, the priests can never,
by repeating the same sacrifices which they continually offer year after year, give complete freedom from sin to those who draw near.

HEBREWS 10:2
2 For then would not the sacrifices have ceased to be offered, because the consciences of the worshippers - who in that case would now have been
cleansed once for all - would no longer be burdened with sins?

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HEBREWS        2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                       Page 419 / 567
3 But in those sacrifices sins are recalled to memory year after year.
HEBREWS 10:2
2 For then would not the sacrifices have ceased to be offered, because the consciences of the worshippers - who in that case would now have been
cleansed once for all - would no longer be burdened with sins?

HEBREWS 10:3
3 But in those sacrifices sins are recalled to memory year after year.

HEBREWS 10:4
4 For it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins.

HEBREWS 10:5
5 That is why, when He comes into the world, He says, "Sacrifice and offering Thou has not desired, but a body Thou hast prepared for Me.

HEBREWS 10:6
6 In whole burnt-offerings and in sin-offerings Thou hast taken no pleasure.

HEBREWS 10:7
7 Then I said, 'I have come - in the roll of the book it is written concerning Me - to do Thy will, O God.'"

HEBREWS 10:8
8 After saying the words I have just quoted, "Sacrifices and offerings or whole burnt-offerings and sin-offerings Thou hast not desired or taken
pleasure in" - all such being offered in obedience to the Law -

HEBREWS 10:9
9 He then adds, "I have come to do Thy will." He does away with the first in order to establish the second.

HEBREWS 10:10
10 It is through that divine will that we have been set free from sin, through the offering of Jesus Christ as our sacrifice once for all.

HEBREWS 10:11
11 And while every priest stands ministering, day after day, and constantly offering the same sacrifices - though such can never rid us of our sins -

HEBREWS 10:12
12 this Priest, on the contrary, after offering for sins a single sacrifice of perpetual efficacy, took His seat at God's right hand,

HEBREWS 10:13
13 waiting from that time onward until His enemies be put as a footstool under His feet.

HEBREWS 10:14
14 For by a single offering He has for ever completed the blessing for those whom He is setting free from sin.

HEBREWS 10:15
15 And the Holy Spirit also gives us His testimony; for when He had said,

HEBREWS 10:16
16 "'This is the Covenant that I will make with them after those days,' says the Lord: 'I will put My laws upon their hearts and will write them on their
minds;'"

HEBREWS 10:17
17 He adds, "And their sins and offenses I will remember no longer."

HEBREWS 10:18
18 But where these have been forgiven no further offering for sin is required.

HEBREWS 10:19
19 Since then, brethren, we have free access to the Holy place through the blood of Jesus,

HEBREWS 10:20
20 by the new and ever-living way which He opened up for us through the rending of the veil - that is to say, of His earthly nature -

HEBREWS 10:21
21 and since we have a great Priest who has authority over the house of God,

HEBREWS 10:22
22 let us draw near with sincerity and unfaltering faith, having had our hearts sprinkled, once for all, from consciences oppressed with sin, and our
bodies bathed in pure water.

HEBREWS 10:23
23 Let us hold firmly to an unflinching avowal of our hope, for He is faithful who gave us the promises.

HEBREWS 10:24
24 And let us bestow thought on one another with a view to arousing one another to brotherly love and right conduct;

HEBREWS 10:25
25 not neglecting
 Copyright         - as some
           (c) 2005-2009,     habitually
                           Infobase MediadoCorp.
                                            - to meet together, but encouraging one another, and doing this all the more since you can see the day of
                                                                                                                                    Page 420 / 567
Christ approaching.
24 And let us bestow thought on one another with a view to arousing one another to brotherly love and right conduct;

HEBREWS 10:25
25 not neglecting - as some habitually do - to meet together, but encouraging one another, and doing this all the more since you can see the day of
Christ approaching.

HEBREWS 10:26
26 For if we wilfully persist in sin after having received the full knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains in reserve any other sacrifice for sins.

HEBREWS 10:27
27 There remains nothing but a certain awful expectation of judgment, and the fury of a fire which before long will devour the enemies of the truth.

HEBREWS 10:28
28 Any one who bids defiance to the Law of Moses is put to death without mercy on the testimony of two or three witnesses.

HEBREWS 10:29
29 How much severer punishment, think you, will he be held to deserve who has trampled under foot the Son of God, has not regarded as holy that
Covenant-blood with which he was set free from sin, and has insulted the Spirit from whom comes grace?

HEBREWS 10:30
30 For we know who it is that has said, "Vengeance belongs to Me: I will pay back;" and again, "The Lord will be His people's judge."

HEBREWS 10:31
31 It is an awful thing to fall into the hands of the ever-living God.

HEBREWS 10:32
32 But continually recall to mind the days now past, when on being first enlightened you went through a great conflict and many sufferings.

HEBREWS 10:33
33 This was partly through allowing yourselves to be made a public spectacle amid reproaches and persecutions, and partly through coming forward
to share the sufferings of those who were thus treated.

HEBREWS 10:34
34 For you not only showed sympathy with those who were imprisoned, but you even submitted with joy when your property was taken from you,
being well aware that you have in your own selves a more valuable possession and one which will remain.

HEBREWS 10:35
35 Therefore do not cast from you your confident hope, for it will receive a vast reward.

HEBREWS 10:36
36 For you stand in need of patient endurance, so that, as the result of having done the will of God, you may receive the promised blessing.

HEBREWS 10:37
37 For there is still but a short time and then "The coming One will come and will not delay.

HEBREWS 10:38
38 But it is by faith that My righteous servant shall live; and if he shrinks back, My soul takes no pleasure in him."

HEBREWS 10:39
39 But we are not people who shrink back and perish, but are among those who believe and gain possession of their souls.

CHAPTER 11

HEBREWS 11:1
1 Now faith is a well-grounded assurance of that for which we hope, and a conviction of the reality of things which we do not see.

HEBREWS 11:2
2 For by it the saints of old won God's approval.

HEBREWS 11:3
3 Through faith we understand that the worlds came into being, and still exist, at the command of God, so that what is seen does not owe its existence
to that which is visible.

HEBREWS 11:4
4 Through faith Abel offered to God a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain did, and through this faith he obtained testimony that he was righteous,
God giving the testimony by accepting his gifts; and through it, though he is dead, he still speaks.

HEBREWS 11:5
5 Through faith Enoch was taken from the earth so that he did not see death, and he could not be found, because God had taken him; for before he
was taken we have evidence that he truly pleased God.

HEBREWS 11:6
6 But where there is no faith it is impossible truly to please Him; for the man who draws near to God must believe that there is a God and that He
proves Himself a rewarder of those who earnestly try to find Him.
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HEBREWS 11:7
7 Through faith Noah, being divinely taught about things as yet unseen, reverently gave heed and built an ark for the safety of his family, and by
HEBREWS 11:6
6 But where there is no faith it is impossible truly to please Him; for the man who draws near to God must believe that there is a God and that He
proves Himself a rewarder of those who earnestly try to find Him.

HEBREWS 11:7
7 Through faith Noah, being divinely taught about things as yet unseen, reverently gave heed and built an ark for the safety of his family, and by
this act he condemned the world, and became an heir of the righteousness which depends on faith.

HEBREWS 11:8
8 Through faith Abraham, upon being called to leave home and go into a land which he was soon to receive for an inheritance, obeyed; and he went
out, not knowing where he was going to.

HEBREWS 11:9
9 Through faith he came and made his home for a time in a land which had been promised to him, as if in a foreign country, living in tents together
with Isaac and Jacob, sharers with him in the same promise;

HEBREWS 11:10
10 for he continually looked forward to the city which has the foundations, whose architect and builder is God.

HEBREWS 11:11
11 Through faith even Sarah herself received strength to become a mother - although she was past the time of life for this - because she judged Him
faithful who had given the promise.

HEBREWS 11:12
12 And thus there sprang from one man, and him practically dead, a nation like the stars of the sky in number, and like the sands on the sea shore
which cannot be counted.

HEBREWS 11:13
13 All these died in the possession of faith. They had not received the promised blessings, but had seen them from a distance and had greeted them,
and had acknowledged themselves to be foreigners and strangers here on earth;

HEBREWS 11:14
14 for men who acknowledge this make it manifest that they are seeking elsewhere a country of their own.

HEBREWS 11:15
15 And if they had cherished the remembrance of the country they had left, they would have found an opportunity to return;

HEBREWS 11:16
16 but, as it is, we see them eager for a better land, that is to say, a heavenly one. For this reason God is not ashamed to be called their God, for He
has now prepared a city for them.

HEBREWS 11:17
17 Through faith Abraham, as soon as God put him to the test, offered up Isaac. Yes, he who had joyfully welcomed the promises was on the point of
sacrificing his only son

HEBREWS 11:18
18 with regard to whom he had been told, "It is through Isaac that your posterity shall be traced."

HEBREWS 11:19
19 For he reckoned that God is even able to raise a man up from among the dead, and, figuratively speaking, it was from among the dead that he
received Isaac again.

HEBREWS 11:20
20 Through faith Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau, even in connexion with things soon to come.

HEBREWS 11:21
21 Through faith Jacob, when dying, blessed each of Joseph's sons, and, leaning on the top of his staff, worshipped God.

HEBREWS 11:22
22 Through faith Joseph, when he was near his end, made mention of the departure of the descendants of Israel, and gave orders about his own body.

HEBREWS 11:23
23 Through faith the child Moses was hid for three months by his parents, because they saw his rare beauty; and the king's edict had no terror for
them.

HEBREWS 11:24
24 Through faith Moses, when he grew to manhood, refused to be known as Pharaoh's daughter's son,

HEBREWS 11:25
25 having determined to endure ill-treatment along with the people of God rather than enjoy the short-lived pleasures of sin;

HEBREWS 11:26
26 because(c)
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                           reproaches which
                                  Media Corp.he might meet with in the service of the Christ to be greater riches than all the treasures of Egypt; for he
                                                                                                                                      Page 422 / 567
fixed his gaze on the coming reward.
25 having determined to endure ill-treatment along with the people of God rather than enjoy the short-lived pleasures of sin;

HEBREWS 11:26
26 because he deemed the reproaches which he might meet with in the service of the Christ to be greater riches than all the treasures of Egypt; for he
fixed his gaze on the coming reward.

HEBREWS 11:27
27 Through faith he left Egypt, not being frightened by the king's anger; for he held on his course as seeing the unseen One.

HEBREWS 11:28
28 Through faith he instituted the Passover, and the sprinkling with blood so that the destroyer of the firstborn might not touch the Israelites.

HEBREWS 11:29
29 Through faith they passed through the Red Sea as though they were passing over dry land, but the Egyptians, when they tried to do the same,
were swallowed up.

HEBREWS 11:30
30 Through faith the walls of Jericho fell to the ground after being surrounded for seven days.

HEBREWS 11:31
31 Through faith the notorious sinner Rahab did not perish along with the disobedient, for she had welcomed the spies and had sheltered them.

HEBREWS 11:32
32 And why need I say more? For time will fail me if I tell the story of Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, and of David and Samuel and the Prophets;

HEBREWS 11:33
33 men who, as the result of faith, conquered whole kingdoms, brought about true justice, obtained promises from God, stopped lions' mouths,

HEBREWS 11:34
34 deprived fire of its power, escaped being killed by the sword, out of weakness were made strong, became mighty in war, put to flight foreign
armies.

HEBREWS 11:35
35 Women received back their dear ones alive from the dead; and others were put to death with torture, refusing the deliverance offered to them -
that they might secure a better resurrection.

HEBREWS 11:36
36 Others again were tested by cruel mockery and by scourging; yes, and by chains and imprisonment.

HEBREWS 11:37
37 They were stoned, they were sawn asunder, they were tried by temptation, they were killed with the sword. They went from place to place in
sheepskins or goatskins, enduring want, oppression and cruelty.

HEBREWS 11:38
38 (They were men of whom the world was not worthy.) They wandered across deserts and mountains, or hid themselves in caves and in holes in the
ground.

HEBREWS 11:39
39 And although by their faith all these people won God's approval, none of them received the fulfilment of His great promise;

HEBREWS 11:40
40 for God had provided for them and us something better, so that apart from us they were not to attain to full blessedness.

CHAPTER 12

HEBREWS 12:1
1 Therefore, surrounded as we are by such a vast cloud of witnesses, let us fling aside every encumbrance and the sin that so readily entangles our
feet. And let us run with patient endurance the race that lies before us,

HEBREWS 12:2
2 simply fixing our gaze upon Jesus, our Prince Leader in the faith, who will also award us the prize. He, for the sake of the joy which lay before
Him, patiently endured the cross, looking with contempt upon its shame, and afterwards seated Himself - where He still sits - at the right hand of the
throne of God.

HEBREWS 12:3
3 Therefore, if you would escape becoming weary and faint-hearted, compare your own sufferings with those of Him who endured such hostility
directed against Him by sinners.

HEBREWS 12:4
4 In your struggle against sin you have not yet resisted so as to endanger your lives;

HEBREWS 12:5
5 and you have quite forgotten the encouraging words which are addressed to you as sons, and which say, "My son, do not think lightly of the Lord's
discipline, and2005-2009,
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HEBREWS 12:6
6 for those whom the Lord loves He disciplines: and He scourges every son whom He acknowledges."
HEBREWS 12:5
5 and you have quite forgotten the encouraging words which are addressed to you as sons, and which say, "My son, do not think lightly of the Lord's
discipline, and do not faint when He corrects you;

HEBREWS 12:6
6 for those whom the Lord loves He disciplines: and He scourges every son whom He acknowledges."

HEBREWS 12:7
7 The sufferings that you are enduring are for your discipline. God is dealing with you as sons; for what son is there whom his father does not
discipline?

HEBREWS 12:8
8 And if you are left without discipline, of which every true son has had a share, that shows that you are bastards, and not true sons.

HEBREWS 12:9
9 Besides this, our earthly fathers used to discipline us and we treated them with respect, and shall we not be still more submissive to the Father of our
spirits, and live?

HEBREWS 12:10
10 It is true that they disciplined us for a few years according as they thought fit; but He does it for our certain good, in order that we may become
sharers in His own holy character.

HEBREWS 12:11
11 Now, at the time, discipline seems to be a matter not for joy, but for grief; yet it afterwards yields to those who have passed through its training a
result full of peace - namely, righteousness.

HEBREWS 12:12
12 Therefore strengthen the drooping hands and paralysed knees,

HEBREWS 12:13
13 and make straight paths for your feet, so that what is lame may not be put entirely out of joint

HEBREWS 12:14
14 but may rather be restored. Persistently strive for peace with all men, and for that growth in holiness apart from which no one will see the Lord.

HEBREWS 12:15
15 Be carefully on your guard lest there be any one who falls back from the grace of God; lest any root bearing bitter fruit spring up and cause
trouble among you, and through it the whole brotherhood be defiled;

HEBREWS 12:16
16 lest there be a fornicator, or an ungodly person like Esau, who, in return for a single meal, parted with the birthright which belonged to him.

HEBREWS 12:17
17 For you know that even afterwards, when he wished to secure the blessing, he was rejected; for he found no opportunity for undoing what he had
done, though he sought the blessing earnestly with tears.

HEBREWS 12:18
18 For you have not come to a material object all ablaze with fire, and to gloom and darkness and storm and trumpet-blast and the sound of words -

HEBREWS 12:19
19 a sound of such a kind that those who heard it entreated that no more should be added.

HEBREWS 12:20
20 For they could not endure the order which had been given, "Even a wild beast, if it touches the mountain, shall be stoned to death;"

HEBREWS 12:21
21 and so terrible was the scene that Moses said, "I tremble with fear."

HEBREWS 12:22
22 On the contrary you have come to Mount Zion, and to the city of the ever-living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, to countless hosts of angels,

HEBREWS 12:23
23 to the great festal gathering and Church of the first-born, whose names are recorded in Heaven, and to a Judge who is God of all, and to the spirits
of righteous men made perfect,

HEBREWS 12:24
24 and to Jesus the negotiator of a new Covenant, and to the sprinkled blood which speaks in more gracious tones than that of Abel.

HEBREWS 12:25
25 Be careful not to refuse to listen to Him who is speaking to you. For if they of old did not escape unpunished when they refused to listen to him
who spoke on earth, much less shall we escape who turn a deaf ear to Him who now speaks from Heaven.

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HEBREWS 12:26
26 His voice then shook the earth, but now we have His promise, "Yet again I will, once for all, cause not only the earth to tremble, but Heaven also."
HEBREWS 12:25
25 Be careful not to refuse to listen to Him who is speaking to you. For if they of old did not escape unpunished when they refused to listen to him
who spoke on earth, much less shall we escape who turn a deaf ear to Him who now speaks from Heaven.

HEBREWS 12:26
26 His voice then shook the earth, but now we have His promise, "Yet again I will, once for all, cause not only the earth to tremble, but Heaven also."

HEBREWS 12:27
27 Here the words "Yet again, once for all" denote the removal of the things which can be shaken - created things - in order that the things which
cannot be shaken may remain.

HEBREWS 12:28
28 Therefore, receiving, as we now do, a kingdom which cannot be shaken, let us cherish thankfulness so that we may ever offer to God an
acceptable service, with godly reverence and awe.

HEBREWS 12:29
29 For our God is also a consuming fire.

CHAPTER 13

HEBREWS 13:1
1 Let brotherly love always continue.

HEBREWS 13:2
2 Do not neglect to show kindness to strangers; for, in this way, some, without knowing it, have had angels as their guests.

HEBREWS 13:3
3 Remember prisoners, as if you were in prison with them; and remember those suffering ill-treatment, for you yourselves also are still in the body.

HEBREWS 13:4
4 Let marriage be held in honor among all, and let the marriage bed be unpolluted; for fornicators and adulterers God will judge.

HEBREWS 13:5
5 Your lives should be untainted by love for money. Be content with what you have; for God Himself has said, "I will never, never let go your hand: I
will never never forsake you."

HEBREWS 13:6
6 So that we fearlessly say, "The Lord is my helper; I will not be afraid: what can man do to me?"

HEBREWS 13:7
7 Remember your former leaders - it was they who brought you God's Message. Bear in mind how they ended their lives, and imitate their faith.

HEBREWS 13:8
8 Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and to-day - yes, and to the ages to come.

HEBREWS 13:9
9 Do not be drawn aside by all sorts of strange teaching; for it is well to have the heart made stedfast through God's grace, and not by special kinds of
food, from which those who scrupulously attend to them have derived no benefit.

HEBREWS 13:10
10 We Christians have an altar from which the ministers of the Jewish Tent have no right to eat.

HEBREWS 13:11
11 For the bodies of those animals of which the blood is carried by the High Priest into the Holy place as an offering for sin, are burned outside the
camp.

HEBREWS 13:12
12 And for this reason Jesus also, in order, by His own blood, to set the people free from sin, suffered outside the gate.

HEBREWS 13:13
13 Therefore let us go to Him outside the camp, sharing the insults directed against Him.

HEBREWS 13:14
14 For we have no permanent city here, but we are longing for the city which is soon to be ours.

HEBREWS 13:15
15 Through Him, then, let us continually lay on the altar a sacrifice of praise to God, namely, the utterance of lips that give thanks to His Name.

HEBREWS 13:16
16 And do not forget to be kind and liberal; for with sacrifices of that sort God is greatly pleased.

HEBREWS 13:17
17 Obey your leaders and be submissive to them. For they are keeping watch over your souls as those who will have to give account; that they may
do this with joy and not with lamentation. For that would be of no advantage to you.
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HEBREWS 13:18
18 Keep on praying for us; for we are sure that we have clear consciences, and we desire to live nobly in every respect.
HEBREWS 13:17
17 Obey your leaders and be submissive to them. For they are keeping watch over your souls as those who will have to give account; that they may
do this with joy and not with lamentation. For that would be of no advantage to you.

HEBREWS 13:18
18 Keep on praying for us; for we are sure that we have clear consciences, and we desire to live nobly in every respect.

HEBREWS 13:19
19 I specially urge this upon you in order that I may be the more speedily restored to you.

HEBREWS 13:20
20 Now may God who gives peace, and brought Jesus, our Lord, up again from among the dead - even Him who, by virtue of the blood of the
eternal Covenant, is the great Shepherd of the sheep -

HEBREWS 13:21
21 fully equip you with every grace that you may need for the doing of His will, producing in us that which will truly please Him through Jesus
Christ. To Him be the glory to the Ages of the Ages! Amen.

HEBREWS 13:22
22 Bear with me, brethren, when I thus exhort you; for, in fact, it is but a short letter that I have written to you.

HEBREWS 13:23
23 You will rejoice to hear that our brother Timothy has been set at liberty. If he comes soon, I will see you with him.

HEBREWS 13:24
24 Greet all your leaders and all God's people. The brethren from Italy send you greetings.

HEBREWS 13:25
25 Grace be with you all! Amen.


Weymouth JAMES
James's Letter

Four persons bearing the name of 'James' are mentioned in the New Testament.

(1) The Apostle, the son of Zabdi.

(2) The Apostle, the son of Alphaeus.

(3) The son of Mary the wife of Clopas.

(4) The Lord's brother, mentioned as such along with Joses, Simon and Judah, and prominent in the Acts (12:17; 15:13; 21:18).

The last-named was also known as 'James the Just' and is represented by tradition as having led an ascetic life, which ended in martyrdom. He was undoubtedly
Bishop, or President, of the Church in Jerusalem and in all probability this Letter was written by him from that city.

There has been some difference of opinion as to the date of the book. The majority of scholars insist that both the internal and external evidence point to its having been
written between 44 and 50 A. D., before the earliest of Paul's Letters. But, on the other hand, the solemn emphasis which the author lays upon the immediateness of the
Lord's Return (5:7,8,9) may be regarded as a moral proof of a date very much nearer the winding up of the Mosaic dispensation in 70 A. D.

The Letter may have been a Jewish one, addressed to the Christian converts from Judaism who were scattered abroad, within or beyond the limits of the Roman
Empire. Luther deemed it "an Epistle of straw," by reason of its insistence upon the vital importance of 'works.' But its practical ideal assumes the same basis of
Christian faith as is found in the Letters of Paul. The opening references to severe trial seem to show that the persecution begun by Herod Agrippa had already been
repeated elsewhere. If the later date of the book be admitted, the persecution must then, of course, have been that under Nero.

CHAPTER 1

JAMES 1:1
1 James, a bondservant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ: to the twelve tribes who are scattered over the world. All good wishes.

JAMES 1:2
2 Reckon it nothing but joy, my brethren, whenever you find yourselves hedged in by various trials.

JAMES 1:3
3 Be assured that the testing of your faith leads to power of endurance.

JAMES 1:4
4 Only let endurance have perfect results so that you may become perfect and complete, deficient in nothing.

JAMES 1:5
5 And if any one of you is deficient in wisdom, let him ask God for it, who gives with open hand to all men, and without upbraiding; and it will be
given him.
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JAMES 1:6
6 But let him ask in faith and have no doubts; for he who has doubts is like the surge of the sea, driven by the wind and tossed into spray.
JAMES 1:5
5 And if any one of you is deficient in wisdom, let him ask God for it, who gives with open hand to all men, and without upbraiding; and it will be
given him.

JAMES 1:6
6 But let him ask in faith and have no doubts; for he who has doubts is like the surge of the sea, driven by the wind and tossed into spray.

JAMES 1:7
7 A person of that sort must not expect to receive anything from the Lord -

JAMES 1:8
8 such a one is a man of two minds, undecided in every step he takes.

JAMES 1:9
9 Let a brother in humble life rejoice when raised to a higher position;

JAMES 1:10
10 but a rich man should rejoice in being brought low, for like flowers among the herbage rich men will pass away.

JAMES 1:11
11 The sun rises with his scorching heat and dries up the herbage, so that its flowers drop off and the beauty of its appearance perishes, and in the
same way rich men with all their prosperity will fade away.

JAMES 1:12
12 Blessed is he who patiently endures trials; for when he has stood the test, he will gain the victor's crown - even the crown of Life - which the Lord
has promised to those who love Him.

JAMES 1:13
13 Let no one say when passing through trial, "My temptation is from God;" for God is incapable of being tempted to do evil, and He Himself tempts
no one.

JAMES 1:14
14 But when a man is tempted, it is his own passions that carry him away and serve as a bait.

JAMES 1:15
15 Then the passion conceives, and becomes the parent of sin; and sin, when fully matured, gives birth to death.

JAMES 1:16
16 Do not be deceived, my dearly-loved brethren.

JAMES 1:17
17 Every gift which is good, and every perfect boon, is from above, and comes down from the Father, who is the source of all Light. In Him there is
no variation nor the slightest suggestion of change.

JAMES 1:18
18 In accordance with His will He made us His children through the Message of the truth, so that we might, in a sense, be the Firstfruits of the things
which He has created.

JAMES 1:19
19 You know this, my dearly-loved brethren. But let every one be quick to hear, slow to speak, and slow to be angry.

JAMES 1:20
20 For a man's anger does not lead to action which God regards as righteous.

JAMES 1:21
21 Ridding yourselves, therefore, of all that is vile and of the evil influences which prevail around you, welcome in a humble spirit the Message
implanted within you, which is able to save your souls.

JAMES 1:22
22 But prove yourselves obedient to the Message, and do not be mere hearers of it, imposing a delusion upon yourselves.

JAMES 1:23
23 For if any one listens but does not obey, he is like a man who carefully looks at his own face in a mirror.

JAMES 1:24
24 Although he has looked carefully at himself, he goes away, and has immediately forgotten the sort of man he is.

JAMES 1:25
25 But he who looks closely into the perfect Law - the Law of freedom - and continues looking, he, being not a hearer who forgets, but an obedient
doer, will as the result of his obedience be blessed.

JAMES 1:26
26 If a man thinks that he is scrupulously religious, although he is not curbing his tongue but is deceiving himself, his religious service is worthless.

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JAMES 1:27
27 The religious service which is pure and stainless in the sight of our God and Father is to visit fatherless children and widowed women in their time
of trouble, and to keep one's own self unspotted from the world.
JAMES 1:26
26 If a man thinks that he is scrupulously religious, although he is not curbing his tongue but is deceiving himself, his religious service is worthless.

JAMES 1:27
27 The religious service which is pure and stainless in the sight of our God and Father is to visit fatherless children and widowed women in their time
of trouble, and to keep one's own self unspotted from the world.

CHAPTER 2

JAMES 2:1
1 My brethren, you must not make distinctions between one man and another while you are striving to maintain faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, who
is our glory.

JAMES 2:2
2 For suppose a man comes into one of your meetings wearing gold rings and fine clothes, and there also comes in a poor man wearing shabby
clothes,

JAMES 2:3
3 and you pay court to the one who wears the fine clothes, and say, "Sit here; this is a good place;" while to the poor man you say, "Stand there, or sit
on the floor at my feet;"

JAMES 2:4
4 is it not plain that in your hearts you have little faith, seeing that you have become judges full of wrong thoughts?

JAMES 2:5
5 Listen, my dearly-loved brethren. Has not God chosen those whom the world regards as poor to be rich in faith and heirs of the Kingdom which He
has promised to those that love Him?

JAMES 2:6
6 But you have put dishonor upon the poor man. Yet is it not the rich who grind you down? Are not they the very people who drag you into the Law
courts? -

JAMES 2:7
7 and the very people who speak evil of the noble Name by which you are called?

JAMES 2:8
8 If, however, you are keeping the Law as supreme, in obedience to the Commandment which says "You are to love your fellow man just as you love
yourself," you are acting rightly.

JAMES 2:9
9 But if you are making distinctions between one man and another, you are guilty of sin, and are convicted by the Law as offenders.

JAMES 2:10
10 A man who has kept the Law as a whole, but has failed to keep some one command, has become guilty of violating all.

JAMES 2:11
11 For He who said, "Do not commit adultery," also said, "Do not commit murder," and if you are a murderer, although not an adulterer, you have
become an offender against the Law.

JAMES 2:12
12 Speak and act as those should who are expecting to be judged by the Law of freedom.

JAMES 2:13
13 For he who shows no mercy will have judgment given against him without mercy; but mercy triumphs over judgment.

JAMES 2:14
14 What good is it, my brethren, if a man professes to have faith, and yet his actions do not correspond? Can such faith save him?

JAMES 2:15
15 Suppose a Christian brother or sister is poorly clad or lacks daily food,

JAMES 2:16
16 and one of you says to them, "I wish you well; keep yourselves warm and well fed," and yet you do not give them what they need; what is the use
of that?

JAMES 2:17
17 So also faith, if it is unaccompanied by obedience, has no life in it - so long as it stands alone.

JAMES 2:18
18 Nay, some one will say, "You have faith, I have actions: prove to me your faith apart from corresponding actions and I will prove mine to you by
my actions.

JAMES   2:19
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19 You believe that God is one, and you are quite right: evil spirits also believe this, and shudder."

JAMES 2:20
JAMES 2:18
18 Nay, some one will say, "You have faith, I have actions: prove to me your faith apart from corresponding actions and I will prove mine to you by
my actions.

JAMES 2:19
19 You believe that God is one, and you are quite right: evil spirits also believe this, and shudder."

JAMES 2:20
20 But, idle boaster, are you willing to be taught how it is that faith apart from obedience is worthless? Take the case of Abraham our forefather.

JAMES 2:21
21 Was it, or was it not, because of his actions that he was declared to be righteous as the result of his having offered up his son Isaac upon the altar?

JAMES 2:22
22 You notice that his faith was co-operating with his actions, and that by his actions his faith was perfected;

JAMES 2:23
23 and the Scripture was fulfilled which says, "And Abraham believed God, and his faith was placed to his credit as righteousness," and he received
the name of 'God's friend.'

JAMES 2:24
24 You all see that it is because of actions that a man is pronounced righteous, and not simply because of faith.

JAMES 2:25
25 In the same way also was not the notorious sinner Rahab declared to be righteous because of her actions when she welcomed the spies and
hurriedly helped them to escape another way?

JAMES 2:26
26 For just as a human body without a spirit is lifeless, so also faith is lifeless if it is unaccompanied by obedience.

CHAPTER 3

JAMES 3:1
1 Do not be eager, my brethren, for many among you to become teachers; for you know that we teachers shall undergo severer judgment.

JAMES 3:2
2 For we often stumble and fall, all of us. If there is any one who never stumbles in speech, that man has reached maturity of character and is able to
curb his whole nature.

JAMES 3:3
3 Remember that we put the horses' bit into their mouths to make them obey us, and so we turn their whole bodies round.

JAMES 3:4
4 So too with ships, great as they are, and often driven along by strong gales, yet they can be steered with a very small rudder in whichever direction
the caprice of the man at the helm chooses.

JAMES 3:5
5 In the same way the tongue is an insignificant part of the body, but it is immensely boastful. Remember how a mere spark may set a vast forest in
flames.

JAMES 3:6
6 And the tongue is a fire. That world of iniquity, the tongue, is placed within us spotting and soiling our whole nature, and setting the whole round
of our lives on fire, being itself set on fire by Gehenna.

JAMES 3:7
7 For brute nature under all its forms - beasts and birds, reptiles and fishes - can be subjected and kept in subjection by human nature.

JAMES 3:8
8 But the tongue no man or woman is able to tame. It is an ever-busy mischief, and is full of deadly poison.

JAMES 3:9
9 With it we bless the Lord and Father, and with it we curse men, who are made in God's likeness.

JAMES 3:10
10 Out of the same mouth there proceed blessing and cursing. My brethren, this ought not to be.

JAMES 3:11
11 In a fountain, are fresh water and bitter sent forth from the same opening?

JAMES 3:12
12 Can a fig-tree, my brethren, yield olives, or a vine yield figs? No; and neither can salt water yield sweet.

JAMES 3:13
13 Which of you is a wise and well-instructed man? Let him prove it by a right life with conduct guided by a wisely teachable spirit.
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JAMES 3:14
14 But if in your hearts you have bitter feelings of envy and rivalry, do not speak boastfully and falsely, in defiance of the truth.
JAMES 3:13
13 Which of you is a wise and well-instructed man? Let him prove it by a right life with conduct guided by a wisely teachable spirit.

JAMES 3:14
14 But if in your hearts you have bitter feelings of envy and rivalry, do not speak boastfully and falsely, in defiance of the truth.

JAMES 3:15
15 That is not the wisdom which comes down from above: it belongs to earth, to the unspiritual nature, and to evil spirits.

JAMES 3:16
16 For where envy and rivalry are, there also are unrest and every vile deed.

JAMES 3:17
17 The wisdom from above is first of all pure, then peaceful, courteous, not self-willed, full of compassion and kind actions, free from favoritism and
from all insincerity.

JAMES 3:18
18 And peace, for those who strive for peace, is the seed of which the harvest is righteousness.

CHAPTER 4

JAMES 4:1
1 What causes wars and contentions among you? Is it not the cravings which are ever at war within you for various pleasures?

JAMES 4:2
2 You covet things and yet cannot get them; you commit murder; you have passionate desires and yet cannot gain your end; you begin to fight and
make war. You have not, because you do not pray;

JAMES 4:3
3 or you pray and yet do not receive, because you pray wrongly, your object being to waste what you get on some pleasure or another.

JAMES 4:4
4 You unfaithful women, do you not know that friendship with the world means enmity to God? Therefore whoever is bent on being friendly with
the world makes himself an enemy to God.

JAMES 4:5
5 Or do you suppose that it is to no purpose that the Scripture says, "The Spirit which He has caused to dwell in our hearts yearns jealously over us"?

JAMES 4:6
6 But He gives more abundant grace, as is implied in His saying, "God sets Himself against the haughty, but to the lowly He gives grace."

JAMES 4:7
7 Submit therefore to God: resist the Devil, and he will flee from you.

JAMES 4:8
8 Draw near to God, and He will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and make your hearts pure, you who are half-hearted towards
God.

JAMES 4:9
9 Afflict yourselves and mourn and weep aloud; let your laughter be turned into grief, and your gladness into shame.

JAMES 4:10
10 Humble yourselves in the presence of the Lord, and He will exalt you.

JAMES 4:11
11 Do not speak evil of one another, brethren. The man who speaks evil of a brother-man or judges his brother-man speaks evil of the Law and
judges the Law. But if you judge the Law, you are no longer one who obeys the Law, but one who judges it.

JAMES 4:12
12 The only real Lawgiver and Judge is He who is able to save or to destroy. Who are you to sit in judgment on your fellow man?

JAMES 4:13
13 Come, you who say, "To-day or to-morrow we will go to this or that city, and spend a year there and carry on a successful business,"

JAMES 4:14
14 when, all the while, you do not even know what will happen to-morrow. For what is the nature of your life? Why, it is but a mist, which appears
for a short time and then is seen no more.

JAMES 4:15
15 Instead of that you ought to say, "If it is the Lord's will, we shall live and do this or that."

JAMES 4:16
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JAMES 4:17
15 Instead of that you ought to say, "If it is the Lord's will, we shall live and do this or that."

JAMES 4:16
16 But, as the case stands, it is in mere self-confidence that you boast: all such boasting is evil.

JAMES 4:17
17 If, however, a man knows what it is right to do and yet does not do it, he commits a sin.

CHAPTER 5

JAMES 5:1
1 Come, you rich men, weep aloud and howl for your sorrows which will soon be upon you.

JAMES 5:2
2 Your treasures have rotted, and your piles of clothing are moth-eaten;

JAMES 5:3
3 your gold and your silver have become covered with rust, and the rust on them will give evidence against you, and will eat your flesh like fire. You
have hoarded up wealth in these last days.

JAMES 5:4
4 I tell you that the pay of the laborers who have gathered in your crops - pay which you are keeping back - is calling out against you; and the
outcries of those who have been your reapers have entered into the ears of the Lord of the armies of Heaven.

JAMES 5:5
5 Here on earth you have lived self-indulgent and profligate lives. You have stupefied yourselves with gross feeding; but a day of slaughter has come.

JAMES 5:6
6 You have condemned - you have murdered - the righteous man: he offers no resistance.

JAMES 5:7
7 Be patient therefore, brethren, until the Coming of the Lord. Notice how eagerly a farmer waits for a valuable crop! He is patient over it till it has
received the early and the later rain.

JAMES 5:8
8 So you also must be patient: keeping up your courage; for the Coming of the Lord is now close at hand.

JAMES 5:9
9 Do not cry out in condemnation of one another, brethren, lest you come under judgment. I tell you that the Judge is standing at the door.

JAMES 5:10
10 In illustration, brethren, of persecution patiently endured take the Prophets who have spoken as messengers from the Lord.

JAMES 5:11
11 Remember that we call those blessed who endured what they did. You have also heard of Job's patient endurance, and have seen the issue of the
Lord's dealings with him - how full of tenderness and pity the Lord is.

JAMES 5:12
12 But above all things, my brethren, do not swear, either by Heaven or by the earth, or with any other oath. Let your 'yes' be simply 'yes,' and your
'no' be simply 'no;' that you may not come under condemnation.

JAMES 5:13
13 Is one of you suffering? Let him pray. Is any one in good spirits? Let him sing a psalm.

JAMES 5:14
14 Is any one ill? Let him send for the Elders of the Church, and let them pray over him, after anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord.

JAMES 5:15
15 And the prayer of faith will restore the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up to health; and if he has committed sins, they shall be forgiven.

JAMES 5:16
16 Therefore confess your sins to one another, and pray for one another, so that you may be cured. The heartfelt supplication of a righteous man
exerts a mighty influence.

JAMES 5:17
17 Elijah was a man with a nature similar to ours, and he earnestly prayed that there might be no rain: and no rain fell on the land for three years
and six months.

JAMES 5:18
18 Again he prayed, and the sky gave rain and the land yielded its crops.

JAMES 5:19
19 My brethren, if one of you strays from the truth and some one brings him back,
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JAMES 5:20
20 let him know that he who brings a sinner back from his evil ways will save the man's soul from death and throw a veil over a multitude of sins.
JAMES 5:19
19 My brethren, if one of you strays from the truth and some one brings him back,

JAMES 5:20
20 let him know that he who brings a sinner back from his evil ways will save the man's soul from death and throw a veil over a multitude of sins.


Weymouth 1 PETER
Peter's First Letter

The state of things described in this Letter answers to what we find in the first Letter to Timothy, and points to the same period. The "fiery trial" referred to is probably
the persecution which, begun by Nero, in 64 A.D., in order to divert attention from himself, was continued throughout the Roman Empire.

The Letter seems to be primarily addressed to those who regarded Peter as the Apostle to the Jews, although it is manifest that he did not think of these alone. The fact
that it is "full of Pauline thought and Pauline language," is accounted for by the well-grounded supposition that Peter arrived in Rome shortly before Paul was released.
So that this Letter, probably written about 65-66 A.D., was definitely intended to set before the Churches of Roman Asia "the inspiring vision of the two Apostles
working and planning together in the capital."

This would be at once the clearest lesson the Churches could have concerning their unity, and a great encouragement to those then undergoing tribulation and
persecution on behalf of Christ.

CHAPTER 1

1 PETER 1:1
1 Peter, an Apostle of Jesus Christ: To God's own people scattered over the earth, who are living as foreigners in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Roman
Asia, and Bithynia,

1 PETER 1:2
2 chosen in accordance with the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, with a view to their obedience and to
their being sprinkled with the blood of Jesus Christ. May more and more grace and peace be granted to you.

1 PETER 1:3
3 Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who in His great mercy has begotten us anew to an ever-living hope through the
resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead,

1 PETER 1:4
4 to an inheritance imperishable, undefiled and unfading, which has been reserved in Heaven for you,

1 PETER 1:5
5 whom God in His power is guarding through faith for a salvation that even now stands ready for unveiling at the End of the Age.

1 PETER 1:6
6 Rejoice triumphantly in the prospect of this, even if now, for a short time, you are compelled to sorrow amid various trials.

1 PETER 1:7
7 The sorrow comes in order that the testing of your faith - being more precious than that of gold, which perishes and yet is proved by fire - may be
found to result in praise and glory and honor at the re-appearing of Jesus Christ.

1 PETER 1:8
8 Him you love, though your eyes have never looked on Him. In Him, though at present you cannot see Him, you nevertheless trust, and triumph
with a joy which is unspeakable and is crowned with glory,

1 PETER 1:9
9 while you are securing as the outcome of your faith the salvation of your souls.

1 PETER 1:10
10 There were Prophets who earnestly inquired about that salvation, and closely searched into it - even those who spoke beforehand of the grace
which was to come to you.

1 PETER 1:11
11 They were eager to know the time which the Spirit of Christ within them kept indicating, or the characteristics of that time, when they solemnly
made known beforehand the sufferings that were to come upon Christ and the glories which would follow.

1 PETER 1:12
12 To them it was revealed that they were serving not themselves but you, when they foretold the very things which have now been openly declared
to you by those who, having been taught by the Holy Spirit which had been sent from Heaven, brought you the Good News. Angels long to stoop
and look into these things.

1 PETER 1:13
13 Therefore gird up your minds and fix your hopes calmly and unfalteringly upon the boon that is soon to be yours, at the re-appearing of Jesus
Christ.
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1 PETER 1:14
14 And, since you delight in obedience, do not shape your lives by the cravings which used to dominate you in the time of your ignorance,
1 PETER 1:13
13 Therefore gird up your minds and fix your hopes calmly and unfalteringly upon the boon that is soon to be yours, at the re-appearing of Jesus
Christ.

1 PETER 1:14
14 And, since you delight in obedience, do not shape your lives by the cravings which used to dominate you in the time of your ignorance,

1 PETER 1:15
15 but - in imitation of the holy One who has called you - you also must be holy in all your habits of life.

1 PETER 1:16
16 Because it stands written, "You are to be holy, because I am holy."

1 PETER 1:17
17 And if you address as your Father Him who judges impartially in accordance with each man's actions, then spend in fear the time of your stay
here on earth,

1 PETER 1:18
18 knowing, as you do, that it was not with a ransom of perishable wealth, such as silver or gold, that you were set free from your frivolous habits of
life which had been handed down to you from your forefathers,

1 PETER 1:19
19 but with the precious blood of Christ - as of an unblemished and spotless lamb.

1 PETER 1:20
20 He was pre-destined indeed to this work, even before the creation of the world, but has been plainly manifested in these last days for the sake of
you who, through Him,

1 PETER 1:21
21 are faithful to God, who raised Him from among the dead and gave Him glory, so that your faith and hope are resting upon God.

1 PETER 1:22
22 Now that, through your obedience to the truth, you have purified your souls for cherishing sincere brotherly love, you must love another heartily
and fervently.

1 PETER 1:23
23 For you have been begotten again by God's ever-living and enduring word from a germ not of perishable, but of imperishable life.

1 PETER 1:24
24 "All mankind resemble the herbage, and all their beauty is like its flowers. The herbage dries up, and its flowers drop off;

1 PETER 1:25
25 But the word of the Lord remains for ever." And that means the Message which has been proclaimed among you in the Good News.

CHAPTER 2

1 PETER 2:1
1 Rid yourselves therefore of all ill-will and all deceitfulness, of insincerity and envy, and of all evil speaking.

1 PETER 2:2
2 Thirst, like newly-born infants, for pure milk for the soul, that by it you may grow up to salvation;

1 PETER 2:3
3 if you have had any experience of the goodness of the Lord.

1 PETER 2:4
4 Come to Him, the ever-living Stone, rejected indeed by men as worthless, but in God's esteem chosen and held in honor.

1 PETER 2:5
5 And be yourselves also like living stones that are being built up into a spiritual house, to become a holy priesthood to offer spiritual sacrifices
acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.

1 PETER 2:6
6 For it is contained in Scripture, "See, I am placing on Mount Zion a Cornerstone, chosen, and held in honor, and he whose faith rests on Him shall
never have reason to feel ashamed."

1 PETER 2:7
7 To you believers, therefore, that honor belongs; but for unbelievers - "A Stone which the builders rejected has been made the Cornerstone,"

1 PETER 2:8
8 and "a Stone for the foot to strike against, and a Rock to stumble over." Their foot strikes against it because they are disobedient to God's Message,
and to this they were appointed.

1 PETER 2:9
9Copyright (c) 2005-2009,
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                              a priesthood of kingly lineage, a holy nation, a people belonging specially to God, that you may makePage 433
                                                                                                                                    known the/ 567
perfections of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvellous light.
and to this they were appointed.

1 PETER 2:9
9 But you are a chosen race, a priesthood of kingly lineage, a holy nation, a people belonging specially to God, that you may make known the
perfections of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvellous light.

1 PETER 2:10
10 Once you were not a people, but now you are the people of God. Once you had not found mercy, but now you have.

1 PETER 2:11
11 Dear friends, I entreat you as pilgrims and foreigners not to indulge the cravings of your lower natures: for all such cravings wage war upon the
soul.

1 PETER 2:12
12 Live honorable lives among the Gentiles, in order that, although they now speak against you as evil-doers, they may yet witness your good
conduct, and may glorify God on the day of reward and retribution.

1 PETER 2:13
13 Submit, for the Lord's sake, to every authority set up by man, whether it be to the Emperor as supreme ruler,

1 PETER 2:14
14 or to provincial Governors as sent by him for the punishment of evil-doers and the encouragement of those who do what is right.

1 PETER 2:15
15 For it is God's will that by doing what is right you should thus silence the ignorant talk of foolish persons.

1 PETER 2:16
16 Be free men, and yet do not make your freedom an excuse for base conduct, but be God's bondservants.

1 PETER 2:17
17 Honor every one. Love the brotherhood, fear God, honor the Emperor.

1 PETER 2:18
18 Household servants, be submissive to your masters, and show them the utmost respect - not only if they are kind and thoughtful, but also if they
are unreasonable.

1 PETER 2:19
19 For it is an acceptable thing with God, if, from a sense of duty to Him, a man patiently submits to wrong, when treated unjustly.

1 PETER 2:20
20 If you do wrong and receive a blow for it, what credit is there in your bearing it patiently? But if when you do right and suffer for it you bear it
patiently, this is an acceptable thing with God.

1 PETER 2:21
21 And it is to this you were called; because Christ also suffered on your behalf, leaving you an example so that you should follow in His steps.

1 PETER 2:22
22 He never sinned, and no deceitful language was ever heard from His mouth.

1 PETER 2:23
23 When He was reviled, He did not answer with reviling; when He suffered He uttered no threats, but left His wrongs in the hands of the righteous
Judge.

1 PETER 2:24
24 The burden of our sins He Himself carried in His own body to the Cross and bore it there, so that we, having died so far as our sins are concerned,
may live righteous lives. By His wounds yours have been healed.

1 PETER 2:25
25 For you were straying like lost sheep, but now you have come back to the Shepherd and Protector of your souls.

CHAPTER 3

1 PETER 3:1
1 Married women, in the same way, be submissive to your husbands, so that even if some of them disbelieve the Message, they may, apart from the
Message, be won over by the daily life of their wives, after watching your daily life -

1 PETER 3:2
2 so full of reverence, and so blameless!

1 PETER 3:3
3 Your adornment ought not to be a merely outward thing - one of plaiting the hair, putting on jewelry, or wearing beautiful dresses.

1 PETER 3:4
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                                                within - the imperishable ornament of a gentle and peaceful spirit, which is indeed precious       / 567
                                                                                                                                              the sight of
God.
3 Your adornment ought not to be a merely outward thing - one of plaiting the hair, putting on jewelry, or wearing beautiful dresses.

1 PETER 3:4
4 Instead of that, it should be a new nature within - the imperishable ornament of a gentle and peaceful spirit, which is indeed precious in the sight of
God.

1 PETER 3:5
5 For in ancient times also this was the way the holy women who set their hopes upon God used to adorn themselves, being submissive to their
husbands.

1 PETER 3:6
6 Thus, for instance, Sarah obeyed Abraham, acknowledging his authority over her. And you have become Sarah's children if you do what is right
and permit nothing whatever to terrify you.

1 PETER 3:7
7 Married men, in the same way, live with your wives with a clear recognition of the fact that they are weaker than you. Yet, since you are heirs with
them of God's free gift of Life, treat them with honor; so that your prayers may not be hindered.

1 PETER 3:8
8 In conclusion, all of you should be of one mind, quick to sympathize, kind to the brethren, tenderhearted, lowly-minded,

1 PETER 3:9
9 not requiting evil with evil nor abuse with abuse, but, on the contrary, giving a blessing in return, because a blessing is what you have been called
by God to inherit.

1 PETER 3:10
10 For "He who wishes to be well-satisfied with life and see happy days - let him restrain his tongue from evil, and his lips from deceitful words;

1 PETER 3:11
11 Let him turn from evil, and do good; Let him inquire for peace and go in pursuit of it.

1 PETER 3:12
12 For the eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous, and His ears are open to their supplication; but the face of the Lord is set against evil-doers."

1 PETER 3:13
13 And who will be able to harm you, if you show yourselves zealous for that which is good?

1 PETER 3:14
14 But even if you suffer for righteousness' sake, you are to be envied. So do not be alarmed by their threats, nor troubled;

1 PETER 3:15
15 but in your hearts consecrate Christ as Lord, being always ready to make your defense to any one who asks from you a reason for the hope which
you cherish.

1 PETER 3:16
16 Yet argue modestly and cautiously, keeping your consciences free from guilt, so that, when you are spoken against, those who slander your good
Christian lives may be put to shame.

1 PETER 3:17
17 For it is better that you should suffer for doing right, if such be God's will, than for doing evil;

1 PETER 3:18
18 because Christ also once for all died for sins, the innocent One for the guilty many, in order to bring us to God. He was put to death in the flesh,
but made alive in the spirit,

1 PETER 3:19
19 in which He also went and proclaimed His Message to the spirits that were in prison,

1 PETER 3:20
20 who in ancient times had been disobedient, while God's longsuffering was patiently waiting in the days of Noah during the building of the Ark, in
which a few persons - eight in number - were brought safely through the water.

1 PETER 3:21
21 And, corresponding to that figure, the water of baptism now saves you - not the washing off of material defilement, but the craving of a good
conscience after God - through the resurrection of Jesus Christ,

1 PETER 3:22
22 who is at God's right hand, having gone into Heaven, angels and authorities and powers having been made subject to Him.

CHAPTER 4

1 PETER 4:1
1 Since, then, Christ has suffered in the flesh, you also must arm yourselves with a determination to do the same - because he who has suffered in the
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flesh has done with sin -

1 PETER 4:2
CHAPTER 4

1 PETER 4:1
1 Since, then, Christ has suffered in the flesh, you also must arm yourselves with a determination to do the same - because he who has suffered in the
flesh has done with sin -

1 PETER 4:2
2 that in future you may spend the rest of your earthly lives, governed not by human passions, but by the will of God.

1 PETER 4:3
3 For you have given time enough in the past to the doing of the things which the Gentiles delight in - pursuing, as you did, a course of habitual
licence, debauchery, hard drinking, noisy revelry, drunkenness and unholy image-worship.

1 PETER 4:4
4 At this they are astonished - that you do not run into the same excess of profligacy as they do; and they speak abusively of you.

1 PETER 4:5
5 But they will have to give account to Him who stands ready to pronounce judgment on the living and the dead.

1 PETER 4:6
6 For it is with this end in view that the Good News was proclaimed even to some who were dead, that they may be judged, as all mankind will be
judged, in the body, but may be living a godly life in the spirit.

1 PETER 4:7
7 But the end of all things is now close at hand: therefore be sober-minded and temperate, so that you may give yourselves to prayer.

1 PETER 4:8
8 Above all continue to love one another fervently, for love throws a veil over a multitude of faults.

1 PETER 4:9
9 Extend ungrudging hospitality towards one another.

1 PETER 4:10
10 Whatever be the gifts which each has received, you must use them for one another's benefit, as good stewards of God's many-sided kindness.

1 PETER 4:11
11 If any one preaches, let it be as uttering God's truth; if any one renders a service to others, let it be in the strength which God supplies; so that in
everything glory may be given to God in the name of Jesus Christ, to whom belong the glory and the might to the Ages of the Ages. Amen.

1 PETER 4:12
12 Dear friends, do not be surprised at finding that that scorching flame of persecution is raging among you to put you to the test - as though some
surprising thing were accidentally happening to you.

1 PETER 4:13
13 On the contrary, in the degree that you share in the sufferings of the Christ, rejoice, so that at the unveiling of His glory you may also rejoice with
triumphant gladness.

1 PETER 4:14
14 You are to be envied, if you are being reproached for bearing the name of Christ; for in that case the Spirit of glory - even the Spirit of God - is
resting upon you.

1 PETER 4:15
15 But let not one of you suffer as a murderer or a thief or an evil-doer, or as a spy upon other people's business.

1 PETER 4:16
16 If, however, any one suffers because he is a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God for being permitted to bear that name.

1 PETER 4:17
17 For the time has come for judgment to begin, and to begin at the house of God; and if it begins with us, what will be the end of those who reject
God's Good News?

1 PETER 4:18
18 And if it is difficult even for a righteous man to be saved, what will become of irreligious men and sinners?

1 PETER 4:19
19 Therefore also, let those who are suffering in accordance with the will of God entrust their souls in well-doing to a faithful Creator.

CHAPTER 5

1 PETER 5:1
1 So I exhort the Elders among you - I who am their fellow Elder and have been an eye-witness of the sufferings of the Christ, and am also a sharer in
the glory which is soon to be revealed.

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                                                                                                                                          not for base
gain but with cheerful minds;
the glory which is soon to be revealed.

1 PETER 5:2
2 Be shepherds of God's flock which is among you. Exercise the oversight not reluctantly but eagerly, in accordance with the will of God; not for base
gain but with cheerful minds;

1 PETER 5:3
3 not lording it over your Churches but proving yourselves patterns for the flock to imitate.

1 PETER 5:4
4 And then, when the chief Shepherd appears, you will receive the never-withering wreath of glory.

1 PETER 5:5
5 In the same way you younger men must submit to your elders; and all of you must gird yourselves with humility towards one another, for God sets
Himself against the proud, but gives grace to the humble.

1 PETER 5:6
6 Humble yourselves therefore beneath the mighty hand of God, so that at the right time He may set you on high.

1 PETER 5:7
7 Throw the whole of your anxiety upon Him, because He Himself cares for you.

1 PETER 5:8
8 Curb every passion, and be on the alert. Your great accuser, the Devil, is going about like a roaring lion to see whom he can devour.

1 PETER 5:9
9 Withstand him, firm in your faith; knowing that your brethren in other parts of the world are passing through just the same experiences.

1 PETER 5:10
10 And God, the giver of all grace, who has called you to share His eternal glory, through Christ, after you have suffered for a short time, will
Himself make you perfect, firm, and strong.

1 PETER 5:11
11 To Him be all power unto the Ages of the Ages! Amen.

1 PETER 5:12
12 I send this short letter by Silas, our faithful brother - for such I regard him - in order to encourage you, and to bear witness that what I have told
you is the true grace of God. In it stand fast.

1 PETER 5:13
13 The Church in Babylon, chosen like yourselves by God, sends greetings, and so does Mark my son.

1 PETER 5:14
14 Greet one another with a kiss of love. Peace be with all of you who are in Christ.


Weymouth 2 PETER
Peter's Second Letter

It is impossible to speak with any certainty as to either the date or the authorship of this Letter. From the beginning there have been doubts as to its genuineness and
canonicity, and these are represented to-day in the differing judgments of critics equally able and sincere.

It has, however, unquestionably had a place in the canon of the New Testament since the Council of Laodicea in 372 A.D., and there is certainly no such decisive
evidence against it as to warrant our omitting it from the New Testament.

It would appear that the writer, whoever he was, had seen the Letter from Jude, and bore it in mind in this his plea for such character and conduct on the part of
believers as were worthy of their faith and would prepare them for the Coming of the Lord. The whole Letter constitutes an earnest appeal for practical holiness.

CHAPTER 1

2 PETER 1:1
1 Simon Peter, a bondservant and Apostle of Jesus Christ: To those to whom there has been allotted the same precious faith as that which is ours
through the righteousness of our God and of our Savior Jesus Christ.

2 PETER 1:2
2 May more and more grace and peace be granted to you in a full knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord,

2 PETER 1:3
3 seeing that His divine power has given us all things that are needful for life and godliness, through our knowledge of Him who has appealed to us
by His own glorious perfections.

2 PETER 1:4
4 It is by means of these that He has granted us His precious and wondrous promises, in order that through them you may, one and all, become
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2 PETER 1:5
2 PETER 1:4
4 It is by means of these that He has granted us His precious and wondrous promises, in order that through them you may, one and all, become
sharers in the very nature of God, having completely escaped the corruption which exists in the world through earthly cravings.

2 PETER 1:5
5 But for this very reason - adding, on your part, all earnestness - along with your faith, manifest also a noble character: along with a noble character,
knowledge;

2 PETER 1:6
6 along with knowledge, self-control; along with self-control, power of endurance;

2 PETER 1:7
7 along with power of endurance, godliness; along with godliness, brotherly affection; and along with brotherly affection, love.

2 PETER 1:8
8 If these things exist in you, and continually increase, they prevent your being either idle or unfruitful in advancing towards a full knowledge of our
Lord Jesus Christ.

2 PETER 1:9
9 For the man in whom they are lacking is blind and cannot see distant objects, in that he has forgotten that he has been cleansed from his old sins.

2 PETER 1:10
10 For this reason, brethren, be all the more in earnest to make sure that God has called you and chosen you; for it is certain that so long as you
practise these things, you will never stumble.

2 PETER 1:11
11 And so a triumphant admission into the eternal Kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ will be freely granted to you.

2 PETER 1:12
12 For this reason I shall always persist in reminding you of these things, although you know them and are stedfast believers in truth which you
already possess.

2 PETER 1:13
13 But I think it right, so long as I remain in the body, my present dwelling-place, to arouse you by such reminders.

2 PETER 1:14
14 For I know that the time for me to lay aside my body is now rapidly drawing near, even as our Lord Jesus Christ has revealed to me.

2 PETER 1:15
15 So on every possible occasion I will also do my best to enable you to recall these things after my departure.

2 PETER 1:16
16 For when we made known to you the power and Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, we were not eagerly following cleverly devised legends, but we
had been eye-witnesses of His majesty.

2 PETER 1:17
17 He received honor and glory from God the Father, and out of the wondrous glory words such as these were spoken to Him, "This is My dearly-
loved Son, in whom I take delight."

2 PETER 1:18
18 And we ourselves heard these words come from Heaven, when we were with Him on the holy mountain.

2 PETER 1:19
19 And in the written word of prophecy we have something more permanent; to which you do well to pay attention - as to a lamp shining in a dimly-
lighted place - until day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts.

2 PETER 1:20
20 But, above all, remember that no prophecy in Scripture will be found to have come from the prophet's own prompting;

2 PETER 1:21
21 for never did any prophecy come by human will, but men sent by God spoke as they were impelled by the Holy Spirit.

CHAPTER 2

2 PETER 2:1
1 But there were also false prophets among the people, as there will be teachers of falsehood among you also, who will cunningly introduce fatal
divisions, disowning even the Sovereign Lord who has redeemed them, and bringing on themselves swift destruction.

2 PETER 2:2
2 And in their immoral ways they will have many eager disciples, through whom religion will be brought into disrepute.

2Copyright
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3 Thirsting for riches, they will trade on you with their canting talk. From of old their judgment has been working itself out, and their    438 / 567
                                                                                                                                          destruction has
not been slumbering.
2 PETER 2:2
2 And in their immoral ways they will have many eager disciples, through whom religion will be brought into disrepute.

2 PETER 2:3
3 Thirsting for riches, they will trade on you with their canting talk. From of old their judgment has been working itself out, and their destruction has
not been slumbering.

2 PETER 2:4
4 For God did not spare angels when they had sinned, but hurling them down to Tartarus consigned them to caves of darkness, keeping them in
readiness for judgment.

2 PETER 2:5
5 And He did not spare the ancient world, although He preserved Noah, a herald of righteousness, with seven others, when He brought a deluge on
the world of the ungodly.

2 PETER 2:6
6 He reduced to ashes the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and condemned them to overthrow, making them an example to people who might in
future be living godless lives.

2 PETER 2:7
7 But when righteous Lot was sore distressed by the gross misconduct of immoral men He rescued him.

2 PETER 2:8
8 (For their lawless deeds were torture, day after day, to the pure soul of that righteous man - all that he saw and heard whilst living in their midst.)

2 PETER 2:9
9 Since all this is so, the Lord knows how to rescue godly men from temptation, and on the other hand how to keep the unrighteous under
punishment in readiness for the Day of Judgment,

2 PETER 2:10
10 and especially those who are abandoned to sensuality - craving, as they do, for polluted things, and scorning control. Fool-hardy and self-willed,
they do not tremble when speaking evil of glorious beings;

2 PETER 2:11
11 while angels, though greater than they in might and power, do not bring any insulting accusation against such in the presence of the Lord.

2 PETER 2:12
12 But these men, like brute beasts, created (with their natural instincts) only to be captured or destroyed, are abusive in matters of which they are
ignorant, and in their corruption will perish,

2 PETER 2:13
13 being doomed to receive a requital for their guilt. They reckon it pleasure to feast daintily in broad daylight. They are spots and blemishes, while
feeding luxuriously at their love-feasts, and banqueting with you.

2 PETER 2:14
14 Their very eyes are full of adultery - being eyes which never cease from sin. These men set traps to catch unstedfast souls, their own hearts being
well trained in greed. They are fore-doomed to God's curse!

2 PETER 2:15
15 Forsaking the straight road, they have gone astray, having eagerly followed in the steps of Balaam, the son of Beor, who was bent on securing the
wages of unrighteousness.

2 PETER 2:16
16 But he was rebuked for his transgression: a dumb ass spoke with a human voice and checked the madness of the Prophet.

2 PETER 2:17
17 These people are wells without water, mists driven along by a storm, men for whom the dense darkness has been reserved.

2 PETER 2:18
18 For, while they pour out their frivolous and arrogant talk, they use earthly cravings - every kind of immorality - as a bait to entrap men who are
just escaping from the influence of those who live in error.

2 PETER 2:19
19 And they promise them freedom, although they are themselves the slaves of what is corrupt. For a man is the slave of any one by whom he has
been worsted in fight.

2 PETER 2:20
20 For if, after escaping from the pollutions of the world through a full knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, people are once more
entangled in these pollutions and are overcome, their last state has become worse than their first.

2 PETER 2:21
21 For it would have been better for them not to have fully known the way of righteousness, than, after knowing it, to turn back from the holy
commandments in which they were instructed.
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2 PETER 2:22
22 Their case is that described in the true proverb, "A dog returns to what he has vomited," and also in the other proverb, "The sow has washed itself
2 PETER 2:21
21 For it would have been better for them not to have fully known the way of righteousness, than, after knowing it, to turn back from the holy
commandments in which they were instructed.

2 PETER 2:22
22 Their case is that described in the true proverb, "A dog returns to what he has vomited," and also in the other proverb, "The sow has washed itself
and now goes back to roll in its filth."

CHAPTER 3

2 PETER 3:1
1 This letter which I am now writing to you, dear friends, is my second letter. In both my letters I seek to revive in your honest minds the memory of
certain things,

2 PETER 3:2
2 so that you may recall the words spoken long ago by the holy Prophets, and the commandments of our Lord and Savior given you through your
Apostles.

2 PETER 3:3
3 But, above all, remember that, in the last days, men will come who make a mock at everything - men governed only by their own passions,

2 PETER 3:4
4 and, asking, "What has become of His promised Return? For from the time our forefathers fell asleep all things continue as they have been ever
since the creation of the world."

2 PETER 3:5
5 For they are wilfully blind to the fact that there were heavens which existed of old, and an earth, the latter arising out of water and extending
continuously through water, by the command of God;

2 PETER 3:6
6 and that, by means of these, the then existing race of men was overwhelmed with water and perished.

2 PETER 3:7
7 But the present heavens and the present earth are, by the command of the same God, kept stored up, reserved for fire in preparation for a day of
judgment and of destruction for the ungodly.

2 PETER 3:8
8 But there is one thing, dear friends, which you must not forget. With the Lord one day resembles a thousand years and a thousand years resemble
one day.

2 PETER 3:9
9 The Lord is not slow in fulfilling His promise, in the sense in which some men speak of slowness. But He bears patiently with you, His desire being
that no one should perish but that all should come to repentance.

2 PETER 3:10
10 The day of the Lord will come like a thief - it will be a day on which the heavens will pass away with a rushing noise, the elements be destroyed in
the fierce heat, and the earth and all the works of man be utterly burnt up.

2 PETER 3:11
11 Since all these things are thus pre-destined to dissolution, what sort of men ought you to be found to be in all holy living and godly conduct,

2 PETER 3:12
12 eagerly looking forward to the coming of the day of God, by reason of which the heavens, all ablaze, will be destroyed, and the elements will melt
in the fierce heat?

2 PETER 3:13
13 But in accordance with His promise we are expecting new heavens and a new earth, in which righteousness will dwell.

2 PETER 3:14
14 Therefore, dear friends, since you have these expectations, earnestly seek to be found in His presence, free from blemish or reproach, in peace.

2 PETER 3:15
15 And always regard the patient forbearance of our Lord as salvation, as our dear brother Paul also has written to you in virtue of the wisdom
granted to him.

2 PETER 3:16
16 That is what he says in all his letters, when speaking in them of these things. In those letters there are some statements hard to understand, which
ill-taught and unprincipled people pervert, just as they do the rest of the Scriptures, to their own ruin.

2 PETER 3:17
17 You, therefore, dear friends, having been warned beforehand, must continually be on your guard so as not to be led astray by the false teaching of
immoral men nor fall from your own stedfastness.
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2 PETER 3:18
18 But be always growing in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To Him be all glory, both now and to the day of Eternity!
2 PETER 3:17
17 You, therefore, dear friends, having been warned beforehand, must continually be on your guard so as not to be led astray by the false teaching of
immoral men nor fall from your own stedfastness.

2 PETER 3:18
18 But be always growing in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To Him be all glory, both now and to the day of Eternity!
1 JOHN

John's First Letter

That this Letter was the actual work of the Apostle John, the son of Zabdi, has been abundantly testified from the very earliest times.

Some modern critics have doubted it, on the ground of internal evidence. But a calm survey of the whole case does not bear out their objections. Dr. Salmon well says
that no explanation of the origin of the Epistle fits the facts so well as the one which has always prevailed. It seems to have been addressed to the Church at large, with
perhaps special reference to the Churches in Roman Asia.

The connection between this Letter and the fourth Gospel is "intimate and organic. The Gospel is objective and the Epistle subjective. The Gospel suggests principles of
conduct which the Epistle lays down explicitly. The Epistle implies facts which the Gospel states as historically true."

This Letter appears to have been written from Ephesus, and critics have usually assigned 95 A. D., or some other year equally late in the Apostolic age, as the probable
date of its composition. On the other hand the internal evidence points to a date immediately preceding the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. See 2:8(last clause);
2:18; 4:3; and note the expectation of a speedy Coming of Christ (2:28; 3:2) - an expectation which seems almost to have ceased in the early Church after that date.

CHAPTER 1

2 PETER 1:1
1 That which was from the beginning, which we have listened to, which we have seen with our own eyes, and our own hands have handled
concerning the Word of Life -

2 PETER 1:2
2 the Life was manifested, and we have seen and bear witness, and we declare unto you the Life of the Ages which was with the Father and was
manifested to us -

2 PETER 1:3
3 that which we have seen and listened to we now announce to you also, in order that you also may have fellowship in it with us, and this fellowship
with us is fellowship with the Father and with His Son Jesus Christ.

2 PETER 1:4
4 And we write these things in order that our joy may be made complete.

2 PETER 1:5
5 This is the Message which we have heard from the Lord Jesus and now deliver to you - God is Light, and in Him there is no darkness.

2 PETER 1:6
6 If, while we are living in darkness, we profess to have fellowship with Him, we speak falsely and are not adhering to the truth.

2 PETER 1:7
7 But if we live in the light as He is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus, His Son, cleanses us from all sin.

2 PETER 1:8
8 If we claim to be already free from sin, we lead ourselves astray and the truth has no place in our hearts.

2 PETER 1:9
9 If we confess our sins, He is so faithful and just that He forgives us our sins and cleanses us from all unrighteousness.

2 PETER 1:10
10 If we deny that we have sinned, we make Him a liar, and His Message has no place in our hearts.

CHAPTER 2

2 PETER 2:1
1 Dear children, I write thus to you in order that you may not sin. If any one sins, we have an Advocate with the Father - Jesus Christ the righteous;

2 PETER 2:2
2 and He is an atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world.

2 PETER 2:3
3 And by this we may know that we know Him - if we obey His commands.

2 PETER 2:4
4 He who professes to know Him, and yet does not obey His commands, is a liar, and the truth has no place in his heart.

2 PETER 2:5
5Copyright
  But whoever   obeys His Infobase
           (c) 2005-2009,  Message,Media
                                    in him love for God has in very deed reached perfection. By this we can know that we are in Him.
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2 PETER 2:6
6 The man who professes to be continuing in Him is himself also bound to live as He lived.
4 He who professes to know Him, and yet does not obey His commands, is a liar, and the truth has no place in his heart.

2 PETER 2:5
5 But whoever obeys His Message, in him love for God has in very deed reached perfection. By this we can know that we are in Him.

2 PETER 2:6
6 The man who professes to be continuing in Him is himself also bound to live as He lived.

2 PETER 2:7
7 My dearly-loved friends, it is no new command that I am now giving you, but an old command which you have had from the very beginning. By
the old command I mean the teaching which you have already received.

2 PETER 2:8
8 And yet I am giving you a new command, for such it really is, so far as both He and you are concerned: because the darkness is now passing away
and the light, the true light, is already beginning to shine.

2 PETER 2:9
9 Any one who professes to be in the light and yet hates his brother man is still in darkness.

2 PETER 2:10
10 He who loves his brother man continues in the light, and his life puts no stumbling-block in the way of others.

2 PETER 2:11
11 But he who hates his brother man is in darkness and is walking in darkness; and he does not know where he is going - because the darkness has
blinded his eyes.

2 PETER 2:12
12 I am writing to you, dear children, because for His sake your sins are forgiven you.

2 PETER 2:13
13 I am writing to you, fathers, because you know Him who has existed from the very beginning. I am writing to you, young men, because you have
overcome the Evil one. I have written to you, children, because you know the Father.

2 PETER 2:14
14 I have written to you, fathers, because you know Him who has existed from the very beginning. I have written to you, young men, because you
are strong and God's Message still has a place in your hearts, and you have overcome the Evil one.

2 PETER 2:15
15 Do not love the world, nor the things in the world. If any one loves the world, there is no love in his heart for the Father.

2 PETER 2:16
16 For the things in the world - the cravings of the earthly nature, the cravings of the eyes, the show and pride of life - they all come, not from the
Father, but from the world.

2 PETER 2:17
17 And the world, with its cravings, is passing away, but he who does God's will continues for ever.

2 PETER 2:18
18 Dear children, the last hour has come; and as you once heard that there was to be an anti-Christ, so even now many anti-Christs have appeared.
By this we may know that the last hour has come.

2 PETER 2:19
19 They have gone forth from our midst, but they did not really belong to us; for had they belonged to us, they would have remained with us. But
they left us that it might be manifest that professed believers do not all belong to us.

2 PETER 2:20
20 As for you, you have an anointing from the holy One and have perfect knowledge.

2 PETER 2:21
21 I have written to you, not because you are ignorant of the truth, but because you know it, and you know that nothing false comes from the truth.

2 PETER 2:22
22 Who is a liar compared with him who denies that Jesus is the Christ? He who disowns the Father and the Son is the anti-Christ.

2 PETER 2:23
23 No one who disowns the Son has the Father. He who acknowledges the Son has also the Father.

2 PETER 2:24
24 As for you, let the teaching which you have received from the very beginning continue in your hearts. If that teaching does continue in your
hearts, you also will continue to be in union with the Son and with the Father.

2 PETER 2:25
25 And this is the promise which He Himself has given us - the Life of the Ages.
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2 PETER 2:26
26 I have thus written to you concerning those who are leading you astray.
2 PETER 2:25
25 And this is the promise which He Himself has given us - the Life of the Ages.

2 PETER 2:26
26 I have thus written to you concerning those who are leading you astray.

2 PETER 2:27
27 And as for you, the anointing which you received from Him remains within you, and there is no need for any one to teach you. But since His
anointing gives you instruction in all things - and is true and is no falsehood - you are continuing in union with Him even as it has taught you to do.

2 PETER 2:28
28 And now, dear children, continue in union with Him; so that, if He re-appears, we may have perfect confidence, and may not shrink away in
shame from His presence at His Coming.

2 PETER 2:29
29 Since you know that He is righteous, be assured also that the man who habitually acts righteously is a child of His.

CHAPTER 3

2 PETER 3:1
1 See what marvellous love the Father has bestowed upon us - that we should be called God's children: and that is what we are. For this reason the
world does not recognize us - because it has not known Him.

2 PETER 3:2
2 Dear friends, we are now God's children, but what we are to be in the future has not yet been fully revealed. We know that if Christ reappears we
shall be like Him, because we shall see Him as He is.

2 PETER 3:3
3 And every man who has this hope fixed on Him, purifies himself so as to be as pure as He is.

2 PETER 3:4
4 Every one who is guilty of sin is also guilty of violating Law; for sin is the violation of Law.

2 PETER 3:5
5 And you know that He appeared in order to take away sins; and in Him there is no sin.

2 PETER 3:6
6 No one who continues in union with Him lives in sin: no one who lives in sin has seen Him or knows Him.

2 PETER 3:7
7 Dear children, let no one lead you astray. The man who acts righteously is righteous, just as He is righteous.

2 PETER 3:8
8 He who is habitually guilty of sin is a child of the Devil, because the Devil has been a sinner from the very beginning. The Son of God appeared for
the purpose of undoing the work of the Devil.

2 PETER 3:9
9 No one who is a child of God is habitually guilty of sin. A God-given germ of life remains in him, and he cannot habitually sin - because he is a
child of God.

2 PETER 3:10
10 By this we can distinguish God's children and the Devil's children: no one who fails to act righteously is a child of God, nor he who does not love
his brother man.

2 PETER 3:11
11 For this is the Message you have heard from the beginning - that we are to love one another.

2 PETER 3:12
12 We are not to resemble Cain, who was a child of the Evil one and killed his own brother. And why did he kill him? Because his own actions were
wicked and his brother's actions righteous.

2 PETER 3:13
13 Do not be surprised, brethren, if the world hates you.

2 PETER 3:14
14 As for us, we know that we have already passed out of death into Life - because we love our brother men. He who is destitute of love continues
dead.

2 PETER 3:15
15 Every one who hates his brother man is a murderer; and you know that no murderer has the Life of the Ages continuing in him.

2 PETER 3:16
16 We know what love is - through Christ's having laid down His life on our behalf; and in the same way we ought to lay down our lives for our
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brother men.

2 PETER 3:17
15 Every one who hates his brother man is a murderer; and you know that no murderer has the Life of the Ages continuing in him.

2 PETER 3:16
16 We know what love is - through Christ's having laid down His life on our behalf; and in the same way we ought to lay down our lives for our
brother men.

2 PETER 3:17
17 But if any one has this world's wealth and sees that his brother man is in need, and yet hardens his heart against him - how can such a one
continue to love God?

2 PETER 3:18
18 Dear children, let us not love in words only nor with the lips, but in deed and in truth.

2 PETER 3:19
19 And in this way we shall come to know that we are loyal to the truth, and shall satisfy our consciences in His presence

2 PETER 3:20
20 in whatever matters our hearts condemn us - because God is greater than our hearts and knows everything.

2 PETER 3:21
21 Dear friends, if our hearts do not condemn us, we have perfect confidence towards God;

2 PETER 3:22
22 and whatever we ask for we obtain from Him, because we obey His commands and do the things which are pleasing in His sight.

2 PETER 3:23
23 And this is His command - that we are to believe in His Son Jesus Christ and love one another, just as He has commanded us to do.

2 PETER 3:24
24 The man who obeys His commands continues in union with God, and God continues in union with him; and through His Spirit whom He has
given us we can know that He continues in union with us.

CHAPTER 4

2 PETER 4:1
1 Dear friends, do not believe every spirit, but put the spirits to the test to see whether they are from God; for many false teachers have gone out into
the world.

2 PETER 4:2
2 The test by which you may recognize the Spirit of God is that every spirit which acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come as man is from God,

2 PETER 4:3
3 and that no spirit is from God which does not acknowledge this about Jesus. Such is the spirit of the anti-Christ; of whose coming you have heard,
and it is already in the world.

2 PETER 4:4
4 As for you, dear children, you are God's children, and have successfully resisted them; for greater is He who is in you than he who is in the world.

2 PETER 4:5
5 They are the world's children, and so their language is that of the world, and the world listens to them. We are God's children.

2 PETER 4:6
6 The man who is beginning to know God listens to us, but he who is not a child of God does not listen to us. By this test we can distinguish the Spirit
of truth from the spirit of error.

2 PETER 4:7
7 Dear friends, let us love one another; for love has its origin in God, and every one who loves has become a child of God and is beginning to know
God.

2 PETER 4:8
8 He who is destitute of love has never had any knowledge of God; because God is love.

2 PETER 4:9
9 God's love for us has been manifested in that He has sent His only Son into the world so that we may have Life through Him.

2 PETER 4:10
10 This is love indeed - we did not love God, but He loved us and sent His Son to be an atoning sacrifice for our sins.

2 PETER 4:11
11 Dear friends, if God has so loved us, we also ought to love one another.

2 PETER 4:12
12 No one has ever yet seen God. If we love one another, God continues in union with us, and His love in all its perfection is in our hearts.

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2 PETER 4:13
13 We can know that we are continuing in union with Him and that He is continuing in union with us, by the fact that He has given us a portion of
His Spirit.
2 PETER 4:12
12 No one has ever yet seen God. If we love one another, God continues in union with us, and His love in all its perfection is in our hearts.

2 PETER 4:13
13 We can know that we are continuing in union with Him and that He is continuing in union with us, by the fact that He has given us a portion of
His Spirit.

2 PETER 4:14
14 And we have seen and bear witness that the Father has sent the Son to be the Savior of the world.

2 PETER 4:15
15 Whoever acknowledges that Jesus is the Son of God - God continues in union with him, and he continues in union with God.

2 PETER 4:16
16 And, as for us, we know the love which God has for us, and we confide in it. God is love, and he who continues to love continues in union with
God, and God continues in union with him.

2 PETER 4:17
17 Our love will be manifested in all its perfection by our having complete confidence on the day of the Judgment; because just what He is, we also
are in the world.

2 PETER 4:18
18 Love has in it no element of fear; but perfect love drives away fear, because fear involves pain, and if a man gives way to fear, there is something
imperfect in his love.

2 PETER 4:19
19 We love because God first loved us.

2 PETER 4:20
20 If any one says that he loves God, while he hates his brother man, he is a liar; for he who does not love his brother man whom he has seen, cannot
love God whom he has not seen.

2 PETER 4:21
21 And the command which we have from Him is that he who loves God must love his brother man also.

CHAPTER 5

2 PETER 5:1
1 Every one who believes that Jesus is the Christ is a child of God; and every one who loves the Father loves also Him who is the Father's Child.

2 PETER 5:2
2 The fact that we love God Himself, and obey His commands, is a proof that we love God's children.

2 PETER 5:3
3 Love for God means obedience to His commands; and His commands are not irksome.

2 PETER 5:4
4 For every child of God overcomes the world; and the victorious principle which has overcome the world is our faith.

2 PETER 5:5
5 Who but the man that believes that Jesus is the Son of God overcomes the world?

2 PETER 5:6
6 Jesus Christ is He who came with water and blood; not with the water only, but with the water and with the blood. And it is the Spirit who gives
testimony - because the Spirit is the Truth.

2 PETER 5:7
7 For there are three that give testimony - the Spirit, the water, and the blood;

2 PETER 5:8
8 and there is complete agreement between these three.

2 PETER 5:9
9 If we accept the testimony of men, God's testimony is greater: for God's testimony consists of the things which He has testified about His Son.

2 PETER 5:10
10 He who believes in the Son of God has the testimony in his own heart: he who does not believe God has made Him a liar, in that he has refused to
accept the testimony which God has given about His Son.

2 PETER 5:11
11 And that testimony is to the effect that God has given us the Life of the Ages, and that this Life is in His Son.

2 PETER 5:12
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12 He who(c) 2005-2009,
           has          Infobase
               the Son has        Media
                           the Life:     Corp.
                                     he who has not the Son of God has not the Life.                                                 Page 445 / 567

2 PETER 5:13
11 And that testimony is to the effect that God has given us the Life of the Ages, and that this Life is in His Son.

2 PETER 5:12
12 He who has the Son has the Life: he who has not the Son of God has not the Life.

2 PETER 5:13
13 I write all this to you in order that you who believe in the Son of God may know for certain that you already have the Life of the Ages.

2 PETER 5:14
14 And we have an assured confidence that whenever we ask anything in accordance with His will, He listens to us.

2 PETER 5:15
15 And since we know that He listens to us, then whatever we ask, we know that we have the things which we have asked from Him.

2 PETER 5:16
16 If any one sees a brother man committing a sin which is not unto death, he shall ask and God shall give him life - for those who do not sin unto
death. There is such a thing as sin unto death; for that I do not bid him make request.

2 PETER 5:17
17 Any kind of wrongdoing is sin; but there is sin which is not unto death.

2 PETER 5:18
18 We know that no one who is a child of God lives in sin, but He who is God's Child keeps him, and the Evil one cannot touch him.

2 PETER 5:19
19 We know that we are children of God, and that the whole world lies in the power of the Evil one.

2 PETER 5:20
20 And we know that the Son of God has come, and has given us understanding so that we know the true One, and are in union with the true One -
that is, we are in union with His Son Jesus Christ. He is the true God and the Life of the Ages.

2 PETER 5:21
21 Dear children, guard yourselves from idols.


Weymouth 2 JOHN
John's Second Letter

Although we are unable to fix the exact date of this Letter or the place at which it was written, there is sufficient evidence, both external and internal, to warrant our
acceptance of it as a genuine work of the Apostle John.

Some have thought that the "lady" addressed stands for an unknown Church, but upon careful consideration it appears more reasonable and natural to regard the Letter
as having been a private one. It is impossible to discover the name of the individual to whom it was sent, but both this and the following Letter may be taken as
"precious specimens of the private correspondence of the beloved Apostle."

CHAPTER 1

2 JOHN 1:1
1 The Elder to the elect lady and her children. Truly I love you all, and not I alone, but also all who know the truth,

2 JOHN 1:2
2 for the sake of the truth which is continually in our hearts and will be with us for ever.

2 JOHN 1:3
3 Grace, mercy and peace will be with us from God the Father, and from Jesus Christ the Son of the Father, in truth and love.

2 JOHN 1:4
4 It is an intense joy to me to have found some of your children living true Christian lives, in obedience to the command which we have received from
the Father.

2 JOHN 1:5
5 And now, dear lady, I pray you - writing to you, as I do, not a new command, but the one which we have had from the very beginning - let us love
one another.

2 JOHN 1:6
6 The love of which I am speaking consists in our living in obedience to God's commands. God's command is that you should live in obedience to
what you all heard from the very beginning.

2 JOHN 1:7
7 For many deceivers have gone out into the world - men who do not acknowledge Jesus as Christ who has come in human nature. Such a one is 'the
deceiver' and 'the anti-Christ.'

2 JOHN 1:8
8Copyright
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2 JOHN 1:9
9 No one has God, who instead of remaining true to the teaching of Christ, presses on in advance: but he who remains true to that teaching has both
deceiver' and 'the anti-Christ.'

2 JOHN 1:8
8 Keep guard over yourselves, so that you may not lose the results of your good deeds, but may receive back a full reward.

2 JOHN 1:9
9 No one has God, who instead of remaining true to the teaching of Christ, presses on in advance: but he who remains true to that teaching has both
the Father and the Son.

2 JOHN 1:10
10 If any one who comes to you does not bring this teaching, do not receive him under your roof nor bid him Farewell.

2 JOHN 1:11
11 He who bids him Farewell is a sharer in his evil deeds.

2 JOHN 1:12
12 I have a great deal to say to you all, but will not write it with paper and ink. Yet I hope to come to see you and speak face to face, so that your
happiness may be complete.

2 JOHN 1:13
13 The children of your elect sister send greetings to you.


Weymouth 3 JOHN
John's Third Letter

There can be no doubt that this Letter was addressed to an individual person. We cannot affix to it a definite date, or place, but the most natural supposition - which
there is nothing to contradict - is that it came from the Apostle in Ephesus, about the same time as the preceding Letter.

The special mention of Diotrephes and his behaviour points indeed to a somewhat advanced development in the Church to which Galus belonged, but such characters
are all too possible at any juncture to afford in this instance any guarantee of a later date.

In this, as in the preceding Letters, the writer's great concern is that transcendental truth should be embodied in practical holiness.

CHAPTER 1

3 JOHN 1:1
1 The Elder to his dear friend Gaius. Truly I love you.

3 JOHN 1:2
2 My dear friend, I pray that you may in all respects prosper and enjoy good health, just as your soul already prospers.

3 JOHN 1:3
3 For it is an intense joy to me when brethren come and bear witness to your fidelity to the truth - that you live in obedience to the truth.

3 JOHN 1:4
4 I have no greater joy than to hear that my children are living in obedience to the truth.

3 JOHN 1:5
5 My dear friend, you are acting faithfully in all your behaviour towards the brethren, even when they are strangers to you.

3 JOHN 1:6
6 They have testified, in the presence of the Church, to your love; and you will do well to help them on their journey in a manner worthy of your
fellowship with God.

3 JOHN 1:7
7 For it is for Christ that they have gone forth, accepting nothing from the Gentiles.

3 JOHN 1:8
8 It is therefore our duty to show hospitality to such men, so that we may be fellow workers in promoting the truth.

3 JOHN 1:9
9 I wrote to the Church, but Diotrephes, who loves to have the first place among them, refuses to listen to us.

3 JOHN 1:10
10 For this reason, if I come, I shall not forget his conduct, nor his idle and mischievous talk against us. And he does not stop there: he not only will
not receive the brethren, but those who desire to do this he hinders, and excludes them from the Church.

3 JOHN 1:11
11 My dear friend, do not follow wrong examples, but right ones. He who habitually does what is right is a child of God: he who habitually does
what is wrong has not seen God.

3 JOHN 1:12
12 The character of Demetrius has the approval of all men, and of the truth itself. We also express our approval of it, and you know that we only give
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our approval to that which is true.

3 JOHN 1:13
3 JOHN 1:12
12 The character of Demetrius has the approval of all men, and of the truth itself. We also express our approval of it, and you know that we only give
our approval to that which is true.

3 JOHN 1:13
13 I have a great deal to say to you, but I do not wish to go on writing it with ink and pen.

3 JOHN 1:14
14 But I hope to see you very soon, and then we will speak face to face. Peace be with you. Our friends send greetings to you. Greet our friends
individually.


Weymouth JUDE
Jude's Letter

Of the time and place of the composition of this Letter we know nothing beyond what may be inferred from its contents. These seem to show that it was written in
Palestine, and the absence of any reference to so striking an event as the destruction of Jerusalem points to a date earlier than 70 A. D.

It has, however, been thought that such a rebuke of error and licentiousness as that which this Letter contains can only apply to the forms of Gnosticism known to have
existed in the first quarter of the second century. But there is no reason to doubt that the author was the man he asserts he was, the brother of James, the head of the
Church in Jerusalem. He was, therefore, not an Apostle but one of the Lord's brothers.

The abiding value of the Letter consists in its severe condemnation of merely professional Christianity, and its remarkably beautiful doxology.

CHAPTER 1

JUDE 1:1
1 Jude, a bondservant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James: To those who are in God the Father, enfolded in His love, and kept for Jesus Christ, and
called.

JUDE 1:2
2 May mercy, peace and love be abundantly granted to you.

JUDE 1:3
3 Dear friends, since I am eager to begin a letter to you on the subject of our common salvation, I find myself constrained to write and cheer you on
to the vigorous defense of the faith delivered once for all to God's people.

JUDE 1:4
4 For certain persons have crept in unnoticed - men spoken of in ancient writings as pre-destined to this condemnation - ungodly men, who pervert
the grace of our God into an excuse for immorality, and disown Jesus Christ, our only Sovereign and Lord.

JUDE 1:5
5 I desire to remind you - although the whole matter is already familiar to you - that the Lord saved a people out of the land of Egypt, but afterwards
destroyed those who had no faith.

JUDE 1:6
6 And angels - those who did not keep the position originally assigned to them, but deserted their own proper abode - He reserves in everlasting
bonds, in darkness, in preparation for the judgment of the great day.

JUDE 1:7
7 So also Sodom and Gomorrah - and the neighboring towns in the same manner - having been guilty of gross fornication and having gone astray in
pursuit of unnatural vice, are now before us as a specimen of the fire of the Ages in the punishment which they are undergoing.

JUDE 1:8
8 Yet in just the same way these dreamers also pollute the body, while they set authority at naught and speak evil of dignities.

JUDE 1:9
9 But Michael the Archangel, when contending with the Devil and arguing with him about the body of Moses, did not dare to pronounce judgment
on him in abusive terms, but simply said, "The Lord rebuke you."

JUDE 1:10
10 Yet these men are abusive in matters of which they know nothing, and in things which, like the brutes, they understand instinctively - in all these
they corrupt themselves.

JUDE 1:11
11 Alas for them; for they have followed in the steps of Cain; for the sake of gain they have rushed on headlong in the evil ways of Balaam; and have
perished in rebellion like that of Korah!

JUDE 1:12
12 These men - sunken rocks! - are those who share the pleasure of your love-feasts, unrestrained by fear while caring only for themselves; clouds
without water, driven away by the winds; trees that cast their fruit, barren, doubly dead, uprooted;
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JUDE 1:13
13 wild waves of the sea, foaming out their own shame; wandering stars, for whom is reserved dense darkness of age-long duration.
JUDE 1:12
12 These men - sunken rocks! - are those who share the pleasure of your love-feasts, unrestrained by fear while caring only for themselves; clouds
without water, driven away by the winds; trees that cast their fruit, barren, doubly dead, uprooted;

JUDE 1:13
13 wild waves of the sea, foaming out their own shame; wandering stars, for whom is reserved dense darkness of age-long duration.

JUDE 1:14
14 It was also about these that Enoch, who belonged to the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied, saying, "The Lord has come, attended by
myriads of His people, to execute judgment upon all,

JUDE 1:15
15 and to convict all the ungodly of all the ungodly deeds which in their ungodliness they have committed, and of all the hard words which they,
ungodly sinners as they are, have spoken against Him."

JUDE 1:16
16 These men are murmurers, ever bemoaning their lot. Their lives are guided by their evil passions, and their mouths are full of big, boastful words,
while they treat individual men with admiring reverence for the sake of the advantage they can gain.

JUDE 1:17
17 But as for you, my dearly-loved friends, remember the words that before now were spoken by the Apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ -

JUDE 1:18
18 how they declared to you, "In the last times there shall be scoffers, obeying only their own ungodly passions."

JUDE 1:19
19 These are those who cause divisions. They are men of the world, wholly unspiritual.

JUDE 1:20
20 But you, my dearly-loved friends, building yourselves up on the basis of your most holy faith and praying in the Holy Spirit,

JUDE 1:21
21 must keep yourselves safe in the love of God, waiting for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ which will result in the Life of the Ages.

JUDE 1:22
22 Some, when they argue with you, you must endeavor to convince;

JUDE 1:23
23 others you must try to save, as brands plucked from the flames; and on others look with pity mingled with fear, while you hate every trace of their
sin.

JUDE 1:24
24 But to Him who is able to keep you safe from stumbling, and cause you to stand in the presence of His glory free from blemish and full of exultant
joy -

JUDE 1:25
25 to the only God our Savior - through Jesus Christ our Lord, be ascribed glory, majesty, might, and authority, as it was before all time, is now, and
shall be to all the Ages! Amen.


Weymouth REVELATION
The Revelation
Of
John

The Apocalypse was written either in 67, or in 96, A.D. An oft-quoted statement of Irenaeus that it, or its author - there is no word inserted to indicate which of the
two he meant - "was seen" about the end of the reign of Domitian, is regarded by many as a conclusive proof of the later date. On the other hand, the "internal
evidence" - the evidence, that is, furnished by the contents of the book itself - appears to point even more unmistakably to the earlier date. E.g-., in 11:1,2,8, the Holy
City and the earthly Temple are spoken of as being still in existence, and as about to be trodden under foot by the Gentiles.

The language of the book has also a bearing upon the problem of its date. Although other explanations have been suggested, the many Hebrew idioms that it contains
as compared with the much purer Greek of the fourth Gospel - which was probably by the same author - seem to indicate that it was written long before that Gospel,
at a time when the Apostle had as yet only an imperfect acquaintance with the Greek language.

Dr. Stuart Russell, in his work The Parousia, has contended for the belief that the fall of Jerusalem and Judaism in 70 A.D. marked a stupendous epoch in the unseen
world, a personal - although unrecorded - return of the Savior to the earth then taking place (cp. Acts 7:55; 9:7; 1 Corinthians 9:1), accompanied by a spiritual
judgment of bygone generations, a resurrection from Hades to Heaven of the faithful of past ages, and an ingathering of saints then on earth into the Father's House of
many mansions (Matthew 24:31; John 14:3; 1 Thessalonians 4:17; 2 Thessalonians 2:1).

If this belief ever obtains general acceptance the earlier date of the Apocalypse will also be regarded as fully established. For it will then be seen that the book
describes beforehand events which took place in 70 A.D. and the years immediately preceding, partly on earth and partly in the spiritual world, and is mainly concerned
with the downfall of the earthly Jerusalem and the setting up of Christ's heavenly Kingdom - the new Jerusalem. And its many mysterious symbols will be seen to have
been a cipher of which the first Christians held the key, but which hid its meaning from their enemies.
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Many scholars, however, regard the book as a document of Nero's time carefully incorporated in one written about 90 A.D.: "a Jewish Apocalypse in a Christian
framework;" both perhaps being by the same author. - Editor.
If this belief ever obtains general acceptance the earlier date of the Apocalypse will also be regarded as fully established. For it will then be seen that the book
describes beforehand events which took place in 70 A.D. and the years immediately preceding, partly on earth and partly in the spiritual world, and is mainly concerned
with the downfall of the earthly Jerusalem and the setting up of Christ's heavenly Kingdom - the new Jerusalem. And its many mysterious symbols will be seen to have
been a cipher of which the first Christians held the key, but which hid its meaning from their enemies.

Many scholars, however, regard the book as a document of Nero's time carefully incorporated in one written about 90 A.D.: "a Jewish Apocalypse in a Christian
framework;" both perhaps being by the same author. - Editor.

CHAPTER 1

REVELATION 1:1
1 The revelation given by Jesus Christ, which God granted Him, that He might make known to His servants certain events which must shortly come
to pass: and He sent His angel and communicated it to His servant John.

REVELATION 1:2
2 This is the John who taught the truth concerning the Word of God and the truth told us by Jesus Christ - a faithful account of what he had seen.

REVELATION 1:3
3 Blessed is he who reads and blessed are those who listen to the words of this prophecy and lay to heart what is written in it; for the time for its
fulfillment is now close at hand.

REVELATION 1:4
4 John sends greetings to the seven Churches in the province of Asia. May grace be granted to you, and peace, from Him who is and was and
evermore will be; and from the seven Spirits which are before His throne;

REVELATION 1:5
5 and from Jesus Christ, the truthful witness, the first of the dead to be born to Life, and the Ruler of the kings of the earth. To Him who loves us and
has freed us from our sins with His own blood,

REVELATION 1:6
6 and has formed us into a Kingdom, to be priests to God, His Father - to Him be ascribed the glory and the power until the Ages of the Ages. Amen.

REVELATION 1:7
7 He is coming in the clouds, and every eye will see Him, and so will those who pierced Him; and all the nations of the earth will gaze on Him and
mourn. Even so. Amen.

REVELATION 1:8
8 "I am the Alpha and the Omega," says the Lord God, "He who is and was and evermore will be - the Ruler of all."

REVELATION 1:9
9 I John, your brother, and a sharer with you in the sorrows and Kingship and patient endurance of Jesus, found myself in the island of Patmos, on
account of the Word of God and the truth told us by Jesus.

REVELATION 1:10
10 In the Spirit I found myself present on the day of the Lord, and I heard behind me a loud voice which resembled the blast of a trumpet.

REVELATION 1:11
11 It said, "Write forthwith in a roll an account of what you see, and send it to the seven Churches - to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyateira,
Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea."

REVELATION 1:12
12 I turned to see who it was that was speaking to me; and then I saw seven golden lampstands,

REVELATION 1:13
13 and in the center of the lampstands some One resembling the Son of Man, clothed in a robe which reached to His feet, and with a girdle of gold
across His breast.

REVELATION 1:14
14 His head and His hair were white, like white wool - as white as snow; and His eyes resembled a flame of fire.

REVELATION 1:15
15 His feet were like silver-bronze, when it is white-hot in a furnace; and His voice resembled the sound of many waters.

REVELATION 1:16
16 In His right hand He held seven stars, and a sharp, two-edged sword was seen coming from His mouth; and His glance resembled the sun when it
is shining with its full strength.

REVELATION 1:17
17 When I saw Him, I fell at His feet as if I were dead. But He laid His right hand upon me and said, "Do not be afraid: I am the First and the Last,
and the ever-living One.

REVELATION 1:18
18 I died; but I am now alive until the Ages of the Ages, and I have the keys of the gates of Death and of Hades!

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REVELATION 1:19
19 Write down therefore the things you have just seen, and those which are now taking place, and those which are soon to follow:
REVELATION 1:18
18 I died; but I am now alive until the Ages of the Ages, and I have the keys of the gates of Death and of Hades!

REVELATION 1:19
19 Write down therefore the things you have just seen, and those which are now taking place, and those which are soon to follow:

REVELATION 1:20
20 the secret meaning of the seven stars which you have seen in My right hand, and of the seven lampstands of gold. The seven stars are the ministers
of the seven Churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven Churches.

CHAPTER 2

REVELATION 2:1
1 "To the minister of the Church in Ephesus write as follows: "'This is what He who holds the seven stars in the grasp of His right hand says - He who
walks to and fro among the seven lampstands of gold.

REVELATION 2:2
2 I know your doings and your toil and patient suffering. And I know that you cannot tolerate wicked men, but have put to the test those who say
that they themselves are Apostles but are not, and you have found them to be liars.

REVELATION 2:3
3 And you endure patiently and have borne burdens for My sake and have never grown weary.

REVELATION 2:4
4 Yet I have this against you - that you no longer love Me as you did at first.

REVELATION 2:5
5 Be mindful, therefore, of the height from which you have fallen. Repent at once, and act as you did at first, or else I will surely come and remove
your lampstand out of its place - unless you repent.

REVELATION 2:6
6 Yet this you have in your favor: you hate the doings of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate.

REVELATION 2:7
7 "'Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches. To him who overcomes I will give the privilege of eating the fruit of
the Tree of Life, which is in the Paradise of God.'

REVELATION 2:8
8 "To the minister of the Church at Smyrna write as follows: "'This is what the First and the Last says - He who died and has returned to life.

REVELATION 2:9
9 Your sufferings I know, and your poverty - but you are rich - and the evil name given you by those who say that they themselves are Jews, and are
not, but are Satan's synagogue.

REVELATION 2:10
10 Dismiss your fears concerning all that you are about to suffer. I tell you that the Devil is about to throw some of you into prison that you may be
put to the test, and for ten days you will have to endure persecution. Be faithful to the End, even if you have to die, and then I will give you the
victor's Wreath of Life.

REVELATION 2:11
11 "'Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches. He who overcomes shall be in no way hurt by the Second Death.'

REVELATION 2:12
12 "To the minister of the Church at Pergamum write as follows: "'This is what He who has the sharp, two-edged sword says. I know where you
dwell.

REVELATION 2:13
13 Satan's throne is there; and yet you are true to Me, and did not deny your faith in Me, even in the days of Antipas My witness and faithful friend,
who was put to death among you, in the place where Satan dwells.

REVELATION 2:14
14 Yet I have a few things against you, because you have with you some that cling to the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to put a stumbling-
block in the way of the descendants of Israel - to eat what had been sacrificed to idols, and commit fornication.

REVELATION 2:15
15 So even you have some that cling in the same way to the teaching of the Nicolaitans.

REVELATION 2:16
16 Repent, at once; or else I will come to you quickly, and will make war upon them with the sword which is in My mouth.

REVELATION 2:17
17 "'Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches. He who overcomes - to him I will give some of the hidden Manna,
and  a white
 Copyright  (c)stone; and - written
                 2005-2009, Infobaseupon theCorp.
                                     Media   stone and known only to him who receives it - a new name.'                            Page 451 / 567

REVELATION 2:18
18 "To the minister of the Church at Thyateira write as follows: "'This is what the Son of God says - He who has eyes like a flame of fire, and feet
REVELATION 2:17
17 "'Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches. He who overcomes - to him I will give some of the hidden Manna,
and a white stone; and - written upon the stone and known only to him who receives it - a new name.'

REVELATION 2:18
18 "To the minister of the Church at Thyateira write as follows: "'This is what the Son of God says - He who has eyes like a flame of fire, and feet
resembling silver-bronze.

REVELATION 2:19
19 I know your doings, your love, your faith, your service, and your patient endurance; and that of late you have toiled harder than you did at first.

REVELATION 2:20
20 Yet I have this against you, that you tolerate the woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess and by her teaching leads astray My servants, so
that they commit fornication and eat what has been sacrificed to idols.

REVELATION 2:21
21 I have given her time to repent, but she is determined not to repent of her fornication.

REVELATION 2:22
22 I tell you that I am about to cast her upon a bed of sickness, and I will severely afflict those who commit adultery with her, unless they repent of
conduct such as hers.

REVELATION 2:23
23 Her children too shall surely die; and all the Churches shall come to know that I am He who searches into men's inmost thoughts; and to each of
you I will give a requital which shall be in accordance with what your conduct has been.

REVELATION 2:24
24 But to you, the rest of you in Thyateira, all who do not hold this teaching and are not the people who have learnt the "deep things," as they call
them (the deep things of Satan!) - to you I say that I lay no other burden on you.

REVELATION 2:25
25 Only that which you already possess, cling to until I come.

REVELATION 2:26
26 "'And to him who overcomes and obeys My commands to the very end, I will give authority over the nations of the earth.

REVELATION 2:27
27 And he shall be their shepherd, ruling them with a rod of iron, just as earthenware jars are broken to pieces; and his power over them shall be like
that which I Myself have received from My Father;

REVELATION 2:28
28 and I will give him the Morning Star.

REVELATION 2:29
29 Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches.'

CHAPTER 3

REVELATION 3:1
1 "To the minister of the Church at Sardis write as follows: "'This is what He who has the seven Spirits of God and the seven stars says. I know your
doings - you are supposed to be alive, but in reality you are dead.

REVELATION 3:2
2 Rouse yourself and keep awake, and strengthen those things which remain but have well-nigh perished; for I have found no doings of yours free
from imperfection in the sight of My God.

REVELATION 3:3
3 Be mindful, therefore, of the lessons you have received and heard. Continually lay them to heart, and repent. If, however, you fail to rouse yourself
and keep awake, I shall come upon you suddenly like a thief, and you will certainly not know the hour at which I shall come to judge you.

REVELATION 3:4
4 Yet you have in Sardis a few who have not soiled their garments; and they shall walk with Me in white; for they are worthy.

REVELATION 3:5
5 "'In this way he who overcomes shall be clothed in white garments; and I will certainly not blot out his name from the Book of Life, but will
acknowledge him in the presence of My Father and His angels.

REVELATION 3:6
6 Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches.'

REVELATION 3:7
7Copyright
  "To the minister of the Church
           (c) 2005-2009, InfobaseatMedia
                                     Philadelphia
                                          Corp. write as follows: "'This is what the holy One and the true says - He who has the key of David - He
                                                                                                                                   Page 452 / 567
who opens and no one shall shut, and shuts and no one shall open.
6 Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches.'

REVELATION 3:7
7 "To the minister of the Church at Philadelphia write as follows: "'This is what the holy One and the true says - He who has the key of David - He
who opens and no one shall shut, and shuts and no one shall open.

REVELATION 3:8
8 I know your doings. I have put an opened door in front of you, which no one can shut; because you have but a little power, and yet you have
guarded My word and have not disowned Me.

REVELATION 3:9
9 I will cause some belonging to Satan's synagogue who say that they themselves are Jews, and are not, but are liars - I will make them come and fall
at your feet and know for certain that I have loved you.

REVELATION 3:10
10 Because in spite of suffering you have guarded My word, I in turn will guard you from that hour of trial which is soon coming upon the whole
world, to put to the test the inhabitants of the earth.

REVELATION 3:11
11 I am coming quickly: cling to that which you already possess, so that your wreath of victory be not taken away from you.

REVELATION 3:12
12 "'He who overcomes - I will make him a pillar in the sanctuary of My God, and he shall never go out from it again. And I will write on him the
name of My God, and the name of the city of My God, the new Jerusalem, which is to come down out of Heaven from My God, and My own new
name.

REVELATION 3:13
13 Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches.'

REVELATION 3:14
14 "And to the minister of the Church at Laodicea write as follows: "'This is what the Amen says - the true and faithful witness, the Beginning and
Lord of God's Creation.

REVELATION 3:15
15 I know your doings - you are neither cold nor hot; I would that you were cold or hot!

REVELATION 3:16
16 Accordingly, because you are lukewarm and neither hot nor cold, before long I will vomit you out of My mouth.

REVELATION 3:17
17 You say, I am rich, and have wealth stored up, and I stand in need of nothing; and you do not know that if there is a wretched creature it is you -
pitiable, poor, blind, naked.

REVELATION 3:18
18 Therefore I counsel you to buy of Me gold refined in the fire that you may become rich, and white robes to put on, so as to hide your shameful
nakedness, and eye-salve to anoint your eyes with, so that you may be able to see.

REVELATION 3:19
19 All whom I hold dear, I reprove and chastise; therefore be in earnest and repent.

REVELATION 3:20
20 I am now standing at the door and am knocking. If any one listens to My voice and opens the door, I will go in to be with him and will feast with
him, and he shall feast with Me.

REVELATION 3:21
21 "'To him who overcomes I will give the privilege of sitting down with Me on My throne, as I also have overcome and have sat down with My
Father on His throne.

REVELATION 3:22
22 Let all who have ears give heed to what the Spirit is saying to the Churches.'"

CHAPTER 4

REVELATION 4:1
1 After all this I looked and saw a door in Heaven standing open, and the voice that I had previously heard, which resembled the blast of a trumpet,
again spoke to me and said, "Come up here, and I will show you things which are to happen in the future."

REVELATION 4:2
2 Immediately I found myself in the Spirit, and saw a throne in Heaven, and some One sitting on the throne.

REVELATION 4:3
3 The appearance of Him who sat there was like jasper or sard; and encircling the throne was a rainbow, in appearance like an emerald.

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4 Surrounding the throne there were also twenty-four other thrones, on which sat twenty-four Elders clothed in white robes, with victors' wreaths of
gold upon their heads.
REVELATION 4:3
3 The appearance of Him who sat there was like jasper or sard; and encircling the throne was a rainbow, in appearance like an emerald.

REVELATION 4:4
4 Surrounding the throne there were also twenty-four other thrones, on which sat twenty-four Elders clothed in white robes, with victors' wreaths of
gold upon their heads.

REVELATION 4:5
5 Out from the throne there came flashes of lightning, and voices, and peals of thunder, while in front of the throne seven blazing lamps were
burning, which are the seven Spirits of God.

REVELATION 4:6
6 And in front of the throne there seemed to be a sea of glass, resembling crystal. And midway between the throne and the Elders, and surrounding
the throne, were four living creatures, full of eyes in front and behind.

REVELATION 4:7
7 The first living creature resembled a lion, the second an ox, the third had a face like that of a man, and the fourth resembled an eagle flying.

REVELATION 4:8
8 And each of the four living creatures had six wings, and in every direction, and within, are full of eyes; and day after day, and night after night,
they never cease saying, "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God, the Ruler of all, who wast and art and evermore shalt be."

REVELATION 4:9
9 And whenever the living creatures give glory and honor and thanks to Him who is seated on the throne, and lives until the Ages of the Ages,

REVELATION 4:10
10 the twenty-four Elders fall down before Him who sits on the throne and worship Him who lives until the Ages of the Ages, and they cast their
wreaths down in front of the throne,

REVELATION 4:11
11 saying, "It is fitting, O our Lord and God, That we should ascribe unto Thee the glory and the honor and the power; For Thou didst create all
things, And because it was Thy will they came into existence, and were created."

CHAPTER 5

REVELATION 5:1
1 And I saw lying in the right hand of Him who sat on the throne a book written on both sides and closely sealed with seven seals.

REVELATION 5:2
2 And I saw a mighty angel who was exclaiming in a loud voice, "Who is worthy to open the book and break its seals?"

REVELATION 5:3
3 But no one in Heaven, or on earth, or under the earth, was able to open the book or look into it.

REVELATION 5:4
4 And while I was weeping bitterly, because no one was found worthy to open the book or look into it,

REVELATION 5:5
5 one of the Elders said to me, "Do not weep. The Lion which belongs to the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed, and will open the book
and break its seven seals."

REVELATION 5:6
6 Then, midway between the throne and the four living creatures, I saw a Lamb standing among the Elders. He looked as if He had been offered in
sacrifice, and He had seven horns and seven eyes. The last-named are the seven Spirits of God, and have been sent far and wide into all the earth.

REVELATION 5:7
7 So He comes, and now He has taken the book out of the right hand of Him who is seated on the throne.

REVELATION 5:8
8 And when He had taken the book, the four living creatures and the twenty-four Elders fell down before the Lamb, having each of them a harp and
bringing golden bowls full of incense, which represent the prayers of God's people.

REVELATION 5:9
9 And now they sing a new song. "It is fitting," they say, "that Thou shouldst be the One to take the book And break its seals; Because Thou hast been
offered in sacrifice, And hast purchased for God with Thine own blood Some out of every tribe and language and people and nation,

REVELATION 5:10
10 And hast formed them into a Kingdom to be priests to our God, And they reign over the earth."

REVELATION 5:11
11 And I looked, and heard what seemed to be the voices of countless angels on every side of the throne, and of the living creatures and the Elders.
Their number was myriads of myriads and thousands of thousands,
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REVELATION 5:12
12 and in loud voices they were singing, "It is fitting that the Lamb which has been offered in sacrifice should receive all power and riches and
wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing."
REVELATION 5:11
11 And I looked, and heard what seemed to be the voices of countless angels on every side of the throne, and of the living creatures and the Elders.
Their number was myriads of myriads and thousands of thousands,

REVELATION 5:12
12 and in loud voices they were singing, "It is fitting that the Lamb which has been offered in sacrifice should receive all power and riches and
wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing."

REVELATION 5:13
13 And as for every created thing in Heaven and on earth and under the earth and on the sea, and everything that was in any of these, I heard them
say, "To Him who is seated on the throne, And to the Lamb, Be ascribed all blessing and honor And glory and might, Until the Ages of the Ages!"

REVELATION 5:14
14 Then the four living creatures said "Amen," and the Elders fell down and worshipped.

CHAPTER 6

REVELATION 6:1
1 And when the Lamb broke one of the seven seals I saw it, and I heard one of the four living creatures say, as if in a voice of thunder, "Come."

REVELATION 6:2
2 And I looked and a white horse appeared, and its rider carried a bow; and a victor's wreath was given to him; and he went out conquering and in
order to conquer.

REVELATION 6:3
3 And when the Lamb broke the second seal, I heard the second living creature say, "Come."

REVELATION 6:4
4 And another horse came out - a fiery-red one; and power was given to its rider to take peace from the earth, and to cause men to kill one another;
and a great sword was given to him.

REVELATION 6:5
5 When the Lamb broke the third seal, I heard the third living creature say, "Come." I looked, and a black horse appeared, its rider carrying a
balance in his hand.

REVELATION 6:6
6 And I heard what seemed to be a voice speaking in the midst of the four living creatures, and saying, "A quart of wheat for a shilling, and three
quarts of barley for a shilling; but do not injure either the oil or the wine."

REVELATION 6:7
7 When the Lamb broke the fourth seal I heard the voice of the fourth living creature say, "Come."

REVELATION 6:8
8 I looked and a pale-colored horse appeared. Its rider's name was Death, and Hades came close behind him; and authority was given to them over
the fourth part of the earth, to kill with the sword or with famine or pestilence or by means of the wild beasts of the earth.

REVELATION 6:9
9 When the Lamb broke the fifth seal, I saw at the foot of the altar the souls of those whose lives had been sacrificed because of the word of God and
of the testimony which they had given.

REVELATION 6:10
10 And now in loud voices they cried out, saying, "How long, O Sovereign Lord, the holy One and the true, dost Thou delay judgment and the
taking of vengeance upon the inhabitants of the earth for our blood?"

REVELATION 6:11
11 And there was given to each of them a long white robe, and they were bidden to wait patiently for a short time longer, until the full number of
their fellow bondservants should also complete - namely of their brethren who were soon to be killed just as they had been.

REVELATION 6:12
12 When the Lamb broke the sixth seal I looked, and there was a great earthquake, and the sun became as dark as sackcloth, and the whole disc of
the moon became like blood.

REVELATION 6:13
13 The stars in the sky also fell to the earth, as when a fig-tree, upon being shaken by a gale of wind, casts its unripe figs to the ground.

REVELATION 6:14
14 The sky too passed away, as if a scroll were being rolled up, and every mountain and island was removed from its place.

REVELATION 6:15
15 The kings of the earth and the great men, the military chiefs, the wealthy and the powerful - all, whether slaves or free men - hid themselves in the
caves and in the rocks of the mountains,

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16 while they called to the mountains and the rocks, saying, "Fall on us and hide us from the presence of Him who sits on the throne and from the
anger of the Lamb;
REVELATION 6:15
15 The kings of the earth and the great men, the military chiefs, the wealthy and the powerful - all, whether slaves or free men - hid themselves in the
caves and in the rocks of the mountains,

REVELATION 6:16
16 while they called to the mountains and the rocks, saying, "Fall on us and hide us from the presence of Him who sits on the throne and from the
anger of the Lamb;

REVELATION 6:17
17 for the day of His anger - that great day - has come, and who is able to stand?"

CHAPTER 7

REVELATION 7:1
1 After this I saw four angels standing at the four corners of the earth, and holding back the four winds of the earth so that no wind should blow over
the earth or the sea or upon any tree.

REVELATION 7:2
2 And I saw another angel coming from the east and carrying a seal belonging to the ever-living God. He called in a loud voice to the four angels
whose work it was to injure the earth and the sea.

REVELATION 7:3
3 "Injure neither land nor sea nor trees," he said, "until we have sealed the bondservants of our God upon their foreheads."

REVELATION 7:4
4 When the sealing was finished, I heard how many were sealed out of the tribes of the descendants of Israel. They were 144,000.

REVELATION 7:5
5 Of the tribe of Judah, 12,000 were sealed; Of the tribe of Reuben, 12,000; Of the tribe of Gad, 12,000;

REVELATION 7:6
6 Of the tribe of Asher, 12,000; Of the tribe of Naphtali, 12,000; Of the tribe of Manasseh, 12,000;

REVELATION 7:7
7 Of the tribe of Symeon, 12,000; Of the tribe of Levi, 12,000; Of the tribe of Issachar, 12,000;

REVELATION 7:8
8 Of the tribe of Zebulun, 12,000; Of the tribe of Joseph, 12,000; Of the tribe of Benjamin, 12,000.

REVELATION 7:9
9 After this I looked, and a vast host appeared which it was impossible for anyone to count, gathered out of every nation and from all tribes and
peoples and languages, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, clothed in long white robes, and carrying palm-branches in their hands.

REVELATION 7:10
10 In loud voices they were exclaiming, "It is to our God who is seated on the throne, and to the Lamb, that we owe our salvation!"

REVELATION 7:11
11 All the angels were standing in a circle round the throne and round the Elders and the four living creatures, and they fell on their faces in front of
the throne and worshipped God.

REVELATION 7:12
12 "Even so!" they cried: "The blessing and the glory and the wisdom and the thanks and the honor and the power and the might are to be ascribed
to our God, until the Ages of the Ages! Even so!"

REVELATION 7:13
13 Then, addressing me, one of the Elders said, "Who are these people clothed in the long white robes? And where have they come from?"

REVELATION 7:14
14 "My lord, you know," I replied. "They are those," he said, "who have just passed through the great distress, and have washed their robes and made
them white in the blood of the Lamb.

REVELATION 7:15
15 For this reason they stand before the very throne of God, and render Him service, day after day and night after night, in His sanctuary, and He
who is sitting upon the throne will shelter them in His tent.

REVELATION 7:16
16 They will never again be hungry or thirsty, and never again will the sun or any scorching heat trouble them.

REVELATION 7:17
17 For the Lamb who is in front of the throne will be their Shepherd, and will guide them to watersprings of Life, and God will wipe every tear from
their eyes."

CHAPTER 8
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REVELATION 8:1
1 When the Lamb broke the seventh seal, there was silence in Heaven for about half an hour.
CHAPTER 8

REVELATION 8:1
1 When the Lamb broke the seventh seal, there was silence in Heaven for about half an hour.

REVELATION 8:2
2 Then I saw the seven angels who are in the presence of God, and seven trumpets were given to them.

REVELATION 8:3
3 And another angel came and stood close to the altar, carrying a censer of gold; and abundance of incense was given to him that he might place it
with the prayers of all God's people upon the golden altar which was in front of the throne.

REVELATION 8:4
4 And the smoke of the incense rose into the presence of God from the angel's hand, and mingled with the prayers of His people.

REVELATION 8:5
5 So the angel took the censer and filled it with fire from the altar and flung it to the earth; and there followed peals of thunder, and voices, and
flashes of lightning, and an earthquake.

REVELATION 8:6
6 Then the seven angels who had the seven trumpets made preparations for blowing them.

REVELATION 8:7
7 The first blew his trumpet; and there came hail and fire, mixed with blood, falling upon the earth; and a third part of the earth was burnt up, and a
third part of the trees and all the green grass.

REVELATION 8:8
8 The second angel blew his trumpet; and what seemed to be a great mountain, all ablaze with fire, was hurled into the sea; and a third part of the
sea was turned into blood.

REVELATION 8:9
9 And a third part of the creatures that were in the sea - those that had life - died; and a third part of the ships were destroyed.

REVELATION 8:10
10 The third angel blew his trumpet; and there fell from Heaven a great star, which was on fire like a torch. It fell upon a third part of the rivers and
upon the springs of water.

REVELATION 8:11
11 The name of the star is 'Wormwood;' and a third part of the waters were turned into wormwood, and vast numbers of the people died from
drinking the water, because it had become bitter.

REVELATION 8:12
12 Then the fourth angel blew his trumpet; and a curse fell upon a third part of the sun, a third part of the moon, and a third part of the stars, so that
a third part of them were darkened and for a third of the day, and also of the night, there was no light.

REVELATION 8:13
13 Then I looked, and I heard a solitary eagle crying in a loud voice, as it flew across the sky, "Alas, alas, alas, for the inhabitants of the earth, because
of the significance of the remaining trumpets which the three angels are about to blow!"

CHAPTER 9

REVELATION 9:1
1 The fifth angel blew his trumpet; and I saw a Star which had fallen from Heaven to the earth; and to him was given the key of the depths of the
bottomless pit,

REVELATION 9:2
2 and he opened the depths of the bottomless pit. And smoke came up out of the pit resembling the smoke of a vast furnace, so that the sun was
darkened, and the air also, by reason of the smoke of the pit.

REVELATION 9:3
3 And from the midst of the smoke there came locusts on to the earth, and power was given to them resembling the power which earthly scorpions
possess.

REVELATION 9:4
4 And they were forbidden to injure the herbage of the earth, or any green thing, or any tree. They were only to injure human beings - those who
have not the seal of God on their foreheads.

REVELATION 9:5
5 Their mission was not to kill, but to cause awful agony for five months; and this agony was like that which a scorpion inflicts when it stings a man.

REVELATION 9:6
6Copyright
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                                            but will by no possibility find it, and will long to die, but death evades them.             Page 457 / 567

REVELATION 9:7
7 The appearance of the locusts was like that of horses equipped for war. On their heads they had wreaths which looked like gold.
5 Their mission was not to kill, but to cause awful agony for five months; and this agony was like that which a scorpion inflicts when it stings a man.

REVELATION 9:6
6 And at that time people will seek death, but will by no possibility find it, and will long to die, but death evades them.

REVELATION 9:7
7 The appearance of the locusts was like that of horses equipped for war. On their heads they had wreaths which looked like gold.

REVELATION 9:8
8 Their faces seemed human and they had hair like women's hair, but their teeth resembled those of lions.

REVELATION 9:9
9 They had breast-plates which seemed to be made of steel; and the noise caused by their wings was like that of a vast number of horses and chariots
hurrying into battle.

REVELATION 9:10
10 They had tails like those of scorpions, and also stings; and in their tails lay their power of injuring mankind for five months.

REVELATION 9:11
11 The locusts had a king over them - the angel of the bottomless pit, whose name in Hebrew is 'Abaddon,' while in the Greek he is called 'Apollyon.'

REVELATION 9:12
12 The first woe is past; two other woes have still to come.

REVELATION 9:13
13 The sixth angel blew his trumpet; and I heard a single voice speaking from among the horns of the golden incense altar which is in the presence of
God.

REVELATION 9:14
14 It said to the sixth angel - the angel who had the trumpet, "Set at liberty the four angels who are prisoners near the great river Euphrates."

REVELATION 9:15
15 And the four angels who had been kept in readiness for that hour, day, month, and year, were set at liberty, so that they might kill a third part of
mankind.

REVELATION 9:16
16 The number of the cavalry was two hundred millions; I heard their number.

REVELATION 9:17
17 And this was the appearance of the horses which I saw in my vision - and of their riders. The body-armour of the riders was red, blue and yellow;
and the horses' heads were shaped like the heads of lions, while from their mouths there came fire and smoke and sulphur.

REVELATION 9:18
18 By these three plagues a third part of mankind were destroyed - by the fire and the smoke, and by the sulphur which came from their mouths.

REVELATION 9:19
19 For the power of the horses is in their mouths and in their tails; their tails being like serpents, and having heads, and it is with them that they inflict
injury.

REVELATION 9:20
20 But the rest of mankind who were not killed by these plagues, did not even then repent and leave the things they had made, so as to cease
worshipping the demons, and the idols of gold and silver, bronze, stone, and wood, which can neither see nor hear, nor move.

REVELATION 9:21
21 Nor did they repent of their murders, their practice of magic, their fornication, or their thefts.

CHAPTER 10

REVELATION 10:1
1 Then I saw another strong angel coming down from Heaven. He was robed in a cloud, and over his head was the rainbow. His face was like the
sun, and his feet resembled pillars of fire.

REVELATION 10:2
2 In his hand he held a small scroll unrolled; and, planting his right foot on the sea and his left foot on the land,

REVELATION 10:3
3 he cried out in a loud voice which resembled the roar of a lion. And when he had cried out, each of the seven peals of thunder uttered its own
message.

REVELATION 10:4
4 And when the seven peals of thunder had spoken, I was about to write down what they had said; but I heard a voice from Heaven which told me to
keep secret all that the seven peals of thunder had said, and not write it down.

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5 Then the angel that I saw standing on the sea and on the land, lifted his right hand toward Heaven.
REVELATION 10:4
4 And when the seven peals of thunder had spoken, I was about to write down what they had said; but I heard a voice from Heaven which told me to
keep secret all that the seven peals of thunder had said, and not write it down.

REVELATION 10:5
5 Then the angel that I saw standing on the sea and on the land, lifted his right hand toward Heaven.

REVELATION 10:6
6 And in the name of Him who lives until the Ages of the Ages, the Creator of Heaven and all that is in it, of the earth and all that is in it, and of the
sea and all that is in it, he solemnly declared,

REVELATION 10:7
7 "There shall be no further delay; but in the days when the seventh angel blows his trumpet - when he begins to do so - then the secret purposes of
God are realized, in accordance with the good news which He gave to His servants the Prophets."

REVELATION 10:8
8 Then the voice which I had heard speaking from Heaven once more addressed me. It said, "Go and take the little book which lies open in the hand
of the angel who is standing on the sea and on the land."

REVELATION 10:9
9 So I went to the angel and asked him to give me the little book. "Take it," he said, "and eat the whole of it. You will find it bitter when you have
eaten it, although in your mouth it will taste as sweet as honey."

REVELATION 10:10
10 So I took the roll out of the angel's hand and ate the whole of it; and in my mouth it was as sweet as honey, but when I had eaten it I found it very
bitter.

REVELATION 10:11
11 And a voice said to me, "You must prophesy yet further concerning peoples, nations, languages, and many kings."

CHAPTER 11

REVELATION 11:1
1 Then a reed was given me to serve as a measuring rod; and a voice said, "Rise, and measure God's sanctuary - and the altar - and count the
worshipers who are in it.

REVELATION 11:2
2 But as for the court which is outside the sanctuary, pass it over. Do not measure it; for it has been given to the Gentiles, and for forty-two months
they will trample the holy city under foot.

REVELATION 11:3
3 And I will authorize My two witnesses to prophesy for 1,260 days, clothed in sackcloth.

REVELATION 11:4
4 "These witnesses are the two olive-trees, and they are the two lamps which stand in the presence of the Lord of the earth.

REVELATION 11:5
5 And if any one seeks to injure them - fire comes from their mouths and devours their enemies; and if any one seeks to injure them, he will in this
way certainly be killed.

REVELATION 11:6
6 They have power given to them to seal up the sky, so that no rain may fall so long as they continue to prophesy; and power over the waters to turn
them into blood, and to smite the earth with various plagues whenever they choose to do so.

REVELATION 11:7
7 "And when they have fully delivered their testimony, the Wild Beast which is to rise out of the bottomless pit will make war upon them and
overcome them and kill them.

REVELATION 11:8
8 And their dead bodies are to lie in the broad street of the great city which spiritually is designated 'Sodom' and 'Egypt,' where indeed their Lord
was crucified.

REVELATION 11:9
9 And men belonging to all peoples, tribes, languages and nations gaze at their dead bodies for three days and a half, but they refuse to let them be
laid in a tomb.

REVELATION 11:10
10 The inhabitants of the earth rejoice over them and are glad and will send gifts to one another; for these two Prophets had greatly troubled the
inhabitants of the earth."

REVELATION 11:11
11 But at the end of the three days and a half the breath of life from God entered into them, and they rose to their feet; and all who saw them were
terrified.
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REVELATION 11:12
12 Then they heard a loud voice calling to them out of Heaven, and bidding them come up; and they went up to Heaven in the cloud, and their
REVELATION 11:11
11 But at the end of the three days and a half the breath of life from God entered into them, and they rose to their feet; and all who saw them were
terrified.

REVELATION 11:12
12 Then they heard a loud voice calling to them out of Heaven, and bidding them come up; and they went up to Heaven in the cloud, and their
enemies saw them go.

REVELATION 11:13
13 And just as that time there was a great earthquake, and a tenth part of the city was overthrown. 7,000 people were killed in the earthquake, and
the rest were terrified and gave glory to the God of Heaven.

REVELATION 11:14
14 The second Woe is past; the third Woe will soon be here.

REVELATION 11:15
15 The seventh angel blew his trumpet; and there followed loud voices in Heaven which said, "The sovereignty of the world now belongs to our Lord
and His Christ; and He will be King until the Ages of the Ages."

REVELATION 11:16
16 Then the twenty-four Elders, who sit on thrones in the presence of God, fell on their faces and worshipped God,

REVELATION 11:17
17 saying, "We give thee thanks, O Lord God, the Ruler of all, Who art and wast, because Thou hast exerted Thy power, Thy great power, and hast
become King.

REVELATION 11:18
18 The nations grew angry, and Thine anger has come, and the time for the dead to be judged, and the time for Thee to give their reward to Thy
servants the Prophets and to Thy people, and to those who fear Thee, the small and the great, and to destroy those who destroy the earth."

REVELATION 11:19
19 Then the doors of God's sanctuary in Heaven were opened, and the Ark, in which His Covenant was, was seen in His sanctuary; and there came
flashes of lightning, and voices, and peals of thunder, and an earthquake, and heavy hail.

CHAPTER 12

REVELATION 12:1
1 And a great marvel was seen in Heaven - a woman who was robed with the sun and had the moon under her feet, and had also a wreath of stars
round her head, was with child,

REVELATION 12:2
2 and she was crying out in the pains and agony of childbirth.

REVELATION 12:3
3 And another marvel was seen in Heaven - a great fiery-red Dragon, with seven heads and ten horns; and on his heads were seven kingly crowns.

REVELATION 12:4
4 His tail was drawing after it a third part of the stars of Heaven, and it dashed them to the ground. And in front of the woman who was about to
become a mother, the Dragon was standing in order to devour the child as soon as it was born.

REVELATION 12:5
5 She gave birth to a son - a male child, destined before long to rule all nations with an iron scepter. But her child was caught up to God and His
throne,

REVELATION 12:6
6 and the woman fled into the Desert, there to be cared for, for 1,260 days, in a place which God had prepared for her.

REVELATION 12:7
7 And war broke out in Heaven, Michael and his angels engaging in battle with the Dragon.

REVELATION 12:8
8 The Dragon fought and so did his angels; but they were defeated, and there was no longer any room found for them in Heaven.

REVELATION 12:9
9 The great Dragon, the ancient serpent, he who is called 'the Devil' and 'the Adversary' and leads the whole earth astray, was hurled down: he was
hurled down to the earth, and his angels were hurled down with him.

REVELATION 12:10
10 Then I heard a loud voice speaking in Heaven. It said, "The salvation and the power and the Kingdom of our God have now come, and the
sovereignty of His Christ; for the accuser of our brethren has been hurled down - he who, day after day and night after night, was wont to accuse
them in the presence of God.

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11 But they have gained the victory over him because of the blood of the Lamb and of the testimony which they have borne, and because they held
their lives cheap and did not shrink even from death.
sovereignty of His Christ; for the accuser of our brethren has been hurled down - he who, day after day and night after night, was wont to accuse
them in the presence of God.

REVELATION 12:11
11 But they have gained the victory over him because of the blood of the Lamb and of the testimony which they have borne, and because they held
their lives cheap and did not shrink even from death.

REVELATION 12:12
12 For this reason be glad, O Heaven, and you who live in Heaven! Alas for the earth and the sea! For the Devil has come down to you; full of fierce
anger, because he knows that his appointed time is short."

REVELATION 12:13
13 And when the Dragon saw that he was hurled down to the earth, he went in pursuit of the woman who had given birth to the male child.

REVELATION 12:14
14 Then, the two wings of a great eagle were given to the woman to enable her to fly away into the Desert to the place assigned her, there to be cared
for, for a period of time, two periods of time, and half a period of time, beyond the reach of the serpent.

REVELATION 12:15
15 And the serpent poured water from his mouth - a very river it seemed - after the woman, in the hope that she would be carried away by its flood.

REVELATION 12:16
16 But the earth came to the woman's help: it opened its mouth and drank up the river which the Dragon had poured from his mouth.

REVELATION 12:17
17 This made the Dragon furiously angry with the woman, and he went elsewhere to make war upon her other children - those who keep God's
commandments and hold fast to the testimony of Jesus.

CHAPTER 13

REVELATION 13:1
1 And he took up a position upon the sands of the sea-shore. Then I saw a Wild Beast coming up out of the sea, and he had ten horns and seven
heads. On his horns were ten kingly crowns, and inscribed on his heads were names full of blasphemy.

REVELATION 13:2
2 The Wild Beast which I saw resembled a leopard, and had feet like the feet of a bear, and his mouth was like the mouth of a lion; and it was to the
Dragon that he owed his power and his throne and his wide dominion.

REVELATION 13:3
3 I saw that one of his heads seemed to have been mortally wounded; but his mortal wound was healed, and the whole world was amazed and
followed him.

REVELATION 13:4
4 And they offered worship to the Dragon, because it was to him that the Wild Beast owed his dominion; and they also offered worship to the Wild
Beast, and said, "Who is there like him? And who is able to engage in battle with him?"

REVELATION 13:5
5 And there was given him a mouth full of boastful and blasphemous words; and liberty of action was granted him for forty-two months.

REVELATION 13:6
6 And he opened his mouth to utter blasphemies against God, to speak evil of His name and of His dwelling-place - that is to say, of those who dwell
in Heaven.

REVELATION 13:7
7 And permission was given him to make war upon God's people and conquer them; and power was given him over every tribe, people, language
and nation.

REVELATION 13:8
8 And all the inhabitants of the earth will be found to be worshipping him: every one whose name is not recorded in the Book of Life - the Book of the
Lamb who has been offered in sacrifice ever since the creation of the world.

REVELATION 13:9
9 Let all who have ears give heed.

REVELATION 13:10
10 If any one is eager to lead others into captivity, he must himself go into captivity. If any one is bent on killing with the sword, he must himself be
killed by the sword. Here is an opportunity for endurance, and for the exercise of faith, on the part of God's people.

REVELATION 13:11
11 Then I saw another Wild Beast, coming up out of the earth. He had two horns like those of a lamb, but he spoke like a dragon.

REVELATION 13:12
12 And the(c)
 Copyright authority  of the
              2005-2009,     first Wild
                          Infobase      Beast
                                    Media     - the whole of that authority - he exercises in his presence, and he causes the earth andPage
                                          Corp.                                                                                        its inhabitants to
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worship the first Wild Beast, whose mortal wound had been healed.
11 Then I saw another Wild Beast, coming up out of the earth. He had two horns like those of a lamb, but he spoke like a dragon.

REVELATION 13:12
12 And the authority of the first Wild Beast - the whole of that authority - he exercises in his presence, and he causes the earth and its inhabitants to
worship the first Wild Beast, whose mortal wound had been healed.

REVELATION 13:13
13 He also works great miracles, so as even to make fire come down from Heaven to earth in the presence of human beings.

REVELATION 13:14
14 And his power of leading astray the inhabitants of the earth is due to the marvels which he has been permitted to work in the presence of the Wild
Beast. And he told the inhabitants of the earth to erect a statue to the Wild Beast who had received the sword-stroke and yet had recovered.

REVELATION 13:15
15 And power was granted him to give breath to the statue of the Wild Beast, so that the statue of the Wild Beast could even speak and cause all who
refuse to worship it to be put to death.

REVELATION 13:16
16 And he causes all, small and great, rich and poor, free men and slaves, to have stamped upon them a mark on their right hands or on their
foreheads,

REVELATION 13:17
17 in order that no one should be allowed to buy or sell unless he had the mark - either the name of the Wild Beast or the number which his name
represents.

REVELATION 13:18
18 Here is scope for ingenuity. Let people of shrewd intelligence calculate the number of the Wild Beast; for it indicates a certain man, and his
number is 666.

CHAPTER 14

REVELATION 14:1
1 Then I looked, and I saw the Lamb standing upon Mount Zion, and with Him 144,000 people, having His name and His Father's name written on
their foreheads.

REVELATION 14:2
2 And I heard music from Heaven which resembled the sound of many waters and the roar of loud thunder; and the music which I heard was like
that of harpists playing upon their harps.

REVELATION 14:3
3 And they were singing what seemed to be a new song, in front of the throne and in the presence of the four living creatures and the Elders; and no
one was able to learn that song except the 144,000 people who had been redeemed out of the world.

REVELATION 14:4
4 These are those who had not defiled themselves with women: they are as pure as virgins. They follow the Lamb wherever He goes. They have been
redeemed from among men, as firstfruits to God and to the Lamb.

REVELATION 14:5
5 And no lie has ever been found upon their lips: they are faultless.

REVELATION 14:6
6 And I saw another angel flying across the sky, carrying the Good News of the Ages to tell to every nation, tribe, language and people, among those
who live on the earth.

REVELATION 14:7
7 He said in a loud voice, "Fear God and give Him glory, because the time of His judgment has come; and worship Him who made sky and earth,
the sea and the water-springs."

REVELATION 14:8
8 And another, a second angel, followed, exclaiming, "Great Babylon has fallen, has fallen - she who made all the nations drink the wine of the anger
provoked by her fornication."

REVELATION 14:9
9 And another, a third angel, followed them, exclaiming in a loud voice, "If any one worships the Wild Beast and his statue, and receives a mark on
his forehead or on his hand,

REVELATION 14:10
10 he shall drink the wine of God's anger which stands ready, undiluted, in the cup of His fury, and he shall be tormented with fire and sulphur in
the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb.

REVELATION 14:11
11 And the smoke of their torment goes up until the Ages of the Ages; and the worshipers of the Wild Beast and his statue have no rest day or night,
nor has any
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                          Infobase Mediaof his name.
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REVELATION 14:12
12 Here is an opportunity for endurance on the part of God's people, who carefully keep His commandments and the faith of Jesus!"
REVELATION 14:11
11 And the smoke of their torment goes up until the Ages of the Ages; and the worshipers of the Wild Beast and his statue have no rest day or night,
nor has any one who receives the mark of his name.

REVELATION 14:12
12 Here is an opportunity for endurance on the part of God's people, who carefully keep His commandments and the faith of Jesus!"

REVELATION 14:13
13 And I heard a voice speaking from Heaven. It said, "Write as follows: "'Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from this time onward. Yes, says
the Spirit, let them rest from their sorrowful labors; for what they have done goes with them.'"

REVELATION 14:14
14 Then I looked, and a white cloud appeared, and sitting on the cloud was some One resembling the Son of Man, having a wreath of gold upon His
head and in His hand a sharp sickle.

REVELATION 14:15
15 And another, an angel, came out of the sanctuary, calling in a loud voice to Him who sat on the cloud, and saying, "Use your sickle and reap the
harvest, for the hour for reaping it has come: the harvest of the earth is over-ripe."

REVELATION 14:16
16 Then He who sat on the cloud flung His sickle on the earth, and the earth had its harvest reaped.

REVELATION 14:17
17 And another angel came out from the sanctuary in Heaven, and he too carried a sharp sickle.

REVELATION 14:18
18 And another angel came out from the altar - he who had power over fire - and he spoke in a loud voice to him who had the sharp sickle, saying,
"Use your sharp sickle, and gather the bunches from the vine of the earth, for its grapes are now quite ripe."

REVELATION 14:19
19 And the angel flung his sickle down to the earth, and reaped the vine of the earth and threw the grapes into the great winepress of God's anger.

REVELATION 14:20
20 And the winepress was trodden outside the city, and out of it came blood reaching the horses' bridles for a distance of 200 miles.

CHAPTER 15

REVELATION 15:1
1 Then I saw another marvel in Heaven, great and wonderful - there were seven angels bringing seven plagues. These are the last plagues, because in
them God's anger has found full expression.

REVELATION 15:2
2 And I saw what seemed to be a sea of glass mingled with fire, and those who had gained the victory over the Wild Beast and over his statue and the
number of his name, standing by the sea of glass and having harps which belonged to God.

REVELATION 15:3
3 And they were singing the song of Moses, God's servant, and the song of the Lamb. Their words were, "Great and wonderful are Thy works, O
Lord God, the Ruler of all. Righteous and true are Thy ways, O King of the nations.

REVELATION 15:4
4 Who shall not be afraid, O Lord, and glorify Thy name? For Thou alone art holy. All nations shall come and shall worship Thee, because the
righteousness of all that Thou hast done has been made manifest."

REVELATION 15:5
5 After this, when the doors of the sanctuary of the tent of witness in Heaven were opened, I looked;

REVELATION 15:6
6 and there came out of the sanctuary the seven angels who were bringing the seven plagues. The angels were clad in pure, bright linen, and had
girdles of gold across their breasts.

REVELATION 15:7
7 And one of the four living creatures gave the seven angels seven bowls of gold, full of the anger of God who lives until the Ages of the Ages.

REVELATION 15:8
8 And the sanctuary was filled with smoke from the glory of God and from His power; and no one could enter the sanctuary till the seven plagues
brought by the seven angels were at an end.

CHAPTER 16

REVELATION 16:1
1 Then I heard a loud voice from the sanctuary say to the seven angels, "Go and pour on to the earth the seven bowls of the anger of God."
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                       Page 463 / 567
REVELATION 16:2
2 So the first angel went away and poured his bowl on to the earth; and it brought a bad and painful sore upon the men who had on them the mark
of the Wild Beast and worshipped his statue.
CHAPTER 16

REVELATION 16:1
1 Then I heard a loud voice from the sanctuary say to the seven angels, "Go and pour on to the earth the seven bowls of the anger of God."

REVELATION 16:2
2 So the first angel went away and poured his bowl on to the earth; and it brought a bad and painful sore upon the men who had on them the mark
of the Wild Beast and worshipped his statue.

REVELATION 16:3
3 The second angel poured his bowl into the sea, and it became blood, like a dead man's blood, and every living creature in the sea died.

REVELATION 16:4
4 The third angel poured his bowl into the rivers and springs of water, and they became blood.

REVELATION 16:5
5 And I heard the angel of the waters say, "Righteous art Thou, who art and wast, the holy One, because Thou hast thus taken vengeance.

REVELATION 16:6
6 For they poured out the blood of Thy people and of the Prophets, and in return Thou hast given them blood to drink. And this they deserved."

REVELATION 16:7
7 And I heard a voice from the altar say, "Even so, O Lord God, the Ruler of all, true and righteous are Thy judgments."

REVELATION 16:8
8 Then the fourth angel poured his bowl on to the sun, and power was given to it to scorch men with fire.

REVELATION 16:9
9 And the men were severely burned; and yet they spoke evil of God who had power over the plagues, and they did not repent so as to give Him
glory.

REVELATION 16:10
10 The fifth angel poured his bowl on to the throne of the Wild Beast; and his kingdom became darkened. People gnawed their tongues because of
the pain,

REVELATION 16:11
11 and they spoke evil of the God in Heaven because of their pains and their sores, and did not repent of their misconduct.

REVELATION 16:12
12 The sixth angel poured his bowl into that great river, the Euphrates; and its stream was dried up in order to clear the way for the kings who are to
come from the east.

REVELATION 16:13
13 Then I saw three foul spirits, resembling frogs, issue from the mouth of the Dragon, from the mouth of the Wild Beast, and from the mouth of the
false Prophet.

REVELATION 16:14
14 For they are the spirits of demons working marvels - spirits that go out to control the kings of the whole earth, to assemble them for the battle
which is to take place on the great day of God, the Ruler of all.

REVELATION 16:15
15 ("I am coming like a thief. Blessed is the man who keeps awake and guards his raiment for fear he walk about ill-clad, and his uncomeliness
become manifest.")

REVELATION 16:16
16 And assemble them they did at the place called in Hebrew 'Har-Magedon.'

REVELATION 16:17
17 Then the seventh angel poured his bowl into the air; and a loud voice came out of the sanctuary from the throne, saying, "Everything is now
ready."

REVELATION 16:18
18 Flashes of lightning followed, and voices, and peals of thunder, and an earthquake more dreadful than there had ever been since there was a man
upon the earth - so terrible was it, and so great!

REVELATION 16:19
19 The great city was split into three parts; the cities of the nations fell; and great Babylon came into remembrance before God, for Him to make her
drink from the wine-cup of His fierce anger.

REVELATION 16:20
20 Every island fled away, and there was not a mountain anywhere to be seen.

REVELATION 16:21
21 And heavy hail, that seemed to be a talent in weight, fell from the sky upon the people; and they spoke evil of God on account of the plague of the
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                    Page 464 / 567
hail - because the plague of it was exceedingly severe.

CHAPTER 17
REVELATION 16:21
21 And heavy hail, that seemed to be a talent in weight, fell from the sky upon the people; and they spoke evil of God on account of the plague of the
hail - because the plague of it was exceedingly severe.

CHAPTER 17

REVELATION 17:1
1 Then one of the seven angels who were carrying the seven bowls came and spoke to me. "Come with me," he said, "and I will show you the doom of
the great Harlot who sits upon many waters.

REVELATION 17:2
2 The kings of the earth have committed fornication with her, and the inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk with the wine of her
fornication."

REVELATION 17:3
3 So he carried me away in the Spirit into a desert, and there I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet-colored Wild Beast which was covered with names of
blasphemy and had seven heads and ten horns.

REVELATION 17:4
4 The woman was clothed in purple and scarlet, and was brilliantly attired with gold and jewels and pearls. She held in her hand a cup of gold, full of
abominations, and she gave filthy indications of her fornication.

REVELATION 17:5
5 And on her forehead was a name written: "I am a symbol of great Babylon, the mother of the harlots and of the abominations of the earth."

REVELATION 17:6
6 And I saw the woman drinking herself drunk with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus. And when I saw her I was
filled with utter astonishment.

REVELATION 17:7
7 Then the angel said to me, "Why are you so astonished? I will explain to you the secret meaning of the woman and of the seven-headed, ten-horned
Wild Beast which carries her.

REVELATION 17:8
8 "The Wild Beast which you have seen was, and is not, and yet is destined to re-ascend, before long, out of the bottomless pit and go his way into
perdition. And the inhabitants of the earth will be filled with amazement - all whose names are not in the Book of Life, having been recorded there
ever since the creation of the world - when they see the Wild Beast: because he was, and is not, and yet is to come.

REVELATION 17:9
9 Here is scope for the exercise of a mind that has wisdom! The seven heads are the seven hills on which the woman sits.

REVELATION 17:10
10 And they are seven kings: five of them have fallen, and the one is still reigning. The seventh has not yet come, but when he comes he must
continue for a short time.

REVELATION 17:11
11 And the Wild Beast which once existed but does not now exist - he is an eighth king and yet is one of the seven and he goes his way into perdition.

REVELATION 17:12
12 "And the ten horns which you have seen are ten kings who have not yet come to the throne, but for a single hour they are to receive authority as
kings along with the Wild Beast.

REVELATION 17:13
13 They have one common policy, and they are to give their power and authority to the Wild Beast.

REVELATION 17:14
14 They will make war upon the Lamb, and the Lamb will triumph over them; for He is Lord of lords and King of kings. And those who accompany
Him - called, as they are, and chosen, and faithful - shall share in the victory."

REVELATION 17:15
15 He also said to me, "The waters which you have seen, on which the Harlot sits, are peoples and multitudes, nations and languages.

REVELATION 17:16
16 And the ten horns that you have seen - and the Wild Beast - these will hate the Harlot, and they will cause her to be laid waste and will strip her
bare. They will eat her flesh, and burn her up with fire.

REVELATION 17:17
17 For God has put it into their hearts to carry out His purpose, and to carry out a common purpose and to give their kingdom to the Wild Beast
until God's words have come to pass.

REVELATION 17:18
 Copyright
18 And the(c) 2005-2009,
           woman    whom Infobase Media
                           you have seenCorp.
                                         is the great city which has kingly power over the kings of the earth."                      Page 465 / 567

CHAPTER 18
until God's words have come to pass.

REVELATION 17:18
18 And the woman whom you have seen is the great city which has kingly power over the kings of the earth."

CHAPTER 18

REVELATION 18:1
1 After these things I saw another angel coming down from Heaven, armed with great power. The earth shone with his splendor,

REVELATION 18:2
2 and with a mighty voice he cried out, saying, "Great Babylon has fallen, has fallen, and has become a home for demons and a stronghold for every
kind of foul spirit and for every kind of foul and hateful bird.

REVELATION 18:3
3 For all the nations have drunk the wine of the anger provoked by her fornication, and the kings of the earth have committed fornication with her,
and the merchants of the earth have grown rich through her excessive luxury."

REVELATION 18:4
4 Then I heard another voice from Heaven, which said, "Come out of her, My people, that you may not become partakers in her sins, nor receive a
share of her plagues.

REVELATION 18:5
5 For her sins are piled up to the sky, and God has called to mind her unrighteous deeds.

REVELATION 18:6
6 Give back to her as she has given; repay her in accordance with her doings, twice as much; in the bowl that she has mixed, mix twice as much for
her.

REVELATION 18:7
7 She has freely glorified herself and revelled in luxury; equally freely administer torment to her, and woe. For in her heart she boasts, saying, 'I sit
enthroned as Queen: no widow am I: I shall never know sorrow.'

REVELATION 18:8
8 "For this reason calamities shall come thick upon her on a single day - death and sorrow and famine - and she shall be burned to the ground. For
strong is the Lord God who has judged her.

REVELATION 18:9
9 The kings of the earth who have committed fornication with her, and have revelled in luxury, shall weep aloud and lament over her when they see
the smoke of her burning,

REVELATION 18:10
10 while they stand afar off because of their terror at her heavy punishment, and say, 'Alas, alas, thou great city, O Babylon, the mighty city! For in
one short hour thy doom has come!'

REVELATION 18:11
11 And the merchants of the earth weep aloud and lament over her, because now there is no sale for their cargoes -

REVELATION 18:12
12 cargoes of gold and silver, of jewels and pearls, of fine linen, purple and silk, and of scarlet stuff; all kinds of rare woods, and all kinds of goods in
ivory and in very costly wood, in bronze, steel and marble.

REVELATION 18:13
13 Also cinnamon and amomum; odors to burn as incense or for perfume; frankincense, wine, oil; fine flour, wheat, cattle and sheep; horses and
carriages and slaves; and the lives of men.

REVELATION 18:14
14 The dainties that thy soul longed for are gone from thee, and all thine elegance and splendor have perished, and never again shall they be found.

REVELATION 18:15
15 Those who traded in these things, who grew wealthy through her, will stand afar off, struck with terror at her punishment,

REVELATION 18:16
16 weeping aloud and sorrowing, and saying, 'Alas, alas, for this great city, which was brilliantly arrayed in fine linen, and purple and scarlet stuff,
and beautified with gold, jewels and pearls;

REVELATION 18:17
17 because in one short hour all this great wealth has been laid waste!' And every shipmaster and every passenger by sea and the crews and all who
ply their trade on the sea,

REVELATION 18:18
18 stood afar off, and cried aloud when they saw the smoke of her burning. And they said, 'What city is like this great city?'
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                             Page 466 / 567
REVELATION 18:19
19 And they threw dust upon their heads, and cried out, weeping aloud and sorrowing. 'Alas, alas,' they said, 'for this great city, in which, through
her vast wealth, the owners of all the ships on the sea have grown rich; because in one short hour she has been laid waste!'
REVELATION 18:18
18 stood afar off, and cried aloud when they saw the smoke of her burning. And they said, 'What city is like this great city?'

REVELATION 18:19
19 And they threw dust upon their heads, and cried out, weeping aloud and sorrowing. 'Alas, alas,' they said, 'for this great city, in which, through
her vast wealth, the owners of all the ships on the sea have grown rich; because in one short hour she has been laid waste!'

REVELATION 18:20
20 Rejoice over her, O Heaven, and you saints and Apostles and Prophets; for God has taken vengeance upon her because of you."

REVELATION 18:21
21 Then a single angel of great strength took a stone which resembled a huge millstone, and hurled it into the sea, saying, "So shall Babylon, that
great city, be violently hurled down and never again be found.

REVELATION 18:22
22 No harp or song, no flute or trumpet, shall ever again be heard in thee; no craftsman of any kind shall ever again be found in thee; nor shall the
grinding of the mill ever again be heard in thee.

REVELATION 18:23
23 Never again shall the light of a lamp shine in thee, and never again shall the voice of a bridegroom or of a bride be heard in thee. For thy
merchants were the great men of the earth, and with the magic which thou didst practise all nations were led astray.

REVELATION 18:24
24 And in her was found the blood of Prophets and of God's people and of all who had been put to death on the earth."

CHAPTER 19

REVELATION 19:1
1 After this I seemed to hear the far-echoing voices of a great multitude in Heaven, who said, "Hallelujah! The salvation and the glory and the power
belong to our God.

REVELATION 19:2
2 True and just are His judgments, because He has judged the great Harlot who was corrupting the whole earth with her fornication, and He has
taken vengeance for the blood of His bondservants which her hands have shed."

REVELATION 19:3
3 And a second time they said, "Hallelujah! For her smoke ascends until the Ages of the Ages."

REVELATION 19:4
4 And the twenty-four Elders and the four living creatures fell down and worshipped God who sits upon the throne. "Even so," they said;
"Hallelujah!"

REVELATION 19:5
5 And from the throne there came a voice which said, "Praise our God, all you His bondservants - you who fear Him, both the small and the great."

REVELATION 19:6
6 And I seemed to hear the voices of a great multitude and the sound of many waters and of loud peals of thunder, which said, "Hallelujah! Because
the Lord our God, the Ruler of all, has become King.

REVELATION 19:7
7 Let us rejoice and triumph and give Him the glory; for the time for the marriage of the Lamb has come, and His Bride has made herself ready."

REVELATION 19:8
8 And she was permitted to array herself in fine linen, shining and spotless; the fine linen being the righteous actions of God's people.

REVELATION 19:9
9 And he said to me, "Write as follows: 'Blessed are those who receive an invitation to the Marriage Supper of the Lamb.'" And he added, still
addressing me, "These are truly the words of God."

REVELATION 19:10
10 Then I fell at his feet to worship him. But he exclaimed, "Oh, do not do that. I am a fellow bondservant of yours and a fellow bondservant of your
brethren who have borne testimony to Jesus. Worship God." Testimony to Jesus is the spirit which underlies Prophecy.

REVELATION 19:11
11 Then I saw a door open in Heaven, and a white horse appeared. Its rider was named "Faithful and True" - being One who in righteousness acts as
Judge, and makes war.

REVELATION 19:12
12 His eyes were like a flame of fire, and on His head were many kingly crowns; and He has a name written upon Him which no one but He Himself
knows.

REVELATION 19:13
13 The outer
 Copyright (c)garment in which
              2005-2009,       HeMedia
                         Infobase is cladCorp.
                                          has been dipped in blood and His name is The Word Of God.                                   Page 467 / 567

REVELATION 19:14
14 The armies in Heaven followed Him - mounted on white horses and clothed in fine linen, white and spotless.
knows.

REVELATION 19:13
13 The outer garment in which He is clad has been dipped in blood and His name is The Word Of God.

REVELATION 19:14
14 The armies in Heaven followed Him - mounted on white horses and clothed in fine linen, white and spotless.

REVELATION 19:15
15 From His mouth there comes a sharp sword with which He will smite the nations; and He will Himself be their Shepherd, ruling them with a
scepter of iron; and it is His work to tread the winepress of the fierce anger of God, the Ruler of all.

REVELATION 19:16
16 And on His outer garment and on His thigh He has a name written, King Of Kings And Lord Of Lords.

REVELATION 19:17
17 And I saw a single angel standing in the full light of the sun, who cried in a loud voice to all the birds that flew across the sky, "Come and be
present at God's great supper,

REVELATION 19:18
18 that you may feast on the flesh of kings and the flesh of generals and the flesh of mighty men, on the flesh of horses and their riders, and on the
flesh of all mankind, whether they are free men or slaves, great men or small."

REVELATION 19:19
19 And I saw the Wild Beast, and the kings of the earth, and their armies, all assembled to make war, once for all, against the Rider upon the horse
and against His army. And the Wild Beast was captured, and with him the false Prophet

REVELATION 19:20
20 who had done the miracles in his presence with which he had led astray those who had received the mark of the Wild Beast, and those who
worshipped his statue. Both of them were thrown alive into the Lake of fire that was all ablaze with sulphur.

REVELATION 19:21
21 But the rest were killed with the sword that came from the mouth of the Rider on the horse. And the birds all fed ravenously upon their flesh.

CHAPTER 20

REVELATION 20:1
1 Then I saw an angel coming down from Heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit, and upon his arm he carried a great chain.

REVELATION 20:2
2 He laid hold of the Dragon - the ancient serpent - who is the Devil and the Adversary, and bound him for a thousand years, and hurled him into
the bottomless pit.

REVELATION 20:3
3 He closed the entrance and put a seal upon him in order that he might be unable to lead the nations astray any more until the thousand years were
at an end. Afterwards he is to be set at liberty for a short time.

REVELATION 20:4
4 And I saw thrones, and some who were seated on them, to whom judgment was entrusted. And I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded on
account of the testimony that they had borne to Jesus and on account of God's Message, and also the souls of those who had not worshipped the Wild
Beast or his statue, nor received his mark on their foreheads or on their hands; and they came to Life and were kings with Christ for a thousand
years.

REVELATION 20:5
5 No one else who was dead rose to Life until the thousand years were at an end. This is the First Resurrection.

REVELATION 20:6
6 Blessed and holy are those who share in the First Resurrection. The Second Death has no power over them, but they shall be priests to God and to
Christ, and shall be kings with Christ for the thousand years.

REVELATION 20:7
7 But when the thousand years are at an end, the Adversary will be released from his imprisonment,

REVELATION 20:8
8 and will go out to lead astray the nations in all the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, and assemble them for war, and they are like the
sands on the seashore in number.

REVELATION 20:9
9 And they went up over the whole breadth of the earth and surrounded the encampment of God's people and the beloved city. But fire came down
from Heaven and consumed them;

REVELATION 20:10
10 and the Devil, who had been leading them astray, was thrown into the Lake of fire and sulphur where the Wild Beast and the false Prophet were,
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and day and night they will suffer torture until the Ages of the Ages.

REVELATION 20:11
REVELATION 20:10
10 and the Devil, who had been leading them astray, was thrown into the Lake of fire and sulphur where the Wild Beast and the false Prophet were,
and day and night they will suffer torture until the Ages of the Ages.

REVELATION 20:11
11 Then I saw a great white throne and One who was seated on it, from whose presence earth and sky fled away, and no place was found for them.

REVELATION 20:12
12 And I saw the dead, the great and the small, standing in front of the throne. And books were opened; and so was another book - namely, the Book
of Life; and the dead were judged by the things recorded in the books in accordance with what their conduct had been.

REVELATION 20:13
13 Then the sea yielded up the dead who were in it, Death and Hades yielded up the dead who were in them, and each man was judged in
accordance with what his conduct had been.

REVELATION 20:14
14 Then Death and Hades were thrown into the Lake of fire; this is the Second Death - the Lake of fire.

REVELATION 20:15
15 And if any one's name was not found recorded in the Book of Life he was thrown into the Lake of fire.

CHAPTER 21

REVELATION 21:1
1 And I saw a new Heaven and a new earth; for the first Heaven and the first earth were gone, and the sea no longer exists.

REVELATION 21:2
2 And I saw the holy city, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of Heaven from God and made ready like a bride attired to meet her husband.

REVELATION 21:3
3 And I heard a loud voice, which came from the throne, say, "God's dwelling place is among men and He will dwell among them and they shall be
His peoples. Yes, God Himself will be among them.

REVELATION 21:4
4 He will wipe every tear from their eyes. Death shall be no more; nor sorrow, nor wail of woe, nor pain; for the first things have passed away."

REVELATION 21:5
5 Then He who was seated on the throne said, "I am re-creating all things." And He added, "Write down these words, for they are trustworthy and
true."

REVELATION 21:6
6 He also said, "They have now been fulfilled. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End. To those who are thirsty I will give the
privilege of drinking from the well of the Water of Life without payment.

REVELATION 21:7
7 All this shall be the heritage of him who overcomes, and I will be his God and he shall be one of My sons.

REVELATION 21:8
8 But as for cowards and the unfaithful, and the polluted, and murderers, fornicators, and those who practise magic or worship idols, and all liars -
the portion allotted to them shall be in the Lake which burns with fire and sulphur. This is the Second Death."

REVELATION 21:9
9 Then there came one of the seven angels who were carrying the seven bowls full of the seven last plagues. "Come with me," he said, "and I will show
you the Bride, the Lamb's wife."

REVELATION 21:10
10 So in the Spirit he carried me to the top of a vast, lofty mountain, and showed me the holy city, Jerusalem, coming down out of Heaven from God,

REVELATION 21:11
11 and bringing with it the glory of God. It shone with a radiance like that of a very precious stone - such as a jasper, bright and transparent.

REVELATION 21:12
12 It has a wall, massive and high, with twelve large gates, and in charge of the gates were twelve angels. And overhead, above the gates, names were
inscribed which are those of the twelve tribes of the descendants of Israel.

REVELATION 21:13
13 There were three gates on the east, three on the north, three on the south, and three on the west.

REVELATION 21:14
14 The wall of the city had twelve foundation stones, and engraved upon them were twelve names - the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb.

REVELATION      21:15
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15 Now he who was speaking to me had a measuring-rod of gold, with which to measure the city and its gates and its wall.             Page 469 / 567

REVELATION 21:16
REVELATION 21:14
14 The wall of the city had twelve foundation stones, and engraved upon them were twelve names - the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb.

REVELATION 21:15
15 Now he who was speaking to me had a measuring-rod of gold, with which to measure the city and its gates and its wall.

REVELATION 21:16
16 The plan of the city is a square, the length being the same as the breadth; and he measured the city furlong by furlong, with his measuring rod - it
is twelve hundred miles long, and the length and the breadth and the height of it are equal.

REVELATION 21:17
17 And he measured the wall of it - a wall of a hundred and forty-four cubits, according to human measure, which was also that of the angel.

REVELATION 21:18
18 The solid fabric of the wall was jasper; and the city itself was made of gold, resembling transparent glass.

REVELATION 21:19
19 As for the foundation-stones of the city wall, which were beautified with various kinds of precious stones, the first was jasper, the second sapphire,
the third chalcedony, the fourth emerald, the fifth sardonyx, the sixth sardius,

REVELATION 21:20
20 the seventh chrysolite, the eighth beryl, the ninth topaz, the tenth chrysoprase, the eleventh jacinth, the twelfth amethyst.

REVELATION 21:21
21 And the twelve gates were twelve pearls; each of them consisting of a single pearl. And the main street of the city was made of pure gold,
resembling transparent glass.

REVELATION 21:22
22 I saw no sanctuary in the city, for the Lord God, the Ruler of all, is its Sanctuary, and so is the Lamb.

REVELATION 21:23
23 Nor has the city any need of the sun or of the moon, to give it light; for the glory of God has shone upon it and its lamp is the Lamb.

REVELATION 21:24
24 The nations will live their lives by its light; and the kings of the earth are to bring their glory into it.

REVELATION 21:25
25 And in the daytime (for there will be no night there) the gates will never be closed;

REVELATION 21:26
26 and the glory and honor of the nations shall be brought into it.

REVELATION 21:27
27 And no unclean thing shall ever enter it, nor any one who is guilty of base conduct or tells lies, but only they whose names stand recorded in the
Lamb's Book of Life.

CHAPTER 22

REVELATION 22:1
1 Then he showed me the river of the Water of Life, bright as crystal, issuing from the throne of God and of the Lamb.

REVELATION 22:2
2 On either side of the river, midway between it and the main street of the city, was the Tree of Life. It produced twelve kinds of fruit, yielding a fresh
crop month by month, and the leaves of the tree served as medicine for the nations.

REVELATION 22:3
3 "In future there will be no curse," he said, "but the throne of God and of the Lamb will be in that city. And His servants will render Him holy service
and will see His face,

REVELATION 22:4
4 and His name will be on their foreheads.

REVELATION 22:5
5 And there will be no night there; and they have no need of lamplight or sunlight, for the Lord God will shine upon them, and they will be kings
until the Ages of the Ages."

REVELATION 22:6
6 And he said to me, "These words are trustworthy and true; and the Lord, the God of the spirits of the Prophets, sent His angel to make known to
His servants the things which must soon happen.

REVELATION 22:7
7 'I am coming quickly.' Blessed is he who is mindful of the predictions contained in this book."

REVELATION 22:8
8Copyright (c) 2005-2009,
  I John heard            Infobase
                and saw these      Media
                              things; andCorp.
                                         when I had heard and seen them, I fell at the feet of the angel who was showing me themPage   470 / him.
                                                                                                                                 - to worship 567

REVELATION 22:9
REVELATION 22:7
7 'I am coming quickly.' Blessed is he who is mindful of the predictions contained in this book."

REVELATION 22:8
8 I John heard and saw these things; and when I had heard and seen them, I fell at the feet of the angel who was showing me them - to worship him.

REVELATION 22:9
9 But he said to me, "Oh, do not do that. I am a fellow bondservant of yours, and a fellow bondservant of your brethren the Prophets and of those
who are mindful of the teachings of this book. Worship God."

REVELATION 22:10
10 "Make no secret," he added, "of the meaning of the predictions contained in this book; for the time for their fulfillment is now close at hand.

REVELATION 22:11
11 Let the dishonest man act dishonestly still; let the filthy make himself filthy still; let the righteous practise righteousness still; and let the holy be
made holy still."

REVELATION 22:12
12 "I am coming quickly; and My reward is with Me, that I may requite every man in accordance with what his conduct has been.

REVELATION 22:13
13 I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End.

REVELATION 22:14
14 Blessed are those who wash their robes clean, that they may have a right to the Tree of Life, and may go through the gates into the city.

REVELATION 22:15
15 The unclean are shut out, and so are all who practise magic, all fornicators, all murderers, and those who worship idols, and every one who loves
falsehood and tells lies.

REVELATION 22:16
16 "I Jesus have sent My angel for him solemnly to declare these things to you among the Churches. I am the Root and the offspring of David, the
bright Morning Star.

REVELATION 22:17
17 The Spirit and the Bride say, 'Come;' and whoever hears, let him say, 'Come;' and let those who are thirsty come. Whoever will, let him take the
Water of Life, without payment.

REVELATION 22:18
18 "I solemnly declare to every one who hears the words of the prophecy contained in this book, that if any one adds to those words, God will add to
him the plagues spoken of in this book;

REVELATION 22:19
19 and that if any one takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God will take from him his share in the Tree of Life and in the holy
city - the things described in this book.

REVELATION 22:20
20 "He who solemnly declares all this says, "'Yes, I am coming quickly.'" Amen. Come, Lord Jesus.

REVELATION 22:21
21 The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God's people.

Chapter XV

When Natasha opened Prince Andrew's door with a familiar movement and let Princess Mary pass into the room before her, the princess felt the sobs in her throat.
Hard as she had tried to prepare herself, and now tried to remain tranquil, she knew that she would be unable to look at him without tears.

The princess understood what Natasha had meant by the words: "two days ago this suddenly happened." She understood those words to mean that he had suddenly
softened and that this softening and gentleness were signs of approaching death. As she stepped to the door she already saw in imagination Andrew's face as she
remembered it in childhood, a gentle, mild, sympathetic face which he had rarely shown, and which therefore affected her very strongly. She was sure he would speak
soft, tender words to her such as her father had uttered before his death, and that she would not be able to bear it and would burst into sobs in his presence. Yet
sooner or later it had to be, and she went in. The sobs rose higher and higher in her throat as she more and more clearly distinguished his form and her shortsighted eyes
tried to make out his features, and then she saw his face and met his gaze.

He was lying in a squirrel-fur dressing gown on a divan, surrounded by pillows. He was thin and pale. In one thin, translucently white hand he held a handkerchief, while
with the other he stroked the delicate mustache he had grown, moving his fingers slowly. His eyes gazed at them as they entered.

On seeing his face and meeting his eyes Princess Mary's pace suddenly slackened, she felt her tears dry up and her sobs ceased. She suddenly felt guilty and grew timid
on catching the expression of his face and eyes.

"But in what am I to blame?" she asked herself. And his cold, stern look replied: "Because you are alive and thinking of the living, while I..."

In the deep the deep gaze that seemed to look not outwards but inwards there was an almost hostile expression as he slowly regarded his sister and Natasha.

He kissed his
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"How are you, Mary? How did you manage to get here?" said he in a voice as calm and aloof as his look.
In the deep the deep gaze that seemed to look not outwards but inwards there was an almost hostile expression as he slowly regarded his sister and Natasha.

He kissed his sister, holding her hand in his as was their wont.

"How are you, Mary? How did you manage to get here?" said he in a voice as calm and aloof as his look.

Had he screamed in agony, that scream would not have struck such horror into Princess Mary's heart as the tone of his voice.

"And have you brought little Nicholas?" he asked in the same slow, quiet manner and with an obvious effort to remember.

"How are you now?" said Princess Mary, herself surprised at what she was saying.

"That, my dear, you must ask the doctor," he replied, and again making an evident effort to be affectionate, he said with his lips only (his words clearly did not
correspond to his thoughts):

"Merci, chere amie, d'etre venue."

Princess Mary pressed his hand. The pressure made him wince just perceptibly. He was silent, and she did not know what to say. She now understood what had
happened to him two days before. In his words, his tone, and especially in that calm, almost antagonistic look could be felt an estrangement from everything belonging
to this world, terrible in one who is alive. Evidently only with an effort did he understand anything living; but it was obvious that he failed to understand, not because he
lacked the power to do so but because he understood something else-something the living did not and could not understand-and which wholly occupied his mind.

"There, you see how strangely fate has brought us together," said he, breaking the silence and pointing to Natasha. "She looks after me all the time."

Princess Mary heard him and did not understand how he could say such a thing. He, the sensitive, tender Prince Andrew, how could he say that, before her whom he
loved and who loved him? Had he expected to live he could not have said those words in that offensively cold tone. If he had not known that he was dying, how could
he have failed to pity her and how could he speak like that in her presence? The only explanation was that he was indifferent, because something else, much more
important, had been revealed to him.

The conversation was cold and disconnected and continually broke off.

"Mary came by way of Ryazan," said Natasha.

Prince Andrew did not notice that she called his sister Mary, and only after calling her so in his presence did Natasha notice it herself.

"Really?" he asked.

"They told her that all Moscow has been burned down, and that..."

Natasha stopped. It was impossible to talk. It was plain that he was making an effort to listen, but could not do so.

"Yes, they say it's burned," he said. "It's a great pity," and he gazed straight before him, absently stroking his mustache with his fingers.

"And so you have met Count Nicholas, Mary?" Prince Andrew suddenly said, evidently wishing to speak pleasantly to them. "He wrote here that he took a great liking
to you," he went on simply and calmly, evidently unable to understand all the complex significance his words had for living people. "If you liked him too, it would be a
good thing for you to get married," he added rather more quickly, as if pleased at having found words he had long been seeking.

Princess Mary heard his words but they had no meaning for her, except as a proof of how far away he now was from everything living.

"Why talk of me?" she said quietly and glanced at Natasha.

Natasha, who felt her glance, did not look at her. All three were again silent.

"Andrew, would you like..." Princess Mary suddenly said in a trembling voice, "would you like to see little Nicholas? He is always talking about you!"

Prince Andrew smiled just perceptibly and for the first time, but Princess Mary, who knew his face so well, saw with horror that he did not smile with pleasure or
affection for his son, but with quiet, gentle irony because he thought she was trying what she believed to be the last means of arousing him.

"Yes, I shall be very glad to see him. Is he quite well?"

When little Nicholas was brought into Prince Andrew's room he looked at his father with frightened eyes, but did not cry, because no one else was crying. Prince
Andrew kissed him and evidently did not know what to say to him.

When Nicholas had been led away, Princess Mary again went up to her brother, kissed him, and unable to restrain her tears any longer began to cry.

He looked at her attentively.

"Is it about Nicholas?" he asked.

Princess Mary nodded her head, weeping.

"Mary, you know the Gosp..." but he broke off.

"What did you say?"

"Nothing. You mustn't cry here," he said, looking at her with the same cold expression.
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When Princess Mary began to cry, he understood that she was crying at the thought that little Nicholas would be left without a father. With a great effort he tried to
return to life and to see things from their point of view.
"What did you say?"

"Nothing. You mustn't cry here," he said, looking at her with the same cold expression.

When Princess Mary began to cry, he understood that she was crying at the thought that little Nicholas would be left without a father. With a great effort he tried to
return to life and to see things from their point of view.

"Yes, to them it must seem sad!" he thought. "But how simple it is.

"The fowls of the air sow not, neither do they reap, yet your Father feedeth them," he said to himself and wished to say to Princess Mary; "but no, they will take it their
own way, they won't understand! They can't understand that all those feelings they prize so-all our feelings, all those ideas that seem so important to us, are
unnecessary. We cannot understand one another," and he remained silent.

Prince Andrew's little son was seven. He could scarcely read, and knew nothing. After that day he lived through many things, gaining knowledge, observation, and
experience, but had he possessed all the faculties he afterwards acquired, he could not have had a better or more profound understanding of the meaning of the scene
he had witnessed between his father, Mary, and Natasha, than he had then. He understood it completely, and, leaving the room without crying, went silently up to
Natasha who had come out with him and looked shyly at her with his beautiful, thoughtful eyes, then his uplifted, rosy upper lip trembled and leaning his head against
her he began to cry.

After that he avoided Dessalles and the countess who caressed him and either sat alone or came timidly to Princess Mary, or to Natasha of whom he seemed even
fonder than of his aunt, and clung to them quietly and shyly.

When Princess Mary had left Prince Andrew she fully understood what Natasha's face had told her. She did not speak any more to Natasha of hopes of saving his life.
She took turns with her beside his sofa, and did not cry any more, but prayed continually, turning in soul to that Eternal and Unfathomable, whose presence above the
dying man was now so evident.

Chapter XVI

Not only did Prince Andrew know he would die, but he felt that he was dying and was already half dead. He was conscious of an aloofness from everything earthly and
a strange and joyous lightness of existence. Without haste or agitation he awaited what was coming. That inexorable, eternal, distant, and unknown the presence of
which he had felt continually all his life-was now near to him and, by the strange lightness he experienced, almost comprehensible and palpable...

Formerly he had feared the end. He had twice experienced that terribly tormenting fear of death-the end-but now he no longer understood that fear.

He had felt it for the first time when the shell spun like a top before him, and he looked at the fallow field, the bushes, and the sky, and knew that he was face to face
with death. When he came to himself after being wounded and the flower of eternal, unfettered love had instantly unfolded itself in his soul as if freed from the bondage
of life that had restrained it, he no longer feared death and ceased to think about it.

During the hours of solitude, suffering, and partial delirium he spent after he was wounded, the more deeply he penetrated into the new principle of eternal love revealed
to him, the more he unconsciously detached himself from earthly life. To love everything and everybody and always to sacrifice oneself for love meant not to love
anyone, not to live this earthly life. And the more imbued he became with that principle of love, the more he renounced life and the more completely he destroyed that
dreadful barrier which-in the absence of such love-stands between life and death. When during those first days he remembered that he would have to die, he said to
himself: "Well, what of it? So much the better!"

But after the night in Mytishchi when, half delirious, he had seen her for whom he longed appear before him and, having pressed her hand to his lips, had shed gentle,
happy tears, love for a particular woman again crept unobserved into his heart and once more bound him to life. And joyful and agitating thoughts began to occupy his
mind. Recalling the moment at the ambulance station when he had seen Kuragin, he could not now regain the feeling he then had, but was tormented by the question
whether Kuragin was alive. And he dared not inquire.

His illness pursued its normal physical course, but what Natasha referred to when she said: "This suddenly happened," had occurred two days before Princess Mary
arrived. It was the last spiritual struggle between life and death, in which death gained the victory. It was the unexpected realization of the fact that he still valued life as
presented to him in the form of his love for Natasha, and a last, though ultimately vanquished, attack of terror before the unknown.

It was evening. As usual after dinner he was slightly feverish, and his thoughts were preternaturally clear. Sonya was sitting by the table. He began to doze. Suddenly a
feeling of happiness seized him.

"Ah, she has come!" thought he.

And so it was: in Sonya's place sat Natasha who had just come in noiselessly.

Since she had begun looking after him, he had always experienced this physical consciousness of her nearness. She was sitting in an armchair placed sideways,
screening the light of the candle from him, and was knitting a stocking. She had learned to knit stockings since Prince Andrew had casually mentioned that no one
nursed the sick so well as old nurses who knit stockings, and that there is something soothing in the knitting of stockings. The needles clicked lightly in her slender,
rapidly moving hands, and he could clearly see the thoughtful profile of her drooping face. She moved, and the ball rolled off her knees. She started, glanced round at
him, and screening the candle with her hand stooped carefully with a supple and exact movement, picked up the ball, and regained her former position.

He looked at her without moving and saw that she wanted to draw a deep breath after stooping, but refrained from doing so and breathed cautiously.

At the Troitsa monastery they had spoken of the past, and he had told her that if he lived he would always thank God for his wound which had brought them together
again, but after that they never spoke of the future.

"Can it or can it not be?" he now thought as he looked at her and listened to the light click of the steel needles. "Can fate have brought me to her so strangely only for
me to die?... Is it possible that the truth of life has been revealed to me only to show me that I have spent my life in falsity? I love her more than anything in the world!
But what am I to do if I love her?" he thought, and he involuntarily groaned, from a habit acquired during his sufferings.

On hearing that sound Natasha put down the stocking, leaned nearer to him, and suddenly, noticing his shining eyes, stepped lightly up to him and bent over him.
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"You are not asleep?"

"No, I have been looking at you a long time. I felt you come in. No one else gives me that sense of soft tranquillity that you do... that light. I want to weep for joy."
But what am I to do if I love her?" he thought, and he involuntarily groaned, from a habit acquired during his sufferings.

On hearing that sound Natasha put down the stocking, leaned nearer to him, and suddenly, noticing his shining eyes, stepped lightly up to him and bent over him.

"You are not asleep?"

"No, I have been looking at you a long time. I felt you come in. No one else gives me that sense of soft tranquillity that you do... that light. I want to weep for joy."

Natasha drew closer to him. Her face shone with rapturous joy.

"Natasha, I love you too much! More than anything in the world."

"And I!"-She turned away for an instant. "Why too much?" she asked.

"Why too much?... Well, what do you, what do you feel in your soul, your whole soul-shall I live? What do you think?"

"I am sure of it, sure!" Natasha almost shouted, taking hold of both his hands with a passionate movement.

He remained silent awhile.

"How good it would be!" and taking her hand he kissed it.

Natasha felt happy and agitated, but at once remembered that this would not do and that he had to be quiet.

"But you have not slept," she said, repressing her joy. "Try to sleep... please!"

He pressed her hand and released it, and she went back to the candle and sat down again in her former position. Twice she turned and looked at him, and her eyes met
his beaming at her. She set herself a task on her stocking and resolved not to turn round till it was finished.

Soon he really shut his eyes and fell asleep. He did not sleep long and suddenly awoke with a start and in a cold perspiration.

As he fell asleep he had still been thinking of the subject that now always occupied his mind-about life and death, and chiefly about death. He felt himself nearer to it.

"Love? What is love?" he thought.

"Love hinders death. Love is life. All, everything that I understand, I understand only because I love. Everything is, everything exists, only because I love. Everything is
united by it alone. Love is God, and to die means that I, a particle of love, shall return to the general and eternal source." These thoughts seemed to him comforting. But
they were only thoughts. Something was lacking in them, they were not clear, they were too one-sidedly personal and brain-spun. And there was the former agitation
and obscurity. He fell asleep.

He dreamed that he was lying in the room he really was in, but that he was quite well and unwounded. Many various, indifferent, and insignificant people appeared
before him. He talked to them and discussed something trivial. They were preparing to go away somewhere. Prince Andrew dimly realized that all this was trivial and
that he had more important cares, but he continued to speak, surprising them by empty witticisms. Gradually, unnoticed, all these persons began to disappear and a
single question, that of the closed door, superseded all else. He rose and went to the door to bolt and lock it. Everything depended on whether he was, or was not, in
time to lock it. He went, and tried to hurry, but his legs refused to move and he knew he would not be in time to lock the door though he painfully strained all his
powers. He was seized by an agonizing fear. And that fear was the fear of death. It stood behind the door. But just when he was clumsily creeping toward the door,
that dreadful something on the other side was already pressing against it and forcing its way in. Something not human-death-was breaking in through that door, and had
to be kept out. He seized the door, making a final effort to hold it back-to lock it was no longer possible-but his efforts were weak and clumsy and the door, pushed
from behind by that terror, opened and closed again.

Once again it pushed from outside. His last superhuman efforts were vain and both halves of the door noiselessly opened. It entered, and it was death, and Prince
Andrew died.

But at the instant he died, Prince Andrew remembered that he was asleep, and at the very instant he died, having made an effort, he awoke.

"Yes, it was death! I died-and woke up. Yes, death is an awakening!" And all at once it grew light in his soul and the veil that had till then concealed the unknown was
lifted from his spiritual vision. He felt as if powers till then confined within him had been liberated, and that strange lightness did not again leave him.

When, waking in a cold perspiration, he moved on the divan, Natasha went up and asked him what was the matter. He did not answer and looked at her strangely, not
understanding.

That was what had happened to him two days before Princess Mary's arrival. From that day, as the doctor expressed it, the wasting fever assumed a malignant
character, but what the doctor said did not interest Natasha, she saw the terrible moral symptoms which to her were more convincing.

From that day an awakening from life came to Prince Andrew together with his awakening from sleep. And compared to the duration of life it did not seem to him
slower than an awakening from sleep compared to the duration of a dream.

There was nothing terrible or violent in this comparatively slow awakening.

His last days and hours passed in an ordinary and simple way. Both Princess Mary and Natasha, who did not leave him, felt this. They did not weep or shudder and
during these last days they themselves felt that they were not attending on him (he was no longer there, he had left them) but on what reminded them most closely of
him-his body. Both felt this so strongly that the outward and terrible side of death did not affect them and they did not feel it necessary to foment their grief. Neither in
his presence nor out of it did they weep, nor did they ever talk to one another about him. They felt that they could not express in words what they understood.

They both saw that he was sinking slowly and quietly, deeper and deeper, away from them, and they both knew that this had to be so and that it was right.

He confessed, and received communion: everyone came to take leave of him. When they brought his son to him, he pressed his lips to the boy's and turned away, not
because
 Copyrighthe felt it hard and sad
             (c) 2005-2009,       (Princess
                               Infobase     MaryCorp.
                                         Media   and Natasha understood that) but simply because he thought it was all that was required of him, butPage
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to bless the boy, he did what was demanded and looked round as if asking whether there was anything else he should do.

When the last convulsions of the body, which the spirit was leaving, occurred, Princess Mary and Natasha were present.
They both saw that he was sinking slowly and quietly, deeper and deeper, away from them, and they both knew that this had to be so and that it was right.

He confessed, and received communion: everyone came to take leave of him. When they brought his son to him, he pressed his lips to the boy's and turned away, not
because he felt it hard and sad (Princess Mary and Natasha understood that) but simply because he thought it was all that was required of him, but when they told him
to bless the boy, he did what was demanded and looked round as if asking whether there was anything else he should do.

When the last convulsions of the body, which the spirit was leaving, occurred, Princess Mary and Natasha were present.

"Is it over?" said Princess Mary when his body had for a few minutes lain motionless, growing cold before them. Natasha went up, looked at the dead eyes, and
hastened to close them. She closed them but did not kiss them, but clung to that which reminded her most nearly of him-his body.

"Where has he gone? Where is he now?..."

When the body, washed and dressed, lay in the coffin on a table, everyone came to take leave of him and they all wept.

Little Nicholas cried because his heart was rent by painful perplexity. The countess and Sonya cried from pity for Natasha and because he was no more. The old count
cried because he felt that before long, he, too, must take the same terrible step.

Natasha and Princess Mary also wept now, but not because of their own personal grief; they wept with a reverent and softening emotion which had taken possession
of their souls at the consciousness of the simple and solemn mystery of death that had been accomplished in their presence.

Book Thirteen-1812
Chapter I

Man's mind cannot grasp the causes of events in their completeness, but the desire to find those causes is implanted in man's soul. And without considering the
multiplicity and complexity of the conditions any one of which taken separately may seem to be the cause, he snatches at the first approximation to a cause that seems
to him intelligible and says: "This is the cause!" In historical events (where the actions of men are the subject of observation) the first and most primitive approximation to
present itself was the will of the gods and, after that, the will of those who stood in the most prominent position-the heroes of history. But we need only penetrate to the
essence of any historic event-which lies in the activity of the general mass of men who take part in it-to be convinced that the will of the historic hero does not control
the actions of the mass but is itself continually controlled. It may seem to be a matter of indifference whether we understand the meaning of historical events this way or
that; yet there is the same difference between a man who says that the people of the West moved on the East because Napoleon wished it and a man who says that this
happened because it had to happen, as there is between those who declared that the earth was stationary and that the planets moved round it and those who admitted
that they did not know what upheld the earth, but knew there were laws directing its movement and that of the other planets. There is, and can be, no cause of an
historical event except the one cause of all causes. But there are laws directing events, and some of these laws are known to us while we are conscious of others we
cannot comprehend. The discovery of these laws is only possible when possible when we have quite abandoned the attempt to find the cause in the will of some one
man, just as the discovery of the laws of the motion of the planets was possible only when men abandoned the conception of the fixity of the earth.

The historians consider that, next to the battle of Borodino and the occupation of Moscow by the enemy and its destruction by fire, the most important episode of the
war of 1812 was the movement of the Russian army from the Ryazana to the Kaluga road and to the Tarutino camp-the so-called flank march across the Krasnaya
Pakhra River. They ascribe the glory of that achievement of genius to different men and dispute as to whom the honor is due. Even foreign historians, including the
French, acknowledge the genius of the Russian commanders when they speak of that flank march. But it is hard to understand why military writers, and following them
others, consider this flank march to be the profound conception of some one man who saved Russia and destroyed Napoleon. In the first place it is hard to understand
where the profundity and genius of this movement lay, for not much mental effort was needed to see that the best position for an army when it is not being attacked is
where there are most provisions; and even a dull boy of thirteen could have guessed that the best position for an army after its retreat from Moscow in 1812 was on the
Kaluga road. So it is impossible to understand by what reasoning the historians reach the conclusion that this maneuver was a profound one. And it is even more
difficult to understand just why they think that this maneuver was calculated to save Russia and destroy the French; for this flank march, had it been preceded,
accompanied, or followed by other circumstances, might have proved ruinous to the Russians and salutary for the French. If the position of the Russian army really
began to improve from the time of that march, it does not at all follow that the march was the cause of it.

That flank march might not only have failed to give any advantage to the Russian army, but might in other circumstances have led to its destruction. What would have
happened had Moscow not burned down? If Murat had not lost sight of the Russians? If Napoleon had not remained inactive? If the Russian army at Krasnaya Pakhra
had given battle as Bennigsen and Barclay advised? What would have happened had the French attacked the Russians while they were marching beyond the Pakhra?
What would have happened if on approaching Tarutino, Napoleon had attacked the Russians with but a tenth of the energy he had shown when he attacked them at
Smolensk? What would have happened had the French moved on Petersburg?... In any of these eventualities the flank march that brought salvation might have proved
disastrous.

The third and most incomprehensible thing is that people studying history deliberately avoid seeing that this flank march cannot be attributed to any one man, that no one
ever foresaw it, and that in reality, like the retreat from Fili, it did not suggest itself to anyone in its entirety, but resulted-moment by moment, step by step, event by
event-from an endless number of most diverse circumstances and was only seen in its entirety when it had been accomplished and belonged to the past.

At the council at Fili the prevailing thought in the minds of the Russian commanders was the one naturally suggesting itself, namely, a direct retreat by the Nizhni road. In
proof of this there is the fact that the majority of the council voted for such a retreat, and above all there is the well-known conversation after the council, between the
commander in chief and Lanskoy, who was in charge of the commissariat department. Lanskoy informed the commander in chief that the army supplies were for the
most part stored along the Oka in the Tula and Ryazan provinces, and that if they retreated on Nizhni the army would be separated from its supplies by the broad river
Oka, which cannot be crossed early in winter. This was the first indication of the necessity of deviating from what had previously seemed the most natural course-a
direct retreat on Nizhni-Novgorod. The army turned more to the south, along the Ryazan road and nearer to its supplies. Subsequently the in activity of the French
(who even lost sight of the Russian army), concern for the safety of the arsenal at Tula, and especially the advantages of drawing nearer to its supplies caused the army
to turn still further south to the Tula road. Having crossed over, by a forced march, to the Tula road beyond the Pakhra, the Russian commanders intended to remain at
Podolsk and had no thought of the Tarutino position; but innumerable circumstances and the reappearance of French troops who had for a time lost touch with the
Russians, and projects of giving battle, and above all the abundance of provisions in Kaluga province, obliged our army to turn still more to the south and to cross from
the Tula to the Kaluga road and go to Tarutino, which was between the roads along which those supplies lay. Just as it is impossible to say when it was decided to
abandon Moscow, so it is impossible to say precisely when, or by whom, it was decided to move to Tarutino. Only when the army had got there, as the result of
innumerable and varying forces, did people begin to assure themselves that they had desired this movement and long ago foreseen its result.

Chapter II
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The famous flank movement merely consisted in this: after the advance of the French had ceased, the Russian army, which had been continually retreating straight back
from the invaders, deviated from that direct course and, not finding itself pursued, was naturally drawn toward the district where supplies were abundant.
innumerable and varying forces, did people begin to assure themselves that they had desired this movement and long ago foreseen its result.

Chapter II

The famous flank movement merely consisted in this: after the advance of the French had ceased, the Russian army, which had been continually retreating straight back
from the invaders, deviated from that direct course and, not finding itself pursued, was naturally drawn toward the district where supplies were abundant.

If instead of imagining to ourselves commanders of genius leading the Russian army, we picture that army without any leaders, it could not have done anything but make
a return movement toward Moscow, describing an arc in the direction where most provisions were to be found and where the country was richest.

That movement from the Nizhni to the Ryazan, Tula, and Kaluga roads was so natural that even the Russian marauders moved in that direction, and demands were sent
from Petersburg for Kutuzov to take his army that way. At Tarutino Kutuzov received what was almost a reprimand from the Emperor for having moved his army along
the Ryazan road, and the Emperor's letter indicated to him the very position he had already occupied near Kaluga.

Having rolled like a ball in the direction of the impetus given by the whole campaign and by the battle of Borodino, the Russian army-when the strength of that impetus
was exhausted and no fresh push was received-assumed the position natural to it.

Kutuzov's merit lay, not in any strategic maneuver of genius, as it is called, but in the fact that he alone understood the significance of what had happened. He alone then
understood the meaning of the French army's inactivity, he alone continued to assert that the battle of Borodino had been a victory, he alone-who as commander in
chief might have been expected to be eager to attack-employed his whole strength to restrain the Russian army from useless engagements.

The beast wounded at Borodino was lying where the fleeing hunter had left him; but whether he was still alive, whether he was strong and merely lying low, the hunter
did not know. Suddenly the beast was heard to moan.

The moan of that wounded beast (the French army) which betrayed its calamitous condition was the sending of Lauriston to Kutuzov's camp with overtures for peace.

Napoleon, with his usual assurance that whatever entered his head was right, wrote to Kutuzov the first words that occurred to him, though they were meaningless.

MONSIEUR LE PRINCE KOUTOUZOV: I am sending one of my adjutants-general to discuss several interesting questions with you. I beg your Highness to credit
what he says to you, especially when he expresses the sentiment of esteem and special regard I have long entertained for your person. This letter having no other
object, I pray God, monsieur le Prince Koutouzov, to keep you in His holy and gracious protection!

NAPOLEON

MOSCOW, OCTOBER 30, 1812

Kutuzov replied: "I should be cursed by posterity were I looked on as the initiator of a settlement of any sort. Such is the present spirit of my nation." But he continued
to exert all his powers to restrain his troops from attacking.

During the month that the French troops were pillaging in Moscow and the Russian troops were quietly encamped at Tarutino, a change had taken place in the relative
strength of the two armies-both in spirit and in number-as a result of which the superiority had passed to the Russian side. Though the condition and numbers of the
French army were unknown to the Russians, as soon as that change occurred the need of attacking at once showed itself by countless signs. These signs were:
Lauriston's mission; the abundance of provisions at Tarutino; the reports coming in from all sides of the inactivity and disorder of the French; the flow of recruits to our
regiments; the fine weather; the long rest the Russian soldiers had enjoyed, and the impatience to do what they had been assembled for, which usually shows itself in an
army that has been resting; curiosity as to what the French army, so long lost sight of, was doing; the boldness with which our outposts now scouted close up to the
French stationed at Tarutino; the news of easy successes gained by peasants and guerrilla troops over the French, the envy aroused by this; the desire for revenge that
lay in the heart of every Russian as long as the French were in Moscow, and (above all) a dim consciousness in every soldier's mind that the relative strength of the
armies had changed and that the advantage was now on our side. There was a substantial change in the relative strength, and an advance had become inevitable. And at
once, as a clock begins to strike and chime as soon as the minute hand has completed a full circle, this change was shown by an increased activity, whirring, and
chiming in the higher spheres.

Chapter III

The Russian army was commanded by Kutuzov and his staff, and also by the Emperor from Petersburg. Before the news of the abandonment of Moscow had been
received in Petersburg, a detailed plan of the whole campaign had been drawn up and sent to Kutuzov for his guidance. Though this plan had been drawn up on the
supposition that Moscow was still in our hands, it was approved by the staff and accepted as a basis for action. Kutuzov only replied that movements arranged from a
distance were always difficult to execute. So fresh instructions were sent for the solution of difficulties that might be encountered, as well as fresh people who were to
watch Kutuzov's actions and report upon them.

Besides this, the whole staff of the Russian army was now reorganized. The posts left vacant by Bagration, who had been killed, and by Barclay, who had gone away in
dudgeon, had to be filled. Very serious consideration was given to the question whether it would be better to put A in B's place and B in D's, or on the contrary to put
D in A's place, and so on-as if anything more than A's or B's satisfaction depended on this.

As a result of the hostility between Kutuzov and Bennigsen, his Chief of Staff, the presence of confidential representatives of the Emperor, and these transfers, a more
than usually complicated play of parties was going on among the staff of the army. A was undermining B, D was undermining C, and so on in all possible combinations
and permutations. In all these plottings the subject of intrigue was generally the conduct of the war, which all these men believed they were directing; but this affair of the
war went on independently of them, as it had to go: that is, never in the way people devised, but flowing always from the essential attitude of the masses. Only in the
highest spheres did all these schemes, crossings, and interminglings appear to be a true reflection of what had to happen.

Prince Michael Ilarionovich! (wrote the Emperor on the second of October in a letter that reached Kutuzov after the battle at Tarutino) Since September 2 Moscow
has been in the hands of the enemy. Your last reports were written on the twentieth, and during all this time not only has no action been taken against the enemy or for
the relief of the ancient capital, but according to your last report you have even retreated farther. Serpukhov is already occupied by an enemy detachment and Tula with
its famous arsenal so indispensable to the army, is in danger. From General Wintzingerode's reports, I see that an enemy corps of ten thousand men is moving on the
Petersburg road. Another corps of several thousand men is moving on Dmitrov. A third has advanced along the Vladimir road, and a fourth, rather considerable
detachment is stationed between Ruza and Mozhaysk. Napoleon himself was in Moscow as late as the twenty-fifth. In view of all this information, when the enemy has
scattered his forces in large detachments, and with Napoleon and his Guards in Moscow, is it possible that the enemy's forces confronting you are so considerable as
not to allow of your taking the offensive? On the contrary, he is probably pursuing you with detachments, or at most with an army corps much weaker than the army
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entrusted to you. It would seem that, availing yourself of these circumstances, you might advantageously attack a weaker one and annihilate him, orPage   at least476
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to retreat, retaining in our hands an important part of the provinces now occupied by the enemy, and thereby averting danger from Tula and other towns in the interior.
You will be responsible if the enemy is able to direct a force of any size against Petersburg to threaten this capital in which it has not been possible to retain many
Petersburg road. Another corps of several thousand men is moving on Dmitrov. A third has advanced along the Vladimir road, and a fourth, rather considerable
detachment is stationed between Ruza and Mozhaysk. Napoleon himself was in Moscow as late as the twenty-fifth. In view of all this information, when the enemy has
scattered his forces in large detachments, and with Napoleon and his Guards in Moscow, is it possible that the enemy's forces confronting you are so considerable as
not to allow of your taking the offensive? On the contrary, he is probably pursuing you with detachments, or at most with an army corps much weaker than the army
entrusted to you. It would seem that, availing yourself of these circumstances, you might advantageously attack a weaker one and annihilate him, or at least oblige him
to retreat, retaining in our hands an important part of the provinces now occupied by the enemy, and thereby averting danger from Tula and other towns in the interior.
You will be responsible if the enemy is able to direct a force of any size against Petersburg to threaten this capital in which it has not been possible to retain many
troops; for with the army entrusted to you, and acting with resolution and energy, you have ample means to avert this fresh calamity. Remember that you have still to
answer to our offended country for the loss of Moscow. You have experienced my readiness to reward you. That readiness will not weaken in me, but I and Russia
have a right to expect from you all the zeal, firmness, and success which your intellect, military talent, and the courage of the troops you command justify us in
expecting.

But by the time this letter, which proved that the real relation of the forces had already made itself felt in Petersburg, was dispatched, Kutuzov had found himself unable
any longer to restrain the army he commanded from attacking and a battle had taken place.

On the second of October a Cossack, Shapovalov, who was out scouting, killed one hare and wounded another. Following the wounded hare he made his way far into
the forest and came upon the left flank of Murat's army, encamped there without any precautions. The Cossack laughingly told his comrades how he had almost fallen
into the hands of the French. A cornet, hearing the story, informed his commander.

The Cossack was sent for and questioned. The Cossack officers wished to take advantage of this chance to capture some horses, but one of the superior officers, who
was acquainted with the higher authorities, reported the incident to a general on the staff. The state of things on the staff had of late been exceedingly strained. Ermolov
had been to see Bennigsen a few days previously and had entreated him to use his influence with the commander in chief to induce him to take the offensive.

"If I did not know you I should think you did not want what you are asking for. I need only advise anything and his Highness is sure to do the opposite," replied
Bennigsen.

The Cossack's report, confirmed by horse patrols who were sent out, was the final proof that events had matured. The tightly coiled spring was released, the clock
began to whirr and the chimes to play. Despite all his supposed power, his intellect, his experience, and his knowledge of men, Kutuzov-having taken into consideration
the Cossack's report, a note from Bennigsen who sent personal reports to the Emperor, the wishes he supposed the Emperor to hold, and the fact that all the generals
expressed the same wish-could no longer check the inevitable movement, and gave the order to do what he regarded as useless and harmful-gave his approval, that is,
to the accomplished fact.

Chapter IV

Bennigsen's note and the Cossack's information that the left flank of the French was unguarded were merely final indications that it was necessary to order an attack,
and it was fixed for the fifth of October.

On the morning of the fourth of October Kutuzov signed the dispositions. Toll read them to Ermolov, asking him to attend to the further arrangements.

"All right-all right. I haven't time just now," replied Ermolov, and left the hut.

The dispositions drawn up by Toll were very good. As in the Austerlitz dispositions, it was written-though not in German this time:

"The First Column will march here and here," "the Second Column will march there and there," and so on; and on paper, all these columns arrived at their places at the
appointed time and destroyed the enemy. Everything had been admirably thought out as is usual in dispositions, and as is always the case, not a single column reached
its place at the appointed time.

When the necessary number of copies of the dispositions had been prepared, an officer was summoned and sent to deliver them to Ermolov to deal with. A young
officer of the Horse Guards, Kutuzov's orderly, pleased at the importance of the mission entrusted to him, went to Ermolov's quarters.

"Gone away," said Ermolov's orderly.

The officer of the Horse Guards went to a general with whom Ermolov was often to be found.

"No, and the general's out too."

The officer, mounting his horse, rode off to someone else.

"No, he's gone out."

"If only they don't make me responsible for this delay! What a nuisance it is!" thought the officer, and he rode round the whole camp. One man said he had seen
Ermolov ride past with some other generals, others said he must have returned home. The officer searched till six o'clock in the evening without even stopping to eat.
Ermolov was nowhere to be found and no one knew where he was. The officer snatched a little food at a comrade's, and rode again to the vanguard to find
Miloradovich. Miloradovich too was away, but here he was told that he had gone to a ball at General Kikin's and that Ermolov was probably there too.

"But where is it?"

"Why, there, over at Echkino," said a Cossack officer, pointing to a country house in the far distance.

"What, outside our line?"

"They've put two regiments as outposts, and they're having such a spree there, it's awful! Two bands and three sets of singers!"

The officer rode out beyond our lines to Echkino. While still at a distance he heard as he rode the merry sounds of a soldier's dance song proceeding from the house.

"In the meadows... in the meadows!" he heard, accompanied by whistling and the sound of a torban, drowned every now and then by shouts. These sounds made his
spirits rise, but at the same time he was afraid that he would be blamed for not having executed sooner the important order entrusted to him. It was already past eight
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o'clock.  He (c)  2005-2009,
              dismounted   and Infobase  Media
                                went up into     Corp. of a large country house which had remained intact between the Russian and French forces. InPage
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                                                                                                                                                    the refreshment
room and the hall, footmen were bustling about with wine and viands. Groups of singers stood outside the windows. The officer was admitted and immediately saw all
the chief generals of the army together, and among them Ermolov's big imposing figure. They all had their coats unbuttoned and were standing in a semicircle with
The officer rode out beyond our lines to Echkino. While still at a distance he heard as he rode the merry sounds of a soldier's dance song proceeding from the house.

"In the meadows... in the meadows!" he heard, accompanied by whistling and the sound of a torban, drowned every now and then by shouts. These sounds made his
spirits rise, but at the same time he was afraid that he would be blamed for not having executed sooner the important order entrusted to him. It was already past eight
o'clock. He dismounted and went up into the porch of a large country house which had remained intact between the Russian and French forces. In the refreshment
room and the hall, footmen were bustling about with wine and viands. Groups of singers stood outside the windows. The officer was admitted and immediately saw all
the chief generals of the army together, and among them Ermolov's big imposing figure. They all had their coats unbuttoned and were standing in a semicircle with
flushed and animated faces, laughing loudly. In the middle of the room a short handsome general with a red face was dancing the trepak with much spirit and agility.

"Ha, ha, ha! Bravo, Nicholas Ivanych! Ha, ha, ha!"

The officer felt that by arriving with important orders at such a moment he was doubly to blame, and he would have preferred to wait; but one of the generals espied
him and, hearing what he had come about, informed Ermolov.

Ermolov came forward with a frown on his face and, hearing what the officer had to say, took the papers from him without a word.

"You think he went off just by chance?" said a comrade, who was on the staff that evening, to the officer of the Horse Guards, referring to Ermolov. "It was a trick. It
was done on purpose to get Konovnitsyn into trouble. You'll see what a mess there'll be tomorrow."

Chapter V

Next day the decrepit Kutuzov, having given orders to be called early, said his prayers, dressed, and, with an unpleasant consciousness of having to direct a battle he
did not approve of, got into his caleche and drove from Letashovka (a village three and a half miles from Tarutino) to the place where the attacking columns were to
meet. He sat in the caleche, dozing and waking up by turns, and listening for any sound of firing on the right as an indication that the action had begun. But all was still
quiet. A damp dull autumn morning was just dawning. On approaching Tarutino Kutuzov noticed cavalrymen leading their horses to water across the road along which
he was driving. Kutuzov looked at them searchingly, stopped his carriage, and inquired what regiment they belonged to. They belonged to a column that should have
been far in front and in ambush long before then. "It may be a mistake," thought the old commander in chief. But a little further on he saw infantry regiments with their
arms piled and the soldiers, only partly dressed, eating their rye porridge and carrying fuel. He sent for an officer. The officer reported that no order to advance had
been received.

"How! Not rec..." Kutuzov began, but checked himself immediately and sent for a senior officer. Getting out of his caleche, he waited with drooping head and breathing
heavily, pacing silently up and down. When Eykhen, the officer of the general staff whom he had summoned, appeared, Kutuzov went purple in the face, not because
that officer was to blame for the mistake, but because he was an object of sufficient importance for him to vent his wrath on. Trembling and panting the old man fell into
that state of fury in which he sometimes used to roll on the ground, and he fell upon Eykhen, threatening him with his hands, shouting and loading him with gross abuse.
Another man, Captain Brozin, who happened to turn up and who was not at all to blame, suffered the same fate.

"What sort of another blackguard are you? I'll have you shot! Scoundrels!" yelled Kutuzov in a hoarse voice, waving his arms and reeling.

He was suffering physically. He, the commander in chief, a Serene Highness who everybody said possessed powers such as no man had ever had in Russia, to be
placed in this position-made the laughingstock of the whole army! "I needn't have been in such a hurry to pray about today, or have kept awake thinking everything
over all night," thought he to himself. "When I was a chit of an officer no one would have dared to mock me so... and now!" He was in a state of physical suffering as if
from corporal punishment, and could not avoid expressing it by cries of anger and distress. But his strength soon began to fail him, and looking about him, conscious of
having said much that was amiss, he again got into his caleche and drove back in silence.

His wrath, once expended, did not return, and blinking feebly he listened to excuses and self-justifications (Ermolov did not come to see him till the next day) and to the
insistence of Bennigsen, Konovnitsyn, and Toll that the movement that had miscarried should be executed next day. And once more Kutuzov had to consent.

Chapter VI

Next day the troops assembled in their appointed places in the evening and advanced during the night. It was an autumn night with dark purple clouds, but no rain. The
ground was damp but not muddy, and the troops advanced noiselessly, only occasionally a jingling of the artillery could be faintly heard. The men were forbidden to
talk out loud, to smoke their pipes, or to strike a light, and they tried to prevent their horses neighing. The secrecy of the undertaking heightened its charm and they
marched gaily. Some columns, supposing. they had reached their destination, halted, piled arms, and settled down on the cold ground, but the majority marched all
night and arrived at places where they evidently should not have been.

Only Count Orlov-Denisov with his Cossacks (the least important detachment of all) got to his appointed place at the right time. This detachment halted at the outskirts
of a forest, on the path leading from the village of Stromilova to Dmitrovsk.

Toward dawn, Count Orlov-Denisov, who had dozed off, was awakened by a deserter from the French army being brought to him. This was a Polish sergeant of
Poniatowski's corps, who explained in Polish that he had come over because he had been slighted in the service: that he ought long ago to have been made an officer,
that he was braver than any of them, and so he had left them and wished to pay them out. He said that Murat was spending the night less than a mile from where they
were, and that if they would let him have a convoy of a hundred men he would capture him alive. Count Orlov-Denisov consulted his fellow officers.

The offer was too tempting to be refused. Everyone volunteered to go and everybody advised making the attempt. After much disputing and arguing, Major-General
Grekov with two Cossack regiments decided to go with the Polish sergeant.

"Now, remember," said Count Orlov-Denisov to the sergeant at parting, "if you have been lying I'll have you hanged like a dog; but if it's true you shall have a hundred
gold pieces!"

Without replying, the sergeant, with a resolute air, mounted and rode away with Grekov whose men had quickly assembled. They disappeared into the forest, and
Count Orlov-Denisov, having seen Grekov off, returned, shivering from the freshness of the early dawn and excited by what he had undertaken on his own
responsibility, and began looking at the enemy camp, now just visible in the deceptive light of dawn and the dying campfires. Our columns ought to have begun to
appear on an open declivity to his right. He looked in that direction, but though the columns would have been visible quite far off, they were not to be seen. It seemed
to the count that things were beginning to stir in the French camp, and his keen-sighted adjutant confirmed this.

"Oh, it is really too late," said Count Orlov, looking at the camp.

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As          (c) 2005-2009,
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                                   we have    Corp.is no longer before our eyes, it suddenly seemed quite clear and obvious to him that the sergeantPage
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                                                                                                                                                            impostor,
that he had lied, and that the whole Russian attack would be ruined by the absence of those two regiments, which he would lead away heaven only knew where. How
could one capture a commander in chief from among such a mass of troops!
to the count that things were beginning to stir in the French camp, and his keen-sighted adjutant confirmed this.

"Oh, it is really too late," said Count Orlov, looking at the camp.

As often happens when someone we have trusted is no longer before our eyes, it suddenly seemed quite clear and obvious to him that the sergeant was an impostor,
that he had lied, and that the whole Russian attack would be ruined by the absence of those two regiments, which he would lead away heaven only knew where. How
could one capture a commander in chief from among such a mass of troops!

"I am sure that rascal was lying," said the count.

"They can still be called back," said one of his suite, who like Count Orlov felt distrustful of the adventure when he looked at the enemy's camp.

"Eh? Really... what do you think? Should we let them go on or not?"

"Will you have them fetched back?"

"Fetch them back, fetch them back!" said Count Orlov with sudden determination, looking at his watch. "It will be too late. It is quite light."

And the adjutant galloped through the forest after Grekov. When Grekov returned, Count Orlov-Denisov, excited both by the abandoned attempt and by vainly
awaiting the infantry columns that still did not appear, as well as by the proximity of the enemy, resolved to advance. All his men felt the same excitement.

"Mount!" he commanded in a whisper. The men took their places and crossed themselves.... "Forward, with God's aid!"

"Hurrah-ah-ah!" reverberated in the forest, and the Cossack companies, trailing their lances and advancing one after another as if poured out of a sack, dashed gaily
across the brook toward the camp.

One desperate, frightened yell from the first French soldier who saw the Cossacks, and all who were in the camp, undressed and only just waking up, ran off in all
directions, abandoning cannons, muskets, and horses.

Had the Cossacks pursued the French, without heeding what was behind and around them, they would have captured Murat and everything there. That was what the
officers desired. But it was impossible to make the Cossacks budge when once they had got booty and prisoners. None of them listened to orders. Fifteen hundred
prisoners and thirty-eight guns were taken on the spot, besides standards and (what seemed most important to the Cossacks) horses, saddles, horsecloths, and the like.
All this had to be dealt with, the prisoners and guns secured, the booty divided-not without some shouting and even a little themselves-and it was on this that the
Cossacks all busied themselves.

The French, not being farther pursued, began to recover themselves: they formed into detachments and began firing. Orlov-Denisov, still waiting for the other columns
to arrive, advanced no further.

Meantime, according to the dispositions which said that "the First Column will march" and so on, the infantry of the belated columns, commanded by Bennigsen and
directed by Toll, had started in due order and, as always happens, had got somewhere, but not to their appointed places. As always happens the men, starting
cheerfully, began to halt; murmurs were heard, there was a sense of confusion, and finally a backward movement. Adjutants and generals galloped about, shouted,
grew angry, quarreled, said they had come quite wrong and were late, gave vent to a little abuse, and at last gave it all up and went forward, simply to get somewhere.
"We shall get somewhere or other!" And they did indeed get somewhere, though not to their right places; a few eventually even got to their right place, but too late to
be of any use and only in time to be fired at. Toll, who in this battle played the part of Weyrother at Austerlitz, galloped assiduously from place to place, finding
everything upside down everywhere. Thus he stumbled on Bagovut's corps in a wood when it was already broad daylight, though the corps should long before have
joined Orlov-Denisov. Excited and vexed by the failure and supposing that someone must be responsible for it, Toll galloped up to the commander of the corps and
began upbraiding him severely, saying that he ought to be shot. General Bagovut, a fighting old soldier of placid temperament, being also upset by all the delay,
confusion, and cross-purposes, fell into a rage to everybody's surprise and quite contrary to his usual character and said disagreeable things to Toll.

"I prefer not to take lessons from anyone, but I can die with my men as well as anybody," he said, and advanced with a single division.

Coming out onto a field under the enemy's fire, this brave general went straight ahead, leading his men under fire, without considering in his agitation whether going into
action now, with a single division, would be of any use or no. Danger, cannon balls, and bullets were just what he needed in his angry mood. One of the first bullets
killed him, and other bullets killed many of his men. And his division remained under fire for some time quite uselessly.

Chapter VII

Meanwhile another column was to have attacked the French from the front, but Kutuzov accompanied that column. He well knew that nothing but confusion would
come of this battle undertaken against his will, and as far as was in his power held the troops back. He did not advance.

He rode silently on his small gray horse, indolently answering suggestions that they should attack.

"The word attack is always on your tongue, but you don't see that we are unable to execute complicated maneuvers," said he to Miloradovich who asked permission to
advance.

"We couldn't take Murat prisoner this morning or get to the place in time, and nothing can be done now!" he replied to someone else.

When Kutuzov was informed that at the French rear-where according to the reports of the Cossacks there had previously been nobody-there were now two battalions
of Poles, he gave a sidelong glance at Ermolov who was behind him and to whom he had not spoken since the previous day.

"You see! They are asking to attack and making plans of all kinds, but as soon as one gets to business nothing is ready, and the enemy, forewarned, takes measures
accordingly."

Ermolov screwed up his eyes and smiled faintly on hearing these words. He understood that for him the storm had blown over, and that Kutuzov would content himself
with that hint.

"He's having a little fun at my expense," said Ermolov softly, nudging with his knee Raevski who was at his side.
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Soon after this, Ermolov moved up to Kutuzov and respectfully remarked:
with that hint.

"He's having a little fun at my expense," said Ermolov softly, nudging with his knee Raevski who was at his side.

Soon after this, Ermolov moved up to Kutuzov and respectfully remarked:

"It is not too late yet, your Highness-the enemy has not gone away-if you were to order an attack! If not, the Guards will not so much as see a little smoke."

Kutuzov did not reply, but when they reported to him that Murat's troops were in retreat he ordered an advance, though at every hundred paces he halted for three
quarters of an hour.

The whole battle consisted in what Orlov-Denisov's Cossacks had done: the rest of the army merely lost some hundreds of men uselessly.

In consequence of this battle Kutuzov received a diamond decoration, and Bennigsen some diamonds and a hundred thousand rubles, others also received pleasant
recognitions corresponding to their various grades, and following the battle fresh changes were made in the staff.

"That's how everything is done with us, all topsy-turvy!" said the Russian officers and generals after the Tarutino battle, letting it be understood that some fool there is
doing things all wrong but that we ourselves should not have done so, just as people speak today. But people who talk like that either do not know what they are
talking about or deliberately deceive themselves. No battle-Tarutino, Borodino, or Austerlitz-takes place as those who planned it anticipated. That is an essential
condition.

A countless number of free forces (for nowhere is man freer than during a battle, where it is a question of life and death) influence the course taken by the fight, and that
course never can be known in advance and never coincides with the direction of any one force.

If many simultaneously and variously directed forces act on a given body, the direction of its motion cannot coincide with any one of those forces, but will always be a
mean-what in mechanics is represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram of forces.

If in the descriptions given by historians, especially French ones, we find their wars and battles carried out in accordance with previously formed plans, the only
conclusion to be drawn is that those descriptions are false.

The battle of Tarutino obviously did not attain the aim Toll had in view-to lead the troops into action in the order prescribed by the dispositions; nor that which Count
Orlov-Denisov may have had in view-to take Murat prisoner; nor the result of immediately destroying the whole corps, which Bennigsen and others may have had in
view; nor the aim of the officer who wished to go into action to distinguish himself; nor that of the Cossack who wanted more booty than he got, and so on. But if the
aim of the battle was what actually resulted and what all the Russians of that day desired-to drive the French out of Russia and destroy their army-it is quite clear that
the battle of Tarutino, just because of its incongruities, was exactly what was wanted at that stage of the campaign. It would be difficult and even impossible to imagine
any result more opportune than the actual outcome of this battle. With a minimum of effort and insignificant losses, despite the greatest confusion, the most important
results of the whole campaign were attained: the transition from retreat to advance, an exposure of the weakness of the French, and the administration of that shock
which Napoleon's army had only awaited to begin its flight.

Chapter VIII

Napoleon enters Moscow after the brilliant victory de la Moskowa; there can be no doubt about the victory for the battlefield remains in the hands of the French. The
Russians retreat and abandon their ancient capital. Moscow, abounding in provisions, arms, munitions, and incalculable wealth, is in Napoleon's hands. The Russian
army, only half the strength of the French, does not make a single attempt to attack for a whole month. Napoleon's position is most brilliant. He can either fall on the
Russian army with double its strength and destroy it; negotiate an advantageous peace, or in case of a refusal make a menacing move on Petersburg, or even, in the
case of a reverse, return to Smolensk or Vilna; or remain in Moscow; in short, no special genius would seem to be required to retain the brilliant position the French
held at that time. For that, only very simple and easy steps were necessary: not to allow the troops to loot, to prepare winter clothing-of which there was sufficient in
Moscow for the whole army-and methodically to collect the provisions, of which (according to the French historians) there were enough in Moscow to supply the
whole army for six months. Yet Napoleon, that greatest of all geniuses, who the historians declare had control of the army, took none of these steps.

He not merely did nothing of the kind, but on the contrary he used his power to select the most foolish and ruinous of all the courses open to him. Of all that Napoleon
might have done: wintering in Moscow, advancing on Petersburg or on Nizhni-Novgorod, or retiring by a more northerly or more southerly route (say by the road
Kutuzov afterwards took), nothing more stupid or disastrous can be imagined than what he actually did. He remained in Moscow till October, letting the troops plunder
the city; then, hesitating whether to leave a garrison behind him, he quitted Moscow, approached Kutuzov without joining battle, turned to the right and reached Malo-
Yaroslavets, again without attempting to break through and take the road Kutuzov took, but retiring instead to Mozhaysk along the devastated Smolensk road. Nothing
more stupid than that could have been devised, or more disastrous for the army, as the sequel showed. Had Napoleon's aim been to destroy his army, the most skillful
strategist could hardly have devised any series of actions that would so completely have accomplished that purpose, independently of anything the Russian army might
do.

Napoleon, the man of genius, did this! But to say that he destroyed his army because he wished to, or because he was very stupid, would be as unjust as to say that he
had brought his troops to Moscow because he wished to and because he was very clever and a genius.

In both cases his personal activity, having no more force than the personal activity of any soldier, merely coincided with the laws that guided the event.

The historians quite falsely represent Napoleon's faculties as having weakened in Moscow, and do so only because the results did not justify his actions. He employed
all his ability and strength to do the best he could for himself and his army, as he had done previously and as he did subsequently in 1813. His activity at that time was
no less astounding than it was in Egypt, in Italy, in Austria, and in Prussia. We do not know for certain in how far his genius was genuine in Egypt-where forty centuries
looked down upon his grandeur-for his great exploits there are all told us by Frenchmen. We cannot accurately estimate his genius in Austria or Prussia, for we have to
draw our information from French or German sources, and the incomprehensible surrender of whole corps without fighting and of fortresses without a siege must incline
Germans to recognize his genius as the only explanation of the war carried on in Germany. But we, thank God, have no need to recognize his genius in order to hide our
shame. We have paid for the right to look at the matter plainly and simply, and we will not abandon that right.

His activity in Moscow was as amazing and as full of genius as elsewhere. Order after order order and plan after plan were issued by him from the time he entered
Moscow till the time he left it. The absence of citizens and of a deputation, and even the burning of Moscow, did not disconcert him. He did not lose sight either of the
welfare of his army or of the doings of the enemy, or of the welfare of the people of Russia, or of the direction of affairs in Paris, or of diplomatic considerations
concerning the terms of the anticipated peace.
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Chapter IX

With regard to military matters, Napoleon immediately on his entry into Moscow gave General Sabastiani strict orders to observe the movements of the Russian army,
Moscow till the time he left it. The absence of citizens and of a deputation, and even the burning of Moscow, did not disconcert him. He did not lose sight either of the
welfare of his army or of the doings of the enemy, or of the welfare of the people of Russia, or of the direction of affairs in Paris, or of diplomatic considerations
concerning the terms of the anticipated peace.

Chapter IX

With regard to military matters, Napoleon immediately on his entry into Moscow gave General Sabastiani strict orders to observe the movements of the Russian army,
sent army corps out along the different roads, and charged Murat to find Kutuzov. Then he gave careful directions about the fortification of the Kremlin, and drew up a
brilliant plan for a future campaign over the whole map of Russia.

With regard to diplomatic questions, Napoleon summoned Captain Yakovlev, who had been robbed and was in rags and did not know how to get out of Moscow,
minutely explained to him his whole policy and his magnanimity, and having written a letter to the Emperor Alexander in which he considered it his duty to inform his
Friend and Brother that Rostopchin had managed affairs badly in Moscow, he dispatched Yakovlev to Petersburg.

Having similarly explained his views and his magnanimity to Tutolmin, he dispatched that old man also to Petersburg to negotiate.

With regard to legal matters, immediately after the fires he gave orders to find and execute the incendiaries. And the scoundrel Rostopchin was punished by an order to
burn down his houses.

With regard to administrative matters, Moscow was granted a constitution. A municipality was established and the following announcement issued:

INHABITANTS OF MOSCOW!

Your misfortunes are cruel, but His Majesty the Emperor and King desires to arrest their course. Terrible examples have taught you how he punishes disobedience and
crime. Strict measures have been taken to put an end to disorder and to re-establish public security. A paternal administration, chosen from among yourselves, will form
your municipality or city government. It will take care of you, of your needs, and of your welfare. Its members will be distinguished by a red ribbon worn across the
shoulder, and the mayor of the city will wear a white belt as well. But when not on duty they will only wear a red ribbon round the left arm.

The city police is established on its former footing, and better order already prevails in consequence of its activity. The government has appointed two commissaries
general, or chiefs of police, and twenty commissaries or captains of wards have been appointed to the different wards of the city. You will recognize them by the white
ribbon they will wear on the left arm. Several churches of different denominations are open, and divine service is performed in them unhindered. Your fellow citizens are
returning every day to their homes. and orders have been given that they should find in them the help and protection due to their misfortunes. These are the measures
the government has adopted to re-establish order and relieve youp condition. But to achieve this aim it is necessary that you should add your efforts and should, if
possible, forget the misfortunes you have suffered, should entertain the hope of a less cruel fate, should be certain that inevitable and ignominious death awaits those
who make any attempt on your persons or on what remains of your property, and finally that you should not doubt that these will be safeguarded, since such is the will
of the greatest and most just of monarchs. Soldiers and citizens, of whatever nation you may be, re-establish public confidence, the source of the welfare of a state, live
like brothers, render mutual aid and protection one to another, unite to defeat the intentions of the evil-minded, obey the military and civil authorities, and your tears will
soon cease to flow!

With regard to supplies for the army, Napoleon decreed that all the troops in turn should enter Moscow a la maraude to obtain provisions for themselves, so that the
army might have its future provided for.

With regard to religion, Napoleon ordered the priests to be brought back and services to be again performed in the churches.

With regard to commerce and to provisioning the army, the following was placarded everywhere:

PROCLAMATION!

You, peaceful inhabitants of Moscow, artisans and workmen whom misfortune has driven from the city, and you scattered tillers of the soil, still kept out in the fields by
groundless fear, listen! Tranquillity is returning to this capital and order is being restored in it. Your fellow countrymen are emerging boldly from their hiding places on
finding that they are respected. Any violence to them or to their property is promptly punished. His Majesty the Emperor and King protects them, and considers no one
among you his enemy except those who disobey his orders. He desires to end your misfortunes and restore you to your homes and families. Respond, therefore, to his
benevolent intentions and come to us without fear. Inhabitants, return with confidence to your abodes! You will soon find means of satisfying your needs. Craftsmen
and industrious artisans, return to your work, your houses, your shops, where the protection of guards awaits you! You shall receive proper pay for your work. And
lastly you too, peasants, come from the forests where you are hiding in terror, return to your huts without fear, in full assurance that you will find protection! Markets
are established in the city where peasants can bring their surplus supplies and the products of the soil. The government has taken the following steps to ensure freedom
of sale for them: (1) From today, peasants, husbandmen, and those living in the neighborhood of Moscow may without any danger bring their supplies of all kinds to
two appointed markets, of which one is on the Mokhovaya Street and the other at the Provision Market. (2) Such supplies will be bought from them at such prices as
seller and buyer may agree on, and if a seller is unable to obtain a fair price he will be free to take his goods back to his village and no one may hinder him under any
pretense. (3) Sunday and Wednesday of each week are appointed as the chief market days and to that end a sufficient number of troops will be stationed along the
highroads on Tuesdays and Saturdays at such distances from the town as to protect the carts. (4) Similar measures will be taken that peasants with their carts and
horses may meet with no hindrance on their return journey. (5) Steps will immediately be taken to re-establish ordinary trading.

Inhabitants of the city and villages, and you, workingmen and artisans, to whatever nation you belong, you are called on to carry out the paternal intentions of His
Majesty the Emperor and King and to co-operate with him for the public welfare! Lay your respect and confidence at his feet and do not delay to unite with us!

With the object of raising the spirits of the troops and of the people, reviews were constantly held and rewards distributed. The Emperor rode through the streets to
comfort the inhabitants, and, despite his preoccupation with state affairs, himself visited the theaters that were established by his order.

In regard to philanthropy, the greatest virtue of crowned heads, Napoleon also did all in his power. He caused the words Maison de ma Mere to be inscribed on the
charitable institutions, thereby combining tender filial affection with the majestic benevolence of a monarch. He visited the Foundling Hospital and, allowing the orphans
saved by him to kiss his white hands, graciously conversed with Tutolmin. Then, as Thiers eloquently recounts, he ordered his soldiers to be paid in forged Russian
money which he had prepared: "Raising the use of these means by an act worthy of himself and of the French army, he let relief be distributed to those who had been
burned out. But as food was too precious to be given to foreigners, who were for the most part enemies, Napoleon preferred to supply them with money with which to
purchase food from outside, and had paper rubles distributed to them."

With reference to army discipline, orders were continually being issued to inflict severe punishment for the nonperformance of military duties and to suppress robbery.
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Chapter X
purchase food from outside, and had paper rubles distributed to them."

With reference to army discipline, orders were continually being issued to inflict severe punishment for the nonperformance of military duties and to suppress robbery.

Chapter X

But strange to say, all these measures, efforts, and plans-which were not at all worse than others issued in similar circumstances-did not affect the essence of the matter
but, like the hands of a clock detached from the mechanism, swung about in an arbitrary and aimless way without engaging the cogwheels.

With reference to the military side-the plan of campaign-that work of genius of which Thiers remarks that, "His genius never devised anything more profound, more
skillful, or more admirable," and enters into a polemic with M. Fain to prove that this work of genius must be referred not to the fourth but to the fifteenth of October-
that plan never was or could be executed, for it was quite out of touch with the facts of the case. The fortifying of the Kremlin, for which la Mosquee (as Napoleon
termed the church of Basil the Beatified) was to have been razed to the ground, proved quite useless. The mining of the Kremlin only helped toward fulfilling
Napoleon's wish that it should be blown up when he left Moscow-as a child wants the floor on which he has hurt himself to be beaten. The pursuit of the Russian army,
about which Napoleon was so concerned, produced an unheard-of result. The French generals lost touch with the Russian army of sixty thousand men, and according
to Thiers it was only eventually found, like a lost pin, by the skill-and apparently the genius-of Murat.

With reference to diplomacy, all Napoleon's arguments as to his magnanimity and justice, both to Tutolmin and to Yakovlev (whose chief concern was to obtain a
greatcoat and a conveyance), proved useless; Alexander did not receive these envoys and did not reply to their embassage.

With regard to legal matters, after the execution of the supposed incendiaries the rest of Moscow burned down.

With regard to administrative matters, the establishment of a municipality did not stop the robberies and was only of use to certain people who formed part of that
municipality and under pretext of preserving order looted Moscow or saved their own property from being looted.

With regard to religion, as to which in Egypt matters had so easily been settled by Napoleon's visit to a mosque, no results were achieved. Two or three priests who
were found in Moscow did try to carry out Napoleon's wish, but one of them was slapped in the face by a French soldier while conducting service, and a French
official reported of another that: "The priest whom I found and invited to say Mass cleaned and locked up the church. That night the doors were again broken open, the
padlocks smashed, the books mutilated, and other disorders perpetrated."

With reference to commerce, the proclamation to industrious workmen and to peasants evoked no response. There were no industrious workmen, and the peasants
caught the commissaries who ventured too far out of town with the proclamation and killed them.

As to the theaters for the entertainment of the people and the troops, these did not meet with success either. The theaters set up in the Kremlin and in Posnyakov's
house were closed again at once because the actors and actresses were robbed.

Even philanthropy did not have the desired effect. The genuine as well as the false paper money which flooded Moscow lost its value. The French, collecting booty,
cared only for gold. Not only was the paper money valueless which Napoleon so graciously distributed to the unfortunate, but even silver lost its value in relation to
gold.

But the most amazing example of the ineffectiveness of the orders given by the authorities at that time was Napoleon's attempt to stop the looting and re-establish
discipline.

This is what the army authorities were reporting:

"Looting continues in the city despite the decrees against it. Order is not yet restored and not a single merchant is carrying on trade in a lawful manner. The sutlers alone
venture to trade, and they sell stolen goods."

"The neighborhood of my ward continues to be pillaged by soldiers of the 3rd Corps who, not satisfied with taking from the unfortunate inhabitants hiding in the cellars
the little they have left, even have the ferocity to wound them with their sabers, as I have repeatedly witnessed."

"Nothing new, except that the soldiers are robbing and pillaging-October 9."

"Robbery and pillaging continue. There is a band of thieves in our district who ought to be arrested by a strong force-October 11."

"The Emperor is extremely displeased that despite the strict orders to stop pillage, parties of marauding Guards are continually seen returning to the Kremlin. Among
the Old Guard disorder and pillage were renewed more violently than ever yesterday evening, last night, and today. The Emperor sees with regret that the picked
soldiers appointed to guard his person, who should set an example of discipline, carry disobedience to such a point that they break into the cellars and stores containing
army supplies. Others have disgraced themselves to the extent of disobeying sentinels and officers, and have abused and beaten them."

"The Grand Marshal of the palace," wrote the governor, "complains bitterly that in spite of repeated orders, the soldiers continue to commit nuisances in all the
courtyards and even under the very windows of the Emperor."

That army, like a herd of cattle run wild and trampling underfoot the provender which might have saved it from starvation, disintegrated and perished with each
additional day it remained in Moscow. But it did not go away.

It began to run away only when suddenly seized by a panic caused by the capture of transport trains on the Smolensk road, and by the battle of Tarutino. The news of
that battle of Tarutino, unexpectedly received by Napoleon at a review, evoked in him a desire to punish the Russians (Thiers says), and he issued the order for
departure which the whole army was demanding.

Fleeing from Moscow the soldiers took with them everything they had stolen. Napoleon, too, carried away his own personal tresor, but on seeing the baggage trains
that impeded the army, he was (Thiers says) horror-struck. And yet with his experience of war he did not order all the superfluous vehicles to be burned, as he had
done with those of a certain marshal when approaching Moscow. He gazed at the caleches and carriages in which soldiers were riding and remarked that it was a very
good thing, as those vehicles could be used to carry provisions, the sick, and the wounded.

The plight of the whole army resembled that of a wounded animal which feels it is perishing and does not know what it is doing. To study the skillful tactics and aims of
Napoleon
 Copyrightand
            (c)his army fromInfobase
                2005-2009,   the time itMedia
                                         entered  Moscow till it was destroyed is like studying the dying leaps and shudders of a mortally wounded animal. Very often a
                                               Corp.                                                                                                  Page 482 / 567
wounded animal, hearing a rustle, rushes straight at the hunter's gun, runs forward and back again, and hastens its own end. Napoleon, under pressure from his whole
army, did the same thing. The rustle of the battle of Tarutino frightened the beast, and it rushed forward onto the hunter's gun, reached him, turned back, and finally-like
any wild beast-ran back along the most disadvantageous and dangerous path, where the old scent was familiar.
good thing, as those vehicles could be used to carry provisions, the sick, and the wounded.

The plight of the whole army resembled that of a wounded animal which feels it is perishing and does not know what it is doing. To study the skillful tactics and aims of
Napoleon and his army from the time it entered Moscow till it was destroyed is like studying the dying leaps and shudders of a mortally wounded animal. Very often a
wounded animal, hearing a rustle, rushes straight at the hunter's gun, runs forward and back again, and hastens its own end. Napoleon, under pressure from his whole
army, did the same thing. The rustle of the battle of Tarutino frightened the beast, and it rushed forward onto the hunter's gun, reached him, turned back, and finally-like
any wild beast-ran back along the most disadvantageous and dangerous path, where the old scent was familiar.

During the whole of that period Napoleon, who seems to us to have been the leader of all these movements-as the figurehead of a ship may seem to a savage to guide
the vessel-acted like a child who, holding a couple of strings inside a carriage, thinks he is driving it.

Chapter XI

Early in the morning of the sixth of October Pierre went out of the shed, and on returning stopped by the door to play with a little blue-gray dog, with a long body and
short bandy legs, that jumped about him. This little dog lived in their shed, sleeping beside Karataev at night; it sometimes made excursions into the town but always
returned again. Probably it had never had an owner, and it still belonged to nobody and had no name. The French called it Azor; the soldier who told stories called it
Femgalka; Karataev and others called it Gray, or sometimes Flabby. Its lack of a master, a name, or even of a breed or any definite color did not seem to trouble the
blue-gray dog in the least. Its furry tail stood up firm and round as a plume, its bandy legs served it so well that it would often gracefully lift a hind leg and run very easily
and quickly on three legs, as if disdaining to use all four. Everything pleased it. Now it would roll on its back, yelping with delight, now bask in the sun with a thoughtful
air of importance, and now frolic about playing with a chip of wood or a straw.

Pierre's attire by now consisted of a dirty torn shirt (the only remnant of his former clothing), a pair of soldier's trousers which by Karataev's advice he tied with string
round the ankles for warmth, and a peasant coat and cap. Physically he had changed much during this time. He no longer seemed stout, though he still had the
appearance of solidity and strength hereditary in his family. A beard and mustache covered the lower part of his face, and a tangle of hair, infested with lice, curled
round his head like a cap. The look of his eyes was resolute, calm, and animatedly alert, as never before. The former slackness which had shown itself even in his eyes
was now replaced by an energetic readiness for action and resistance. His feet were bare.

Pierre first looked down the field across which vehicles and horsemen were passing that morning, then into the distance across the river, then at the dog who was
pretending to be in earnest about biting him, and then at his bare feet which he placed with pleasure in various positions, moving his dirty thick big toes. Every time he
looked at his bare feet a smile of animated self-satisfaction flitted across his face. The sight of them reminded him of all he had experienced and learned during these
weeks and this recollection was pleasant to him.

For some days the weather had been calm and clear with slight frosts in the mornings-what is called an "old wives' summer."

In the sunshine the air was warm, and that warmth was particularly pleasant with the invigorating freshness of the morning frost still in the air.

On everything-far and near-lay the magic crystal glitter seen only at that time autumn. The Sparrow Hills were visible in the distance, with the village, the church, and the
large white house. The bare trees, the sand, the bricks and roofs of the houses, the green church spire, and the corners of the white house in the distance, all stood out
in the transparent air in most delicate outline and with unnatural clearness. Near by could be seen the familiar ruins of a half-burned mansion occupied by the French,
with lilac bushes still showing dark green beside the fence. And even that ruined and befouled house-which in dull weather was repulsively ugly-seemed quietly beautiful
now, in the clear, motionless brilliance.

A French corporal, with coat unbuttoned in a homely way, a skullcap on his head, and a short pipe in his mouth, came from behind a corner of the shed and
approached Pierre with a friendly wink.

"What sunshine, Monsieur Kiril!" (Their name for Pierre.) "Eh? Just like spring!"

And the corporal leaned against the door and offered Pierre his pipe, though whenever he offered it Pierre always declined it.

"To be on the march in such weather..." he began.

Pierre inquired what was being said about leaving, and the corporal told him that nearly all the troops were starting and there ought to be an order about the prisoners
that day. Sokolov, one of the soldiers in the shed with Pierre, was dying, and Pierre told the corporal that something should be done about him. The corporal replied
that Pierre need not worry about that as they had an ambulance and a permanent hospital and arrangements would be made for the sick, and that in general everything
that could happen had been foreseen by the authorities.

"Besides, Monsieur Kiril, you have only to say a word to the captain, you know. He is a man who never forgets anything. Speak to the captain when he makes his
round, he will do anything for you."

(The captain of whom the corporal spoke often had long chats with Pierre and showed him all sorts of favors.)

"'You see, St. Thomas,' he said to me the other day. 'Monsieur Kiril is a man of education, who speaks French. He is a Russian seigneur who has had misfortunes, but
he is a man. He knows what's what.... If he wants anything and asks me, he won't get a refusal. When one has studied, you see, one likes education and well-bred
people.' It is for your sake I mention it, Monsieur Kiril. The other day if it had not been for you that affair would have ended ill."

And after chatting a while longer, the corporal went away. (The affair he had alluded to had happened a few days before-a fight between the prisoners and the French
soldiers, in which Pierre had succeeded in pacifying his comrades.) Some of the prisoners who had heard Pierre talking to the corporal immediately asked what the
Frenchman had said. While Pierre was repeating what he had been told about the army leaving Moscow, a thin, sallow, tattered French soldier came up to the door of
the shed. Rapidly and timidly raising his fingers to his forehead by way of greeting, he asked Pierre whether the soldier Platoche to whom he had given a shirt to sew
was in that shed.

A week before the French had had boot leather and linen issued to them, which they had given out to the prisoners to make up into boots and shirts for them.

"Ready, ready, dear fellow!" said Karataev, coming out with a neatly folded shirt.

Karataev, on account of the warm weather and for convenience at work, was wearing only trousers and a tattered shirt as black as soot. His hair was bound round,
workman fashion, with a wisp of lime-tree bast, and his round face seemed rounder and pleasanter than ever.
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"A promise is own brother to performance! I said Friday and here it is, ready," said Platon, smiling and unfolding the shirt he had sewn.
"Ready, ready, dear fellow!" said Karataev, coming out with a neatly folded shirt.

Karataev, on account of the warm weather and for convenience at work, was wearing only trousers and a tattered shirt as black as soot. His hair was bound round,
workman fashion, with a wisp of lime-tree bast, and his round face seemed rounder and pleasanter than ever.

"A promise is own brother to performance! I said Friday and here it is, ready," said Platon, smiling and unfolding the shirt he had sewn.

The Frenchman glanced around uneasily and then, as if overcoming his hesitation, rapidly threw off his uniform and put on the shirt. He had a long, greasy, flowered silk
waistcoat next to his sallow, thin bare body, but no shirt. He was evidently afraid the prisoners looking on would laugh at him, and thrust his head into the shirt hurriedly.
None of the prisoners said a word.

"See, it fits well!" Platon kept repeating, pulling the shirt straight.

The Frenchman, having pushed his head and hands through, without raising his eyes, looked down at the shirt and examined the seams.

"You see, dear man, this is not a sewing shop, and I had no proper tools; and, as they say, one needs a tool even to kill a louse," said Platon with one of his round
smiles, obviously pleased with his work.

"It's good, quite good, thank you," said the Frenchman, in French, "but there must be some linen left over.

"It will fit better still when it sets to your body," said Karataev, still admiring his handiwork. "You'll be nice and comfortable...."

"Thanks, thanks, old fellow.... But the bits left over?" said the Frenchman again and smiled. He took out an assignation ruble note and gave it to Karataev. "But give me
the pieces that are over."

Pierre saw that Platon did not want to understand what the Frenchman was saying, and he looked on without interfering. Karataev thanked the Frenchman for the
money and went on admiring his own work. The Frenchman insisted on having the pieces returned that were left over and asked Pierre to translate what he said.

"What does he want the bits for?" said Karataev. "They'd make fine leg bands for us. Well, never mind."

And Karataev, with a suddenly changed and saddened expression, took a small bundle of scraps from inside his shirt and gave it to the Frenchman without looking at
him. "Oh dear!" muttered Karataev and went away. The Frenchman looked at the linen, considered for a moment, then looked inquiringly at Pierre and, as if Pierre's
look had told him something, suddenly blushed and shouted in a squeaky voice:

"Platoche! Eh, Platoche! Keep them yourself!" And handing back the odd bits he turned and went out.

"There, look at that," said Karataev, swaying his head. "People said they were not Christians, but they too have souls. It's what the old folk used to say: 'A sweating
hand's an open hand, a dry hand's close.' He's naked, but yet he's given it back."

Karataev smiled thoughtfully and was silent awhile looking at the pieces.

"But they'll make grand leg bands, dear friend," he said, and went back into the shed.

Chapter XII

Four weeks had passed since Pierre had been taken prisoner and though the French had offered to move him from the men's to the officers' shed, he had stayed in the
shed where he was first put.

In burned and devastated Moscow Pierre experienced almost the extreme limits of privation a man can endure; but thanks to his physical strength and health, of which
he had till then been unconscious, and thanks especially to the fact that the privations came so gradually that it was impossible to say when they began, he endured his
position not only lightly but joyfully. And just at this time he obtained the tranquillity and ease of mind he had formerly striven in vain to reach. He had long sought in
different ways that tranquillity of mind, that inner harmony which had so impressed him in the soldiers at the battle of Borodino. He had sought it in philanthropy, in
Freemasonry, in the dissipations of town life, in wine, in heroic feats of self-sacrifice, and in romantic love for Natasha; he had sought it by reasoning-and all these
quests and experiments had failed him. And now without thinking about it he had found that peace and inner harmony only through the horror of death, through
privation, and through what he recognized in Karataev.

Those dreadful moments he had lived through at the executions had as it were forever washed away from his imagination and memory the agitating thoughts and feelings
that had formerly seemed so important. It did not now occur to him to think of Russia, or the war, or politics, or Napoleon. It was plain to him that all these things were
no business of his, and that he was not called on to judge concerning them and therefore could not do so. "Russia and summer weather are not bound together," he
thought, repeating words of Karataev's which he found strangely consoling. His intention of killing Napoleon and his calculations of the cabalistic number of the beast of
the Apocalypse now seemed to him meaningless and even ridiculous. His anger with his wife and anxiety that his name should not be smirched now seemed not merely
trivial but even amusing. What concern was it of his that somewhere or other that woman was leading the life she preferred? What did it matter to anybody, and
especially to him, whether or not they found out that their prisoner's name was Count Bezukhov?

He now often remembered his conversation with Prince Andrew and quite agreed with him, though he understood Prince Andrew's thoughts somewhat differently.
Prince Andrew had thought and said that happiness could only be negative, but had said it with a shade of bitterness and irony as though he was really saying that all
desire for positive happiness is implanted in us merely to torment us and never be satisfied. But Pierre believed it without any mental reservation. The absence of
suffering, the satisfaction of one's needs and consequent freedom in the choice of one's occupation, that is, of one's way of life, now seemed to Pierre to be indubitably
man's highest happiness. Here and now for the first time he fully appreciated the enjoyment of eating when he wanted to eat, drinking when he wanted to drink, sleeping
when he wanted to sleep, of warmth when he was cold, of talking to a fellow man when he wished to talk and to hear a human voice. The satisfaction of one's needs-
good food, cleanliness, and freedom-now that he was deprived of all this, seemed to Pierre to constitute perfect happiness; and the choice of occupation, that is, of his
way of life-now that that was so restricted-seemed to him such an easy matter that he forgot that a superfluity of the comforts of life destroys all joy in satisfying one's
needs, while great freedom in the choice of occupation-such freedom as his wealth, his education, and his social position had given him in his own life-is just what
makes the choice of occupation insolubly difficult and destroys the desire and possibility of having an occupation.

All Pierre's daydreams now turned on the time when he would be free. Yet subsequently, and for the rest of his life, he thought and spoke with enthusiasm of that month
of captivity, of those irrecoverable, strong, joyful sensations, and chiefly of the complete peace of mind and inner freedom which he experienced only during those
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When on the first day he got up early, went out of the shed at dawn, and saw the cupolas and crosses of the New Convent of the Virgin still dark at first, the hoarfrost
makes the choice of occupation insolubly difficult and destroys the desire and possibility of having an occupation.

All Pierre's daydreams now turned on the time when he would be free. Yet subsequently, and for the rest of his life, he thought and spoke with enthusiasm of that month
of captivity, of those irrecoverable, strong, joyful sensations, and chiefly of the complete peace of mind and inner freedom which he experienced only during those
weeks.

When on the first day he got up early, went out of the shed at dawn, and saw the cupolas and crosses of the New Convent of the Virgin still dark at first, the hoarfrost
on the dusty grass, the Sparrow Hills, and the wooded banks above the winding river vanishing in the purple distance, when he felt the contact of the fresh air and heard
the noise of the crows flying from Moscow across the field, and when afterwards light gleamed from the east and the sun's rim appeared solemnly from behind a cloud,
and the cupolas and crosses, the hoarfrost, the distance and the river, all began to sparkle in the glad light-Pierre felt a new joy and strength in life such as he had never
before known. And this not only stayed with him during the whole of his imprisonment, but even grew in strength as the hardships of his position increased.

That feeling of alertness and of readiness for anything was still further strengthened in him by the high opinion his fellow prisoners formed of him soon after his arrival at
the shed. With his knowledge of languages, the respect shown him by the French, his simplicity, his readiness to give anything asked of him (he received the allowance
of three rubles a week made to officers); with his strength, which he showed to the soldiers by pressing nails into the walls of the hut; his gentleness to his companions,
and his capacity for sitting still and thinking without doing anything (which seemed to them incomprehensible), he appeared to them a rather mysterious and superior
being. The very qualities that had been a hindrance, if not actually harmful, to him in the world he had lived in-his strength, his disdain for the comforts of life, his absent-
mindedness and simplicity-here among these people gave him almost the status of a hero. And Pierre felt that their opinion placed responsibilities upon him.

Chapter XIII

The French evacuation began on the night between the sixth and seventh of October: kitchens and sheds were dismantled, carts loaded, and troops and baggage trains
started.

At seven in the morning a French convoy in marching trim, wearing shakos and carrying muskets, knapsacks, and enormous sacks, stood in front of the sheds, and
animated French talk mingled with curses sounded all along the lines.

In the shed everyone was ready, dressed, belted, shod, and only awaited the order to start. The sick soldier, Sokolov, pale and thin with dark shadows round his eyes,
alone sat in his place barefoot and not dressed. His eyes, prominent from the emaciation of his face, gazed inquiringly at his comrades who were paying no attention to
him, and he moaned regularly and quietly. It was evidently not so much his sufferings that caused him to moan (he had dysentery) as his fear and grief at being left alone.

Pierre, girt with a rope round his waist and wearing shoes Karataev had made for him from some leather a French soldier had torn off a tea chest and brought to have
his boots mended with, went up to the sick man and squatted down beside him.

"You know, Sokolov, they are not all going away! They have a hospital here. You may be better off than we others," said Pierre.

"O Lord! Oh, it will be the death of me! O Lord!" moaned the man in a louder voice.

"I'll go and ask them again directly," said Pierre, rising and going to the door of the shed.

Just as Pierre reached the door, the corporal who had offered him a pipe the day before came up to it with two soldiers. The corporal and soldiers were in marching kit
with knapsacks and shakos that had metal straps, and these changed their familiar faces.

The corporal came, according to orders, to shut the door. The prisoners had to be counted before being let out.

"Corporal, what will they do with the sick man?..." Pierre began.

But even as he spoke he began to doubt whether this was the corporal he knew or a stranger, so unlike himself did the corporal seem at that moment. Moreover, just
as Pierre was speaking a sharp rattle of drums was suddenly heard from both sides. The corporal frowned at Pierre's words and, uttering some meaningless oaths,
slammed the door. The shed became semidark, and the sharp rattle of the drums on two sides drowned the sick man's groans.

"There it is!... It again!..." said Pierre to himself, and an involuntary shudder ran down his spine. In the corporal's changed face, in the sound of his voice, in the stirring
and deafening noise of the drums, he recognized that mysterious, callous force which compelled people against their will to kill their fellow men-that force the effect of
which he had witnessed during the executions. To fear or to try to escape that force, to address entreaties or exhortations to those who served as its tools, was useless.
Pierre knew this now. One had to wait and endure. He did not again go to the sick man, nor turn to look at him, but stood frowning by the door of the hut.

When that door was opened and the prisoners, crowding against one another like a flock of sheep, squeezed into the exit, Pierre pushed his way forward and
approached that very captain who as the corporal had assured him was ready to do anything for him. The captain was also in marching kit, and on his cold face
appeared that same it which Pierre had recognized in the corporal's words and in the roll of the drums.

"Pass on, pass on!" the captain reiterated, frowning sternly, and looking at the prisoners who thronged past him.

Pierre went up to him, though he knew his attempt would be vain.

"What now?" the officer asked with a cold look as if not recognizing Pierre.

Pierre told him about the sick man.

"He'll manage to walk, devil take him!" said the captain. "Pass on, pass on!" he continued without looking at Pierre.

"But he is dying," Pierre again began.

"Be so good..." shouted the captain, frowning angrily.

"Dram-da-da-dam, dam-dam..." rattled the drums, and Pierre understood that this mysterious force completely controlled these men and that it was now useless to say
any more.

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"Dram-da-da-dam, dam-dam..." rattled the drums, and Pierre understood that this mysterious force completely controlled these men and that it was now useless to say
any more.

The officer prisoners were separated from the soldiers and told to march in front. There were about thirty officers, with Pierre among them, and about three hundred
men.

The officers, who had come from the other sheds, were all strangers to Pierre and much better dressed than he. They looked at him and at his shoes mistrustfully, as at
an alien. Not far from him walked a fat major with a sallow, bloated, angry face, who was wearing a Kazan dressing grown tied round with a towel, and who evidently
enjoyed the respect of his fellow prisoners. He kept one hand, in which he clasped his tobacco pouch, inside the bosom of his dressing gown and held the stem of his
pipe firmly with the other. Panting and puffing, the major grumbled and growled at everybody because he thought he was being pushed and that they were all hurrying
when they had nowhere to hurry to and were all surprised at something when there was nothing to be surprised at. Another, a thin little officer, was speaking to
everyone, conjecturing where they were now being taken and how far they would get that day. An official in felt boots and wearing a commissariat uniform ran round
from side to side and gazed at the ruins of Moscow, loudly announcing his observations as to what had been burned down and what this or that part of the city was that
they could see. A third officer, who by his accent was a Pole, disputed with the commissariat officer, arguing that he was mistaken in his identification of the different
wards of Moscow.

"What are you disputing about?" said the major angrily. "What does it matter whether it is St. Nicholas or St. Blasius? You see it's burned down, and there's an end of
it.... What are you pushing for? Isn't the road wide enough?" said he, turning to a man behind him who was not pushing him at all.

"Oh, oh, oh! What have they done?" the prisoners on one side and another were heard saying as they gazed on the charred ruins. "All beyond the river, and Zubova,
and in the Kremlin.... Just look! There's not half of it left. Yes, I told you-the whole quarter beyond the river, and so it is."

"Well, you know it's burned, so what's the use of talking?" said the major.

As they passed near a church in the Khamovniki (one of the few unburned quarters of Moscow) the whole mass of prisoners suddenly started to one side and
exclamations of horror and disgust were heard.

"Ah, the villains! What heathens! Yes; dead, dead, so he is... And smeared with something!"

Pierre too drew near the church where the thing was that evoked these exclamations, and dimly made out something leaning against the palings surrounding the church.
From the words of his comrades who saw better than he did, he found that this was the body of a man, set upright against the palings with its face smeared with soot.

"Go on! What the devil... Go on! Thirty thousand devils!..." the convoy guards began cursing and the French soldiers, with fresh virulence, drove away with their
swords the crowd of prisoners who were gazing at the dead man.

Chapter XIV

Through the cross streets of the Khamovniki quarter the prisoners marched, followed only by their escort and the vehicles and wagons belonging to that escort, but
when they reached the supply stores they came among a huge and closely packed train of artillery mingled with private vehicles.

At the bridge they all halted, waiting for those in front to get across. From the bridge they had a view of endless lines of moving baggage trains before and behind them.
To the right, where the Kaluga road turns near Neskuchny, endless rows of troops and carts stretched away into the distance. These were troops of Beauharnais'
corps which had started before any of the others. Behind, along the riverside and across the Stone Bridge, were Ney's troops and transport.

Davout's troops, in whose charge were the prisoners, were crossing the Crimean bridge and some were already debouching into the Kaluga road. But the baggage
trains stretched out so that the last of Beauharnais' train had not yet got out of Moscow and reached the Kaluga road when the vanguard of Ney's army was already
emerging from the Great Ordynka Street.

When they had crossed the Crimean bridge the prisoners moved a few steps forward, halted, and again moved on, and from all sides vehicles and men crowded closer
and closer together. They advanced the few hundred paces that separated the bridge from the Kaluga road, taking more than an hour to do so, and came out upon the
square where the streets of the Transmoskva ward and the Kaluga road converge, and the prisoners jammed close together had to stand for some hours at that
crossway. From all sides, like the roar of the sea, were heard the rattle of wheels, the tramp of feet, and incessant shouts of anger and abuse. Pierre stood pressed
against the wall of a charred house, listening to that noise which mingled in his imagination with the roll of the drums.

To get a better view, several officer prisoners climbed onto the wall of the half-burned house against which Pierre was leaning.

"What crowds! Just look at the crowds!... They've loaded goods even on the cannon! Look there, those are furs!" they exclaimed. "Just see what the blackguards have
looted.... There! See what that one has behind in the cart.... Why, those are settings taken from some icons, by heaven!... Oh, the rascals!... See how that fellow has
loaded himself up, he can hardly walk! Good lord, they've even grabbed those chaises!... See that fellow there sitting on the trunks.... Heavens! They're fighting."

"That's right, hit him on the snout-on his snout! Like this, we shan't get away before evening. Look, look there.... Why, that must be Napoleon's own. See what horses!
And the monograms with a crown! It's like a portable house.... That fellow's dropped his sack and doesn't see it. Fighting again... A woman with a baby, and not bad-
looking either! Yes, I dare say, that's the way they'll let you pass... Just look, there's no end to it. Russian wenches, by heaven, so they are! In carriages-see how
comfortably they've settled themselves!"

Again, as at the church in Khamovniki, a wave of general curiosity bore all the prisoners forward onto the road, and Pierre, thanks to his stature, saw over the heads of
the others what so attracted their curiosity. In three carriages involved among the munition carts, closely squeezed together, sat women with rouged faces, dressed in
glaring colors, who were shouting something in shrill voices.

From the moment Pierre had recognized the appearance of the mysterious force nothing had seemed to him strange or dreadful: neither the corpse smeared with soot
for fun nor these women hurrying away nor the burned ruins of Moscow. All that he now witnessed scarcely made an impression on him-as if his soul, making ready for
a hard struggle, refused to receive impressions that might weaken it.

The women's vehicles drove by. Behind them came more carts, soldiers, wagons, soldiers, gun carriages, carriages, soldiers, ammunition carts, more soldiers, and now
and then women.

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All these people and horses seemed driven forward by some invisible power. During the hour Pierre watched them they all came flowing from the different streets with
The women's vehicles drove by. Behind them came more carts, soldiers, wagons, soldiers, gun carriages, carriages, soldiers, ammunition carts, more soldiers, and now
and then women.

Pierre did not see the people as individuals but saw their movement.

All these people and horses seemed driven forward by some invisible power. During the hour Pierre watched them they all came flowing from the different streets with
one and the same desire to get on quickly; they all jostled one another, began to grow angry and to fight, white teeth gleamed, brows frowned, ever the same words of
abuse flew from side to side, and all the faces bore the same swaggeringly resolute and coldly cruel expression that had struck Pierre that morning on the corporal's
face when the drums were beating.

It was not till nearly evening that the officer commanding the escort collected his men and with shouts and quarrels forced his way in among the baggage trains, and the
prisoners, hemmed in on all sides, emerged onto the Kaluga road.

They marched very quickly, without resting, and halted only when the sun began to set. The baggage carts drew up close together and the men began to prepare for
their night's rest. They all appeared angry and dissatisfied. For a long time, oaths, angry shouts, and fighting could be heard from all sides. A carriage that followed the
escort ran into one of the carts and knocked a hole in it with its pole. Several soldiers ran toward the cart from different sides: some beat the carriage horses on their
heads, turning them aside, others fought among themselves, and Pierre saw that one German was badly wounded on the head by a sword.

It seemed that all these men, now that they had stopped amid fields in the chill dusk of the autumn evening, experienced one and the same feeling of unpleasant
awakening from the hurry and eagerness to push on that had seized them at the start. Once at a standstill they all seemed to understand that they did not yet know
where they were going, and that much that was painful and difficult awaited them on this journey.

During this halt the escort treated the prisoners even worse than they had done at the start. It was here that the prisoners for the first time received horseflesh for their
meat ration.

From the officer down to the lowest soldier they showed what seemed like personal spite against each of the prisoners, in unexpected contrast to their former friendly
relations.

This spite increased still more when, on calling over the roll of prisoners, it was found that in the bustle of leaving Moscow one Russian soldier, who had pretended to
suffer from colic, had escaped. Pierre saw a Frenchman beat a Russian soldier cruelly for straying too far from the road, and heard his friend the captain reprimand and
threaten to court-martial a noncommissioned officer on account of the escape of the Russian. To the noncommissioned officer's excuse that the prisoner was ill and
could not walk, the officer replied that the order was to shoot those who lagged behind. Pierre felt that that fatal force which had crushed him during the executions, but
which be had not felt during his imprisonment, now again controlled his existence. It was terrible, but he felt that in proportion to the efforts of that fatal force to crush
him, there grew and strengthened in his soul a power of life independent of it.

He ate his supper of buckwheat soup with horseflesh and chatted with his comrades.

Neither Pierre nor any of the others spoke of what they had seen in Moscow, or of the roughness of their treatment by the French, or of the order to shoot them which
had been announced to them. As if in reaction against the worsening of their position they were all particularly animated and gay. They spoke of personal reminiscences,
of amusing scenes they had witnessed during the campaign, and avoided all talk of their present situation.

The sun had set long since. Bright stars shone out here and there in the sky. A red glow as of a conflagration spread above the horizon from the rising full moon, and
that vast red ball swayed strangely in the gray haze. It grew light. The evening was ending, but the night had not yet come. Pierre got up and left his new companions,
crossing between the campfires to the other side of the road where he had been told the common soldier prisoners were stationed. He wanted to talk to them. On the
road he was stopped by a French sentinel who ordered him back.

Pierre turned back, not to his companions by the campfire, but to an unharnessed cart where there was nobody. Tucking his legs under him and dropping his head he
sat down on the cold ground by the wheel of the cart and remained motionless a long while sunk in thought. Suddenly he burst out into a fit of his broad, good-natured
laughter, so loud that men from various sides turned with surprise to see what this strange and evidently solitary laughter could mean.

"Ha-ha-ha!" laughed Pierre. And he said aloud to himself: "The soldier did not let me pass. They took me and shut me up. They hold me captive. What, me? Me? My
immortal soul? Ha-ha-ha! Ha-ha-ha!..." and he laughed till tears started to his eyes.

A man got up and came to see what this queer big fellow was laughing at all by himself. Pierre stopped laughing, got up, went farther away from the inquisitive man, and
looked around him.

The huge, endless bivouac that had previously resounded with the crackling of campfires and the voices of many men had grown quiet, the red campfires were growing
paler and dying down. High up in the light sky hung the full moon. Forests and fields beyond the camp, unseen before, were now visible in the distance. And farther still,
beyond those forests and fields, the bright, oscillating, limitless distance lured one to itself. Pierre glanced up at the sky and the twinkling stars in its faraway depths.
"And all that is me, all that is within me, and it is all I!" thought Pierre. "And they caught all that and put it into a shed boarded up with planks!" He smiled, and went and
lay down to sleep beside his companions.

Chapter XV

In the early days of October another envoy came to Kutuzov with a letter from Napoleon proposing peace and falsely dated from Moscow, though Napoleon was
already not far from Kutuzov on the old Kaluga road. Kutuzov replied to this letter as he had done to the one formerly brought by Lauriston, saying that there could be
no question of peace.

Soon after that a report was received from Dorokhov's guerrilla detachment operating to the left of Tarutino that troops of Broussier's division had been seen at
Forminsk and that being separated from the rest of the French army they might easily be destroyed. The soldiers and officers again demanded action. Generals on the
staff, excited by the memory of the easy victory at Tarutino, urged Kutuzov to carry out Dorokhov's suggestion. Kutuzov did not consider any offensive necessary. The
result was a compromise which was inevitable: a small detachment was sent to Forminsk to attack Broussier.

By a strange coincidence, this task, which turned out to be a most difficult and important one, was entrusted to Dokhturov-that same modest little Dokhturov whom no
one had described to us as drawing up plans of battles, dashing about in front of regiments, showering crosses on batteries, and so on, and who was thought to be and
was spoken of as undecided and undiscerning-but whom we find commanding wherever the position was most difficult all through the Russo-French wars from
 Copyrightto(c)
Austerlitz    the2005-2009,   Infobase
                  year 1813. At          Media
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                                                                                                                                                     and perishing 567
not a single general was left in the rear guard. Ill with fever he went to Smolensk with twenty thousand men to defend the town against Napoleon's whole army. In
Smolensk, at the Malakhov Gate, he had hardly dozed off in a paroxysm of fever before he was awakened by the bombardment of the town-and Smolensk held out all
By a strange coincidence, this task, which turned out to be a most difficult and important one, was entrusted to Dokhturov-that same modest little Dokhturov whom no
one had described to us as drawing up plans of battles, dashing about in front of regiments, showering crosses on batteries, and so on, and who was thought to be and
was spoken of as undecided and undiscerning-but whom we find commanding wherever the position was most difficult all through the Russo-French wars from
Austerlitz to the year 1813. At Austerlitz he remained last at the Augezd dam, rallying the regiments, saving what was possible when all were flying and perishing and
not a single general was left in the rear guard. Ill with fever he went to Smolensk with twenty thousand men to defend the town against Napoleon's whole army. In
Smolensk, at the Malakhov Gate, he had hardly dozed off in a paroxysm of fever before he was awakened by the bombardment of the town-and Smolensk held out all
day long. At the battle of Borodino, when Bagration was killed and nine tenths of the men of our left flank had fallen and the full force of the French artillery fire was
directed against it, the man sent there was this same irresolute and undiscerning Dokhturov-Kutuzov hastening to rectify a mistake he had made by sending someone
else there first. And the quiet little Dokhturov rode thither, and Borodino became the greatest glory of the Russian army. Many heroes have been described to us in
verse and prose, but of Dokhturov scarcely a word has been said.

It was Dokhturov again whom they sent to Forminsk and from there to Malo-Yaroslavets, the place where the last battle with the French was fought and where the
obvious disintegration of the French army began; and we are told of many geniuses and heroes of that period of the campaign, but of Dokhturov nothing or very little is
said and that dubiously. And this silence about Dokhturov is the clearest testimony to his merit.

It is natural for a man who does not understand the workings of a machine to imagine that a shaving that has fallen into it by chance and is interfering with its action and
tossing about in it is its most important part. The man who does not understand the construction of the machine cannot conceive that the small connecting cogwheel
which revolves quietly is one of the most essential parts of the machine, and not the shaving which merely harms and hinders the working.

On the tenth of October when Dokhturov had gone halfway to Forminsk and stopped at the village of Aristovo, preparing faithfully to execute the orders he had
received, the whole French army having, in its convulsive movement, reached Murat's position apparently in order to give battle-suddenly without any reason turned off
to the left onto the new Kaluga road and began to enter Forminsk, where only Broussier had been till then. At that time Dokhturov had under his command, besides
Dorokhov's detachment, the two small guerrilla detachments of Figner and Seslavin.

On the evening of October 11 Seslavin came to the Aristovo headquarters with a French guardsman he had captured. The prisoner said that the troops that had
entered Forminsk that day were the vanguard of the whole army, that Napoleon was there and the whole army had left Moscow four days previously. That same
evening a house serf who had come from Borovsk said he had seen an immense army entering the town. Some Cossacks of Dokhturov's detachment reported having
sighted the French Guards marching along the road to Borovsk. From all these reports it was evident that where they had expected to meet a single division there was
now the whole French army marching from Moscow in an unexpected direction-along the Kaluga road. Dokhturov was unwilling to undertake any action, as it was not
clear to him now what he ought to do. He had been ordered to attack Forminsk. But only Broussier had been there at that time and now the whole French army was
there. Ermolov wished to act on his own judgment, but Dokhturov insisted that he must have Kutuzov's instructions. So it was decided to send a dispatch to the staff.

For this purpose a capable officer, Bolkhovitinov, was chosen, who was to explain the whole affair by word of mouth, besides delivering a written report. Toward
midnight Bolkhovitinov, having received the dispatch and verbal instructions, galloped off to the General Staff accompanied by a Cossack with spare horses.

Chapter XVI

It was a warm, dark, autumn night. It had been raining for four days. Having changed horses twice and galloped twenty miles in an hour and a half over a sticky, muddy
road, Bolkhovitinov reached Litashevka after one o'clock at night. Dismounting at a cottage on whose wattle fence hung a signboard, GENERAL STAFF, and
throwing down his reins, he entered a dark passage.

"The general on duty, quick! It's very important!" said he to someone who had risen and was sniffing in the dark passage.

"He has been very unwell since the evening and this is the third night he has not slept," said the orderly pleadingly in a whisper. "You should wake the captain first."

"But this is very important, from General Dokhturov," said Bolkhovitinov, entering the open door which he had found by feeling in the dark.

The orderly had gone in before him and began waking somebody.

"Your honor, your honor! A courier."

"What? What's that? From whom?" came a sleepy voice.

"From Dokhturov and from Alexey Petrovich. Napoleon is at Forminsk," said Bolkhovitinov, unable to see in the dark who was speaking but guessing by the voice that
it was not Konovnitsyn.

The man who had wakened yawned and stretched himself.

"I don't like waking him," he said, fumbling for something. "He is very ill. Perhaps this is only a rumor."

"Here is the dispatch," said Bolkhovitinov. "My orders are to give it at once to the general on duty."

"Wait a moment, I'll light a candle. You damned rascal, where do you always hide it?" said the voice of the man who was stretching himself, to the orderly. (This was
Shcherbinin, Konovnitsyn's adjutant.) "I've found it, I've found it!" he added.

The orderly was striking a light and Shcherbinin was fumbling for something on the candlestick.

"Oh, the nasty beasts!" said he with disgust.

By the light of the sparks Bolkhovitinov saw Shcherbinin's youthful face as he held the candle, and the face of another man who was still asleep. This was Konovnitsyn.

When the flame of the sulphur splinters kindled by the tinder burned up, first blue and then red, Shcherbinin lit the tallow candle, from the candlestick of which the
cockroaches that had been gnawing it were running away, and looked at the messenger. Bolkhovitinov was bespattered all over with mud and had smeared his face by
wiping it with his sleeve.

"Who gave the report?" inquired Shcherbinin, taking the envelope.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                         Page 488 / 567
"The news is reliable," said Bolkhovitinov. "Prisoners, Cossacks, and the scouts all say the same thing."
wiping it with his sleeve.

"Who gave the report?" inquired Shcherbinin, taking the envelope.

"The news is reliable," said Bolkhovitinov. "Prisoners, Cossacks, and the scouts all say the same thing."

"There's nothing to be done, we'll have to wake him," said Shcherbinin, rising and going up to the man in the nightcap who lay covered by a greatcoat. "Peter
Petrovich!" said he. (Konovnitsyn did not stir.) "To the General Staff!" he said with a smile, knowing that those words would be sure to arouse him.

And in fact the head in the nightcap was lifted at once. On Konovnitsyn's handsome, resolute face with cheeks flushed by fever, there still remained for an instant a
faraway dreamy expression remote from present affairs, but then he suddenly started and his face assumed its habitual calm and firm appearance.

"Well, what is it? From whom?" he asked immediately but without hurry, blinking at the light.

While listening to the officer's report Konovnitsyn broke the seal and read the dispatch. Hardly had he done so before he lowered his legs in their woolen stockings to
the earthen floor and began putting on his boots. Then he took off his nightcap, combed his hair over his temples, and donned his cap.

"Did you get here quickly? Let us go to his Highness."

Konovnitsyn had understood at once that the news brought was of great importance and that no time must be lost. He did not consider or ask himself whether the news
was good or bad. That did not interest him. He regarded the whole business of the war not with his intelligence or his reason but by something else. There was within
him a deep unexpressed conviction that all would be well, but that one must not trust to this and still less speak about it, but must only attend to one's own work. And
he did his work, giving his whole strength to the task.

Peter Petrovich Konovnitsyn, like Dokhturov, seems to have been included merely for propriety's sake in the list of the so-called heroes of 1812-the Barclays,
Raevskis, Ermolovs, Platovs, and Miloradoviches. Like Dokhturov he had the reputation of being a man of very limited capacity and information, and like Dokhturov
he never made plans of battle but was always found where the situation was most difficult. Since his appointment as general on duty he had always slept with his door
open, giving orders that every messenger should be allowed to wake him up. In battle he was always under fire, so that Kutuzov reproved him for it and feared to send
him to the front, and like Dokhturov he was one of those unnoticed cogwheels that, without clatter or noise, constitute the most essential part of the machine.

Coming out of the hut into the damp, dark night Konovnitsyn frowned-partly from an increased pain in his head and partly at the unpleasant thought that occurred to
him, of how all that nest of influential men on the staff would be stirred up by this news, especially Bennigsen, who ever since Tarutino had been at daggers drawn with
Kutuzov; and how they would make suggestions, quarrel, issue orders, and rescind them. And this premonition was disagreeable to him though he knew it could not be
helped.

And in fact Toll, to whom he went to communicate the news, immediately began to expound his plans to a general sharing his quarters, until Konovnitsyn, who listened
in weary silence, reminded him that they must go to see his Highness.

Chapter XVII

Kutuzov like all old people did not sleep much at night. He often fell asleep unexpectedly in the daytime, but at night, lying on his bed without undressing, he generally
remained awake thinking.

So he lay now on his bed, supporting his large, heavy, scarred head on his plump hand, with his one eye open, meditating and peering into the darkness.

Since Bennigsen, who corresponded with the Emperor and had more influence than anyone else on the staff, had begun to avoid him, Kutuzov was more at ease as to
the possibility of himself and his troops being obliged to take part in useless aggressive movements. The lesson of the Tarutino battle and of the day before it, which
Kutuzov remembered with pain, must, he thought, have some effect on others too.

"They must understand that we can only lose by taking the offensive. Patience and time are my warriors, my champions," thought Kutuzov. He knew that an apple
should not be plucked while it is green. It will fall of itself when ripe, but if picked unripe the apple is spoiled, the tree is harmed, and your teeth are set on edge. Like an
experienced sportsman he knew that the beast was wounded, and wounded as only the whole strength of Russia could have wounded it, but whether it was mortally
wounded or not was still an undecided question. Now by the fact of Lauriston and Barthelemi having been sent, and by the reports of the guerrillas, Kutuzov was
almost sure that the wound was mortal. But he needed further proofs and it was necessary to wait.

"They want to run to see how they have wounded it. Wait and we shall see! Continual maneuvers, continual advances!" thought he. "What for? Only to distinguish
themselves! As if fighting were fun. They are like children from whom one can't get any sensible account of what has happened because they all want to show how well
they can fight. But that's not what is needed now.

"And what ingenious maneuvers they all propose to me! It seems to them that when they have thought of two or three contingencies" (he remembered the general plan
sent him from Petersburg) "they have foreseen everything. But the contingencies are endless."

The undecided question as to whether the wound inflicted at Borodino was mortal or not had hung over Kutuzov's head for a whole month. On the one hand the
French had occupied Moscow. On the other Kutuzov felt assured with all his being that the terrible blow into which he and all the Russians had put their whole strength
must have been mortal. But in any case proofs were needed; he had waited a whole month for them and grew more impatient the longer he waited. Lying on his bed
during those sleepless nights he did just what he reproached those younger generals for doing. He imagined all sorts of possible contingencies, just like the younger men,
but with this difference, that he saw thousands of contingencies instead of two or three and based nothing on them. The longer he thought the more contingencies
presented themselves. He imagined all sorts of movements of the Napoleonic army as a whole or in sections-against Petersburg, or against him, or to outflank him. He
thought too of the possibility (which he feared most of all) that Napoleon might fight him with his own weapon and remain in Moscow awaiting him. Kutuzov even
imagined that Napoleon's army might turn back through Medyn and Yukhnov, but the one thing he could not foresee was what happened-the insane, convulsive
stampede of Napoleon's army during its first eleven days after leaving Moscow: a stampede which made possible what Kutuzov had not yet even dared to think of-the
complete extermination of the French. Dorokhov's report about Broussier's division, the guerrillas' reports of distress in Napoleon's army, rumors of preparations for
leaving Moscow, all confirmed the supposition that the French army was beaten and preparing for flight. But these were only suppositions, which seemed important to
the younger men but not to Kutuzov. With his sixty years' experience he knew what value to attach to rumors, knew how apt people who desire anything are to group
all news so that it appears to confirm what they desire, and he knew how readily in such cases they omit all that makes for the contrary. And the more he desired it the
less he allowed himself to believe it. This question absorbed all his mental powers. All else was to him only life's customary routine. To such customary routine belonged
his conversations
 Copyright          with the staff,
            (c) 2005-2009,          the letters
                               Infobase    Mediahe wrote
                                                   Corp. from Tarutino to Madame de Stael, the reading of novels, the distribution of awards, his correspondence with
Petersburg, and so on. But the destruction of the French, which he alone foresaw, was his heart's one desire.
                                                                                                                                                       Page 489 / 567

On the night of the eleventh of October he lay leaning on his arm and thinking of that.
the younger men but not to Kutuzov. With his sixty years' experience he knew what value to attach to rumors, knew how apt people who desire anything are to group
all news so that it appears to confirm what they desire, and he knew how readily in such cases they omit all that makes for the contrary. And the more he desired it the
less he allowed himself to believe it. This question absorbed all his mental powers. All else was to him only life's customary routine. To such customary routine belonged
his conversations with the staff, the letters he wrote from Tarutino to Madame de Stael, the reading of novels, the distribution of awards, his correspondence with
Petersburg, and so on. But the destruction of the French, which he alone foresaw, was his heart's one desire.

On the night of the eleventh of October he lay leaning on his arm and thinking of that.

There was a stir in the next room and he heard the steps of Toll, Konovnitsyn, and Bolkhovitinov.

"Eh, who's there? Come in, come in! What news?" the field marshal called out to them.

While a footman was lighting a candle, Toll communicated the substance of the news.

"Who brought it?" asked Kutuzov with a look which, when the candle was lit, struck Toll by its cold severity.

"There can be no doubt about it, your Highness."

"Call him in, call him here."

Kutuzov sat up with one leg hanging down from the bed and his big paunch resting against the other which was doubled under him. He screwed up his seeing eye to
scrutinize the messenger more carefully, as if wishing to read in his face what preoccupied his own mind.

"Tell me, tell me, friend," said he to Bolkhovitinov in his low, aged voice, as he pulled together the shirt which gaped open on his chest, "come nearer-nearer. What
news have you brought me? Eh? That Napoleon has left Moscow? Are you sure? Eh?"

Bolkhovitinov gave a detailed account from the beginning of all he had been told to report.

"Speak quicker, quicker! Don't torture me!" Kutuzov interrupted him.

Bolkhovitinov told him everything and was then silent, awaiting instructions. Toll was beginning to say something but Kutuzov checked him. He tried to say something,
but his face suddenly puckered and wrinkled; he waved his arm at Toll and turned to the opposite side of the room, to the corner darkened by the icons that hung
there.

"O Lord, my Creator, Thou has heard our prayer..." said he in a tremulous voice with folded hands. "Russia is saved. I thank Thee, O Lord!" and he wept.

Chapter XVIII

From the time he received this news to the end of the campaign all Kutuzov's activity was directed toward restraining his troops, by authority, by guile, and by entreaty,
from useless attacks, maneuvers, or encounters with the perishing enemy. Dokhturov went to Malo-Yaroslavets, but Kutuzov lingered with the main army and gave
orders for the evacuation of Kaluga-a retreat beyond which town seemed to him quite possible.

Everywhere Kutuzov retreated, but the enemy without waiting for his retreat fled in the opposite direction.

Napoleon's historians describe to us his skilled maneuvers at Tarutino and Malo-Yaroslavets, and make conjectures as to what would have happened had Napoleon
been in time to penetrate into the rich southern provinces.

But not to speak of the fact that nothing prevented him from advancing into those southern provinces (for the Russian army did not bar his way), the historians forget
that nothing could have saved his army, for then already it bore within itself the germs of inevitable ruin. How could that army-which had found abundant supplies in
Moscow and had trampled them underfoot instead of keeping them, and on arriving at Smolensk had looted provisions instead of storing them-how could that army
recuperate in Kaluga province, which was inhabited by Russians such as those who lived in Moscow, and where fire had the same property of consuming what was set
ablaze?

That army could not recover anywhere. Since the battle of Borodino and the pillage of Moscow it had borne within itself, as it were, the chemical elements of
dissolution.

The members of what had once been an army-Napoleon himself and all his soldiers fled-without knowing whither, each concerned only to make his escape as quickly
as possible from this position, of the hopelessness of which they were all more or less vaguely conscious.

So it came about that at the council at Malo-Yaroslavets, when the generals pretending to confer together expressed various opinions, all mouths were closed by the
opinion uttered by the simple-minded soldier Mouton who, speaking last, said what they all felt: that the one thing needful was to get away as quickly as possible; and
no one, not even Napoleon, could say anything against that truth which they all recognized.

But though they all realized that it was necessary to get away, there still remained a feeling of shame at admitting that they must flee. An external shock was needed to
overcome that shame, and this shock came in due time. It was what the French called "le hourra de l'Empereur."

The day after the council at Malo-Yaroslavets Napoleon rode out early in the morning amid the lines of his army with his suite of marshals and an escort, on the pretext
of inspecting the army and the scene of the previous and of the impending battle. Some Cossacks on the prowl for booty fell in with the Emperor and very nearly
captured him. If the Cossacks did not capture Napoleon then, what saved him was the very thing that was destroying the French army, the booty on which the
Cossacks fell. Here as at Tarutino they went after plunder, leaving the men. Disregarding Napoleon they rushed after the plunder and Napoleon managed to escape.

When les enfants du Don might so easily have taken the Emperor himself in the midst of his army, it was clear that there was nothing for it but to fly as fast as possible
along the nearest, familiar road. Napoleon with his forty-year-old stomach understood that hint, not feeling his former agility and boldness, and under the influence of
the fright the Cossacks had given him he at once agreed with Mouton and issued orders-as the historians tell us-to retreat by the Smolensk road.

That Napoleon agreed with Mouton, and that the army retreated, does not prove that Napoleon caused it to retreat, but that the forces which influenced the whole
army and directed it along the Mozhaysk (that is, the Smolensk) road acted simultaneously on him also.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                        Page 490 / 567
Chapter XIX
the fright the Cossacks had given him he at once agreed with Mouton and issued orders-as the historians tell us-to retreat by the Smolensk road.

That Napoleon agreed with Mouton, and that the army retreated, does not prove that Napoleon caused it to retreat, but that the forces which influenced the whole
army and directed it along the Mozhaysk (that is, the Smolensk) road acted simultaneously on him also.

Chapter XIX

A man in motion always devises an aim for that motion. To be able to go a thousand miles he must imagine that something good awaits him at the end of those thousand
miles. One must have the prospect of a promised land to have the strength to move.

The promised land for the French during their advance had been Moscow, during their retreat it was their native land. But that native land was too far off, and for a man
going a thousand miles it is absolutely necessary to set aside his final goal and to say to himself: "Today I shall get to a place twenty-five miles off where I shall rest and
spend the night," and during the first day's journey that resting place eclipses his ultimate goal and attracts all his hopes and desires. And the impulses felt by a single
person are always magnified in a crowd.

For the French retreating along the old Smolensk road, the final goal-their native land-was too remote, and their immediate goal was Smolensk, toward which all their
desires and hopes, enormously intensified in the mass, urged them on. It was not that they knew that much food and fresh troops awaited them in Smolensk, nor that
they were told so (on the contrary their superior officers, and Napoleon himself, knew that provisions were scarce there), but because this alone could give them
strength to move on and endure their present privations. So both those who knew and those who did not know deceived themselves, and pushed on to Smolensk as to
a promised land.

Coming out onto the highroad the French fled with surprising energy and unheard-of rapidity toward the goal they had fixed on. Besides the common impulse which
bound the whole crowd of French into one mass and supplied them with a certain energy, there was another cause binding them together-their great numbers. As with
the physical law of gravity, their enormous mass drew the individual human atoms to itself. In their hundreds of thousands they moved like a whole nation.

Each of them desired nothing more than to give himself up as a prisoner to escape from all this horror and misery; but on the one hand the force of this common
attraction to Smolensk, their goal, drew each of them in the same direction; on the other hand an army corps could not surrender to a company, and though the French
availed themselves of every convenient opportunity to detach themselves and to surrender on the slightest decent pretext, such pretexts did not always occur. Their very
numbers and their crowded and swift movement deprived them of that possibility and rendered it not only difficult but impossible for the Russians to stop this
movement, to which the French were directing all their energies. Beyond a certain limit no mechanical disruption of the body could hasten the process of
decomposition.

A lump of snow cannot be melted instantaneously. There is a certain limit of time in less than which no amount of heat can melt the snow. On the contrary the greater
the heat the more solidified the remaining snow becomes.

Of the Russian commanders Kutuzov alone understood this. When the flight of the French army along the Smolensk road became well defined, what Konovnitsyn had
foreseen on the night of the eleventh of October began to occur. The superior officers all wanted to distinguish themselves, to cut off, to seize, to capture, and to
overthrow the French, and all clamored for action.

Kutuzov alone used all his power (and such power is very limited in the case of any commander in chief) to prevent an attack.

He could not tell them what we say now: "Why fight, why block the road, losing our own men and inhumanly slaughtering unfortunate wretches? What is the use of that,
when a third of their army has melted away on the road from Moscow to Vyazma without any battle?" But drawing from his aged wisdom what they could understand,
he told them of the golden bridge, and they laughed at and slandered him, flinging themselves on, rending and exulting over the dying beast.

Ermolov, Miloradovich, Platov, and others in proximity to the French near Vyazma could not resist their desire to cut off and break up two French corps, and by way
of reporting their intention to Kutuzov they sent him a blank sheet of paper in an envelope.

And try as Kutuzov might to restrain the troops, our men attacked, trying to bar the road. Infantry regiments, we are told, advanced to the attack with music and with
drums beating, and killed and lost thousands of men.

But they did not cut off or overthrow anybody and the French army, closing up more firmly at the danger, continued, while steadily melting away, to pursue its fatal path
to Smolensk.

Book Fourteen-1812
Chapter I

The Battle of Borodino, with the occupation of Moscow that followed it and the flight of the French without further conflicts, is one of the most instructive phenomena in
history.

All historians agree that the external activity of states and nations in their conflicts with one another is expressed in wars, and that as a direct result of greater or less
success in war the political strength of states and nations increases or decreases.

Strange as may be the historical account of how some king or emperor, having quarreled with another, collects an army, fights his enemy's army, gains a victory by
killing three, five, or ten thousand men, and subjugates a kingdom and an entire nation of several millions, all the facts of history (as far as we know it) confirm the truth
of the statement that the greater or lesser success of one army against another is the cause, or at least an essential indication, of an increase or decrease in the strength
of the nation-even though it is unintelligible why the defeat of an army-a hundredth part of a nation-should oblige that whole nation to submit. An army gains a victory,
and at once the rights of the conquering nation have increased to the detriment of the defeated. An army has suffered defeat, and at once a people loses its rights in
proportion to the severity of the reverse, and if its army suffers a complete defeat the nation is quite subjugated.

So according to history it has been found from the most ancient times, and so it is to our own day. All Napoleon's wars serve to confirm this rule. In proportion to the
defeat of the Austrian army Austria loses its rights, and the rights and the strength of France increase. The victories of the French at Jena and Auerstadt destroy the
independent existence of Prussia.

But then, in 1812, the French gain a victory near Moscow. Moscow is taken and after that, with no further battles, it is not Russia that ceases to exist, but the French
army of six hundred thousand, and then Napoleonic France itself. To strain the facts to fit the rules of history: to say that the field of battle at Borodino remained in the
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                            Page 491 / 567
hands of the Russians, or that after Moscow there were other battles that destroyed Napoleon's army, is impossible.

After the French victory at Borodino there was no general engagement nor any that were at all serious, yet the French army ceased to exist. What does this mean? If it
independent existence of Prussia.

But then, in 1812, the French gain a victory near Moscow. Moscow is taken and after that, with no further battles, it is not Russia that ceases to exist, but the French
army of six hundred thousand, and then Napoleonic France itself. To strain the facts to fit the rules of history: to say that the field of battle at Borodino remained in the
hands of the Russians, or that after Moscow there were other battles that destroyed Napoleon's army, is impossible.

After the French victory at Borodino there was no general engagement nor any that were at all serious, yet the French army ceased to exist. What does this mean? If it
were an example taken from the history of China, we might say that it was not an historic phenomenon (which is the historians' usual expedient when anything does not
fit their standards); if the matter concerned some brief conflict in which only a small number of troops took part, we might treat it as an exception; but this event
occurred before our fathers' eyes, and for them it was a question of the life or death of their fatherland, and it happened in the greatest of all known wars.

The period of the campaign of 1812 from the battle of Borodino to the expulsion of the French proved that the winning of a battle does not produce a conquest and is
not even an invariable indication of conquest; it proved that the force which decides the fate of peoples lies not in the conquerors, nor even in armies and battles, but in
something else.

The French historians, describing the condition of the French army before it left Moscow, affirm that all was in order in the Grand Army, except the cavalry, the
artillery, and the transport-there was no forage for the horses or the cattle. That was a misfortune no one could remedy, for the peasants of the district burned their hay
rather than let the French have it.

The victory gained did not bring the usual results because the peasants Karp and Vlas (who after the French had evacuated Moscow drove in their carts to pillage the
town, and in general personally failed to manifest any heroic feelings), and the whole innumerable multitude of such peasants, did not bring their hay to Moscow for the
high price offered them, but burned it instead.

Let us imagine two men who have come out to fight a duel with rapiers according to all the rules of the art of fencing. The fencing has gone on for some time; suddenly
one of the combatants, feeling himself wounded and understanding that the matter is no joke but concerns his life, throws down his rapier, and seizing the first cudgel
that comes to hand begins to brandish it. Then let us imagine that the combatant who so sensibly employed the best and simplest means to attain his end was at the
same time influenced by traditions of chivalry and, desiring to conceal the facts of the case, insisted that he had gained his victory with the rapier according to all the
rules of art. One can imagine what confusion and obscurity would result from such an account of the duel.

The fencer who demanded a contest according to the rules of fencing was the French army; his opponent who threw away the rapier and snatched up the cudgel was
the Russian people; those who try to explain the matter according to the rules of fencing are the historians who have described the event.

After the burning of Smolensk a war began which did not follow any previous traditions of war. The burning of towns and villages, the retreats after battles, the blow
dealt at Borodino and the renewed retreat, the burning of Moscow, the capture of marauders, the seizure of transports, and the guerrilla war were all departures from
the rules.

Napoleon felt this, and from the time he took up the correct fencing attitude in Moscow and instead of his opponent's rapier saw a cudgel raised above his head, he did
not cease to complain to Kutuzov and to the Emperor Alexander that the war was being carried on contrary to all the rules-as if there were any rules for killing people.
In spite of the complaints of the French as to the nonobservance of the rules, in spite of the fact that to some highly placed Russians it seemed rather disgraceful to fight
with a cudgel and they wanted to assume a pose en quarte or en tierce according to all the rules, and to make an adroit thrust en prime, and so on-the cudgel of the
people's war was lifted with all its menacing and majestic strength, and without consulting anyone's tastes or rules and regardless of anything else, it rose and fell with
stupid simplicity, but consistently, and belabored the French till the whole invasion had perished.

And it is well for a people who do not-as the French did in 1813-salute according to all the rules of art, and, presenting the hilt of their rapier gracefully and politely,
hand it to their magnanimous conqueror, but at the moment of trial, without asking what rules others have adopted in similar cases, simply and easily pick up the first
cudgel that comes to hand and strike with it till the feeling of resentment and revenge in their soul yields to a feeling of contempt and compassion.

Chapter II

One of the most obvious and advantageous departures from the so-called laws of war is the action of scattered groups against men pressed together in a mass. Such
action always occurs in wars that take on a national character. In such actions, instead of two crowds opposing each other, the men disperse, attack singly, run away
when attacked by stronger forces, but again attack when opportunity offers. This was done by the guerrillas in Spain, by the mountain tribes in the Caucasus, and by
the Russians in 1812.

People have called this kind of war "guerrilla warfare" and assume that by so calling it they have explained its meaning. But such a war does not fit in under any rule and
is directly opposed to a well-known rule of tactics which is accepted as infallible. That rule says that an attacker should concentrate his forces in order to be stronger
than his opponent at the moment of conflict.

Guerrilla war (always successful, as history shows) directly infringes that rule.

This contradiction arises from the fact that military science assumes the strength of an army to be identical with its numbers. Military science says that the more troops
the greater the strength. Les gros bataillons ont toujours raison.

For military science to say this is like defining momentum in mechanics by reference to the mass only: stating that momenta are equal or unequal to each other simply
because the masses involved are equal or unequal.

Momentum (quantity of motion) is the product of mass and velocity.

In military affairs the strength of an army is the product of its mass and some unknown x.

Military science, seeing in history innumerable instances of the fact that the size of any army does not coincide with its strength and that small detachments defeat larger
ones, obscurely admits the existence of this unknown factor and tries to discover it-now in a geometric formation, now in the equipment employed, now, and most
usually, in the genius of the commanders. But the assignment of these various meanings to the factor does not yield results which accord with the historic facts.

Yet it is only necessary to abandon the false view (adopted to gratify the "heroes") of the efficacy of the directions issued in wartime by commanders, in order to find
this unknown quantity.

 Copyright
That       (c) quantity
     unknown   2005-2009,
                        is theInfobase    Media
                                spirit of the    Corp.
                                              army, that is to say, the greater or lesser readiness to fight and face danger felt by all the men composing Page
                                                                                                                                                           an army,492
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independently of whether they are, or are not, fighting under the command of a genius, in two-or three-line formation, with cudgels or with rifles that repeat thirty times a
minute. Men who want to fight will always put themselves in the most advantageous conditions for fighting.
Yet it is only necessary to abandon the false view (adopted to gratify the "heroes") of the efficacy of the directions issued in wartime by commanders, in order to find
this unknown quantity.

That unknown quantity is the spirit of the army, that is to say, the greater or lesser readiness to fight and face danger felt by all the men composing an army, quite
independently of whether they are, or are not, fighting under the command of a genius, in two-or three-line formation, with cudgels or with rifles that repeat thirty times a
minute. Men who want to fight will always put themselves in the most advantageous conditions for fighting.

The spirit of an army is the factor which multiplied by the mass gives the resulting force. To define and express the significance of this unknown factor-the spirit of an
army-is a problem for science.

This problem is only solvable if we cease arbitrarily to substitute for the unknown x itself the conditions under which that force becomes apparent-such as the
commands of the general, the equipment employed, and so on-mistaking these for the real significance of the factor, and if we recognize this unknown quantity in its
entirety as being the greater or lesser desire to fight and to face danger. Only then, expressing known historic facts by equations and comparing the relative significance
of this factor, can we hope to define the unknown.

Ten men, battalions, or divisions, fighting fifteen men, battalions, or divisions, conquer-that is, kill or take captive-all the others, while themselves losing four, so that on
the one side four and on the other fifteen were lost. Consequently the four were equal to the fifteen, and therefore 4x =15y. Consequently x/y =15/4. This equation
does not give us the value of the unknown factor but gives us a ratio between two unknowns. And by bringing variously selected historic units (battles, campaigns,
periods of war) into such equations, a series of numbers could be obtained in which certain laws should exist and might be discovered.

The tactical rule that an army should act in masses when attacking, and in smaller groups in retreat, unconsciously confirms the truth that the strength of an army
depends on its spirit. To lead men forward under fire more discipline (obtainable only by movement in masses) is needed than is needed to resist attacks. But this rule
which leaves out of account the spirit of the army continually proves incorrect and is in particularly striking contrast to the facts when some strong rise or fall in the spirit
of the troops occurs, as in all national wars.

The French, retreating in 1812-though according to tactics they should have separated into detachments to defend themselves-congregated into a mass because the
spirit of the army had so fallen that only the mass held the army together. The Russians, on the contrary, ought according to tactics to have attacked in mass, but in fact
they split up into small units, because their spirit had so risen that separate individuals, without orders, dealt blows at the French without needing any compulsion to
induce them to expose themselves to hardships and dangers.

Chapter III

The so-called partisan war began with the entry of the French into Smolensk.

Before partisan warfare had been officially recognized by the government, thousands of enemy stragglers, marauders, and foragers had been destroyed by the
Cossacks and the peasants, who killed them off as instinctively as dogs worry a stray mad dog to death. Denis Davydov, with his Russian instinct, was the first to
recognize the value of this terrible cudgel which regardless of the rules of military science destroyed the French, and to him belongs the credit for taking the first step
toward regularizing this method of warfare.

On August 24 Davydov's first partisan detachment was formed and then others were recognized. The further the campaign progressed the more numerous these
detachments became.

The irregulars destroyed the great army piecemeal. They gathered the fallen leaves that dropped of themselves from that withered tree-the French army-and sometimes
shook that tree itself. By October, when the French were fleeing toward Smolensk, there were hundreds of such companies, of various sizes and characters. There
were some that adopted all the army methods and had infantry, artillery, staffs, and the comforts of life. Others consisted solely of Cossack cavalry. There were also
small scratch groups of foot and horse, and groups of peasants and landowners that remained unknown. A sacristan commanded one party which captured several
hundred prisoners in the course of a month; and there was Vasilisa, the wife of a village elder, who slew hundreds of the French.

The partisan warfare flamed up most fiercely in the latter days of October. Its first period had passed: when the partisans themselves, amazed at their own boldness,
feared every minute to be surrounded and captured by the French, and hid in the forests without unsaddling, hardly daring to dismount and always expecting to be
pursued. By the end of October this kind of warfare had taken definite shape: it had become clear to all what could be ventured against the French and what could not.
Now only the commanders of detachments with staffs, and moving according to rules at a distance from the French, still regarded many things as impossible. The small
bands that had started their activities long before and had already observed the French closely considered things possible which the commanders of the big
detachments did not dare to contemplate. The Cossacks and peasants who crept in among the French now considered everything possible.

On October 22, Denisov (who was one of the irregulars) was with his group at the height of the guerrilla enthusiasm. Since early morning he and his party had been on
the move. All day long he had been watching from the forest that skirted the highroad a large French convoy of cavalry baggage and Russian prisoners separated from
the rest of the army, which-as was learned from spies and prisoners-was moving under a strong escort to Smolensk. Besides Denisov and Dolokhov (who also led a
small party and moved in Denisov's vicinity), the commanders of some large divisions with staffs also knew of this convoy and, as Denisov expressed it, were
sharpening their teeth for it. Two of the commanders of large parties-one a Pole and the other a German-sent invitations to Denisov almost simultaneously, requesting
him to join up with their divisions to attack the convoy.

"No, bwother, I have gwown mustaches myself," said Denisov on reading these documents, and he wrote to the German that, despite his heartfelt desire to serve under
so valiant and renowned a general, he had to forgo that pleasure because he was already under the command of the Polish general. To the Polish general he replied to
the same effect, informing him that he was already under the command of the German.

Having arranged matters thus, Denisov and Dolokhov intended, without reporting matters to the higher command, to attack and seize that convoy with their own small
forces. On October 22 it was moving from the village of Mikulino to that of Shamshevo. To the left of the road between Mikulino and Shamshevo there were large
forests, extending in some places up to the road itself though in others a mile or more back from it. Through these forests Denisov and his party rode all day, sometimes
keeping well back in them and sometimes coming to the very edge, but never losing sight of the moving French. That morning, Cossacks of Denisov's party had seized
and carried off into the forest two wagons loaded with cavalry saddles, which had stuck in the mud not far from Mikulino where the forest ran close to the road. Since
then, and until evening, the party had the movements of the French without attacking. It was necessary to let the French reach Shamshevo quietly without alarming them
and then, after joining Dolokhov who was to come that evening to a consultation at a watchman's hut in the forest less than a mile from Shamshevo, to surprise the
French at dawn, falling like an avalanche on their heads from two sides, and rout and capture them all at one blow.

In their rear, more than a mile from Mikulino where the forest came right up to the road, six Cossacks were posted to report if any fresh columns of French should
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Beyond Shamshevo, Dolokhov was to observe the road in the same way, to find out at what distance there were other French troops. They reckoned that the convoy
French at dawn, falling like an avalanche on their heads from two sides, and rout and capture them all at one blow.

In their rear, more than a mile from Mikulino where the forest came right up to the road, six Cossacks were posted to report if any fresh columns of French should
show themselves.

Beyond Shamshevo, Dolokhov was to observe the road in the same way, to find out at what distance there were other French troops. They reckoned that the convoy
had fifteen hundred men. Denisov had two hundred, and Dolokhov might have as many more, but the disparity of numbers did not deter Denisov. All that he now
wanted to know was what troops these were and to learn that he had to capture a "tongue"-that is, a man from the enemy column. That morning's attack on the wagons
had been made so hastily that the Frenchmen with the wagons had all been killed; only a little drummer boy had been taken alive, and as he was a straggler he could tell
them nothing definite about the troops in that column.

Denisov considered it dangerous to make a second attack for fear of putting the whole column on the alert, so he sent Tikhon Shcherbaty, a peasant of his party, to
Shamshevo to try and seize at least one of the French quartermasters who had been sent on in advance.

Chapter IV

It was a warm rainy autumn day. The sky and the horizon were both the color of muddy water. At times a sort of mist descended, and then suddenly heavy slanting rain
came down.

Denisov in a felt cloak and a sheepskin cap from which the rain ran down was riding a thin thoroughbred horse with sunken sides. Like his horse, which turned its head
and laid its ears back, he shrank from the driving rain and gazed anxiously before him. His thin face with its short, thick black beard looked angry.

Beside Denisov rode an esaul, Denisov's fellow worker, also in felt cloak and sheepskin cap, and riding a large sleek Don horse.

Esaul Lovayski the Third was a tall man as straight as an arrow, pale-faced, fair-haired, with narrow light eyes and with calm self-satisfaction in his face and bearing.
Though it was impossible to say in what the peculiarity of the horse and rider lay, yet at first glance at the esaul and Denisov one saw that the latter was wet and
uncomfortable and was a man mounted on a horse, while looking at the esaul one saw that he was as comfortable and as much at ease as always and that he was not a
man who had mounted a horse, but a man who was one with his horse, a being consequently possessed of twofold strength.

A little ahead of them walked a peasant guide, wet to the skin and wearing a gray peasant coat and a white knitted cap.

A little behind, on a poor, small, lean Kirghiz mount with an enormous tail and mane and a bleeding mouth, rode a young officer in a blue French overcoat.

Beside him rode an hussar, with a boy in a tattered French uniform and blue cap behind him on the crupper of his horse. The boy held on to the hussar with cold, red
hands, and raising his eyebrows gazed about him with surprise. This was the French drummer boy captured that morning.

Behind them along the narrow, sodden, cutup forest road came hussars in threes and fours, and then Cossacks: some in felt cloaks, some in French greatcoats, and
some with horsecloths over their heads. The horses, being drenched by the rain, all looked black whether chestnut or bay. Their necks, with their wet, close-clinging
manes, looked strangely thin. Steam rose from them. Clothes, saddles, reins, were all wet, slippery, and sodden, like the ground and the fallen leaves that strewed the
road. The men sat huddled up trying not to stir, so as to warm the water that had trickled to their bodies and not admit the fresh cold water that was leaking in under
their seats, their knees, and at the back of their necks. In the midst of the outspread line of Cossacks two wagons, drawn by French horses and by saddled Cossack
horses that had been hitched on in front, rumbled over the tree stumps and branches and splashed through the water that lay in the ruts.

Denisov's horse swerved aside to avoid a pool in the track and bumped his rider's knee against a tree.

"Oh, the devil!" exclaimed Denisov angrily, and showing his teeth he struck his horse three times with his whip, splashing himself and his comrades with mud.

Denisov was out of sorts both because of the rain and also from hunger (none of them had eaten anything since morning), and yet more because he still had no news
from Dolokhov and the man sent to capture a "tongue" had not returned.

"There'll hardly be another such chance to fall on a transport as today. It's too risky to attack them by oneself, and if we put it off till another day one of the big guerrilla
detachments will snatch the prey from under our noses," thought Denisov, continually peering forward, hoping to see a messenger from Dolokhov.

On coming to a path in the forest along which he could see far to the right, Denisov stopped.

"There's someone coming," said he.

The esaul looked in the direction Denisov indicated.

"There are two, an officer and a Cossack. But it is not presupposable that it is the lieutenant colonel himself," said the esaul, who was fond of using words the Cossacks
did not know.

The approaching riders having descended a decline were no longer visible, but they reappeared a few minutes later. In front, at a weary gallop and using his leather
whip, rode an officer, disheveled and drenched, whose trousers had worked up to above his knees. Behind him, standing in the stirrups, trotted a Cossack. The officer,
a very young lad with a broad rosy face and keen merry eyes, galloped up to Denisov and handed him a sodden envelope.

"From the general," said the officer. "Please excuse its not being quite dry."

Denisov, frowning, took the envelope and opened it.

"There, they kept telling us: 'It's dangerous, it's dangerous,'" said the officer, addressing the esaul while Denisov was reading the dispatch. "But Komarov and I"-he
pointed to the Cossack-"were prepared. We have each of us two pistols.... But what's this?" he asked, noticing the French drummer boy. "A prisoner? You've already
been in action? May I speak to him?"

"Wostov! Petya!" exclaimed Denisov, having run through the dispatch. "Why didn't you say who you were?" and turning with a smile he held out his hand to the lad.

The officer (c)
Copyright   was2005-2009,
                Petya Rostov.
                           Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                           Page 494 / 567
All the way Petya had been preparing himself to behave with Denisov as befitted a grownup man and an officer-without hinting at their previous acquaintance. But as
soon as Denisov smiled at him Petya brightened up, blushed with pleasure, forgot the official manner he had been rehearsing, and began telling him how he had already
"Wostov! Petya!" exclaimed Denisov, having run through the dispatch. "Why didn't you say who you were?" and turning with a smile he held out his hand to the lad.

The officer was Petya Rostov.

All the way Petya had been preparing himself to behave with Denisov as befitted a grownup man and an officer-without hinting at their previous acquaintance. But as
soon as Denisov smiled at him Petya brightened up, blushed with pleasure, forgot the official manner he had been rehearsing, and began telling him how he had already
been in a battle near Vyazma and how a certain hussar had distinguished himself there.

"Well, I am glad to see you," Denisov interrupted him, and his face again assumed its anxious expression.

"Michael Feoklitych," said he to the esaul, "this is again fwom that German, you know. He"-he indicated Petya-"is serving under him."

And Denisov told the esaul that the dispatch just delivered was a repetition of the German general's demand that he should join forces with him for an attack on the
transport.

"If we don't take it tomowwow, he'll snatch it fwom under our noses," he added.

While Denisov was talking to the esaul, Petya-abashed by Denisov's cold tone and supposing that it was due to the condition of his trousers-furtively tried to pull them
down under his greatcoat so that no one should notice it, while maintaining as martial an air as possible.

"Will there be any orders, your honor?" he asked Denisov, holding his hand at the salute and resuming the game of adjutant and general for which he had prepared
himself, "or shall I remain with your honor?"

"Orders?" Denisov repeated thoughtfully. "But can you stay till tomowwow?"

"Oh, please... May I stay with you?" cried Petya.

"But, just what did the genewal tell you? To weturn at once?" asked Denisov.

Petya blushed.

"He gave me no instructions. I think I could?" he returned, inquiringly.

"Well, all wight," said Denisov.

And turning to his men he directed a party to go on to the halting place arranged near the watchman's hut in the forest, and told the officer on the Kirghiz horse (who
performed the duties of an adjutant) to go and find out where Dolokhov was and whether he would come that evening. Denisov himself intended going with the esaul
and Petya to the edge of the forest where it reached out to Shamshevo, to have a look at the part of the French bivouac they were to attack next day.

"Well, old fellow," said he to the peasant guide, "lead us to Shamshevo."

Denisov, Petya, and the esaul, accompanied by some Cossacks and the hussar who had the prisoner, rode to the left across a ravine to the edge of the forest.

Chapter V

The rain had stopped, and only the mist was falling and drops from the trees. Denisov, the esaul, and Petya rode silently, following the peasant in the knitted cap who,
stepping lightly with outturned toes and moving noiselessly in his bast shoes over the roots and wet leaves, silently led them to the edge of the forest.

He ascended an incline, stopped, looked about him, and advanced to where the screen of trees was less dense. On reaching a large oak tree that had not yet shed its
leaves, he stopped and beckoned mysteriously to them with his hand.

Denisov and Petya rode up to him. From the spot where the peasant was standing they could see the French. Immediately beyond the forest, on a downward slope, lay
a field of spring rye. To the right, beyond a steep ravine, was a small village and a landowner's house with a broken roof. In the village, in the house, in the garden, by
the well, by the pond, over all the rising ground, and all along the road uphill from the bridge leading to the village, not more than five hundred yards away, crowds of
men could be seen through the shimmering mist. Their un-Russian shouting at their horses which were straining uphill with the carts, and their calls to one another, could
be clearly heard.

"Bwing the prisoner here," said Denisov in a low voice, not taking his eyes off the French.

A Cossack dismounted, lifted the boy down, and took him to Denisov. Pointing to the French troops, Denisov asked him what these and those of them were. The boy,
thrusting his cold hands into his pockets and lifting his eyebrows, looked at Denisov in affright, but in spite of an evident desire to say all he knew gave confused
answers, merely assenting to everything Denisov asked him. Denisov turned away from him frowning and addressed the esaul, conveying his own conjectures to him.

Petya, rapidly turning his head, looked now at the drummer boy, now at Denisov, now at the esaul, and now at the French in the village and along the road, trying not
to miss anything of importance.

"Whether Dolokhov comes or not, we must seize it, eh?" said Denisov with a merry sparkle in his eyes.

"It is a very suitable spot," said the esaul.

"We'll send the infantwy down by the swamps," Denisov continued. "They'll cweep up to the garden; you'll wide up fwom there with the Cossacks"-he pointed to a
spot in the forest beyond the village-"and I with my hussars fwom here. And at the signal shot..."

"The hollow is impassable-there's a swamp there," said the esaul. "The horses would sink. We must ride round more to the left...."

While they were talking in undertones the crack of a shot sounded from the low ground by the pond, a puff of white smoke appeared, then another, and the sound of
 Copyright
hundreds  of(c) 2005-2009,
             seemingly merryInfobase    Mediashouting
                              French voices    Corp. together came up from the slope. For a moment Denisov and the esaul drew back. They were     Page
                                                                                                                                                    so near495
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thought they were the cause of the firing and shouting. But the firing and shouting did not relate to them. Down below, a man wearing something red was running
through the marsh. The French were evidently firing and shouting at him.
"The hollow is impassable-there's a swamp there," said the esaul. "The horses would sink. We must ride round more to the left...."

While they were talking in undertones the crack of a shot sounded from the low ground by the pond, a puff of white smoke appeared, then another, and the sound of
hundreds of seemingly merry French voices shouting together came up from the slope. For a moment Denisov and the esaul drew back. They were so near that they
thought they were the cause of the firing and shouting. But the firing and shouting did not relate to them. Down below, a man wearing something red was running
through the marsh. The French were evidently firing and shouting at him.

"Why, that's our Tikhon," said the esaul.

"So it is! It is!"

"The wascal!" said Denisov.

"He'll get away!" said the esaul, screwing up his eyes.

The man whom they called Tikhon, having run to the stream, plunged in so that the water splashed in the air, and, having disappeared for an instant, scrambled out on
all fours, all black with the wet, and ran on. The French who had been pursuing him stopped.

"Smart, that!" said the esaul.

"What a beast!" said Denisov with his former look of vexation. "What has he been doing all this time?"

"Who is he?" asked Petya.

"He's our plastun. I sent him to capture a 'tongue.'"

"Oh, yes," said Petya, nodding at the first words Denisov uttered as if he understood it all, though he really did not understand anything of it.

Tikhon Shcherbaty was one of the most indispensable men in their band. He was a peasant from Pokrovsk, near the river Gzhat. When Denisov had come to
Pokrovsk at the beginning of his operations and had as usual summoned the village elder and asked him what he knew about the French, the elder, as though shielding
himself, had replied, as all village elders did, that he had neither seen nor heard anything of them. But when Denisov explained that his purpose was to kill the French,
and asked if no French had strayed that way, the elder replied that some "more-orderers" had really been at their village, but that Tikhon Shcherbaty was the only man
who dealt with such matters. Denisov had Tikhon called and, having praised him for his activity, said a few words in the elder's presence about loyalty to the Tsar and
the country and the hatred of the French that all sons of the fatherland should cherish.

"We don't do the French any harm," said Tikhon, evidently frightened by Denisov's words. "We only fooled about with the lads for fun, you know! We killed a score or
so of 'more-orderers,' but we did no harm else..."

Next day when Denisov had left Pokrovsk, having quite forgotten about this peasant, it was reported to him that Tikhon had attached himself to their party and asked
to be allowed to remain with it. Denisov gave orders to let him do so.

Tikhon, who at first did rough work, laying campfires, fetching water, flaying dead horses, and so on, soon showed a great liking and aptitude for partisan warfare. At
night he would go out for booty and always brought back French clothing and weapons, and when told to would bring in French captives also. Denisov then relieved
him from drudgery and began taking him with him when he went out on expeditions and had him enrolled among the Cossacks.

Tikhon did not like riding, and always went on foot, never lagging behind the cavalry. He was armed with a musketoon (which he carried rather as a joke), a pike and
an ax, which latter he used as a wolf uses its teeth, with equal case picking fleas out of its fur or crunching thick bones. Tikhon with equal accuracy would split logs with
blows at arm's length, or holding the head of the ax would cut thin little pegs or carve spoons. In Denisov's party he held a peculiar and exceptional position. When
anything particularly difficult or nasty had to be done-to push a cart out of the mud with one's shoulders, pull a horse out of a swamp by its tail, skin it, slink in among
the French, or walk more than thirty miles in a day-everybody pointed laughingly at Tikhon.

"It won't hurt that devil-he's as strong as a horse!" they said of him.

Once a Frenchman Tikhon was trying to capture fired a pistol at him and shot him in the fleshy part of the back. That wound (which Tikhon treated only with internal
and external applications of vodka) was the subject of the liveliest jokes by the whole detachment-jokes in which Tikhon readily joined.

"Hallo, mate! Never again? Gave you a twist?" the Cossacks would banter him. And Tikhon, purposely writhing and making faces, pretended to be angry and swore at
the French with the funniest curses. The only effect of this incident on Tikhon was that after being wounded he seldom brought in prisoners.

He was the bravest and most useful man in the party. No one found more opportunities for attacking, no one captured or killed more Frenchmen, and consequently he
was made the buffoon of all the Cossacks and hussars and willingly accepted that role. Now he had been sent by Denisov overnight to Shamshevo to capture a
"tongue." But whether because he had not been content to take only one Frenchman or because he had slept through the night, he had crept by day into some bushes
right among the French and, as Denisov had witnessed from above, had been detected by them.

Chapter VI

After talking for some time with the esaul about next day's attack, which now, seeing how near they were to the French, he seemed to have definitely decided on,
Denisov turned his horse and rode back.

"Now, my lad, we'll go and get dwy," he said to Petya.

As they approached the watchhouse Denisov stopped, peering into the forest. Among the trees a man with long legs and long, swinging arms, wearing a short jacket,
bast shoes, and a Kazan hat, was approaching with long, light steps. He had a musketoon over his shoulder and an ax stuck in his girdle. When he espied Denisov he
hastily threw something into the bushes, removed his sodden hat by its floppy brim, and approached his commander. It was Tikhon. His wrinkled and pockmarked face
and narrow little eyes beamed with self-satisfied merriment. He lifted his head high and gazed at Denisov as if repressing a laugh.

"Well, where
 Copyright (c)did you disappear
               2005-2009,       to?" inquired
                            Infobase          Denisov.
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"Where did I disappear to? I went to get Frenchmen," answered Tikhon boldly and hurriedly, in a husky but melodious bass voice.
bast shoes, and a Kazan hat, was approaching with long, light steps. He had a musketoon over his shoulder and an ax stuck in his girdle. When he espied Denisov he
hastily threw something into the bushes, removed his sodden hat by its floppy brim, and approached his commander. It was Tikhon. His wrinkled and pockmarked face
and narrow little eyes beamed with self-satisfied merriment. He lifted his head high and gazed at Denisov as if repressing a laugh.

"Well, where did you disappear to?" inquired Denisov.

"Where did I disappear to? I went to get Frenchmen," answered Tikhon boldly and hurriedly, in a husky but melodious bass voice.

"Why did you push yourself in there by daylight? You ass! Well, why haven't you taken one?"

"Oh, I took one all right," said Tikhon.

"Where is he?"

"You see, I took him first thing at dawn," Tikhon continued, spreading out his flat feet with outturned toes in their bast shoes. "I took him into the forest. Then I see he's
no good and think I'll go and fetch a likelier one."

"You see?... What a wogue-it's just as I thought," said Denisov to the esaul. "Why didn't you bwing that one?"

"What was the good of bringing him?" Tikhon interrupted hastily and angrily-"that one wouldn't have done for you. As if I don't know what sort you want!"

"What a bwute you are!... Well?"

"I went for another one," Tikhon continued, "and I crept like this through the wood and lay down." (He suddenly lay down on his stomach with a supple movement to
show how he had done it.) "One turned up and I grabbed him, like this." (He jumped up quickly and lightly.) "'Come along to the colonel,' I said. He starts yelling, and
suddenly there were four of them. They rushed at me with their little swords. So I went for them with my ax, this way: 'What are you up to?' says I. 'Christ be with
you!'" shouted Tikhon, waving his arms with an angry scowl and throwing out his chest.

"Yes, we saw from the hill how you took to your heels through the puddles!" said the esaul, screwing up his glittering eyes.

Petya badly wanted to laugh, but noticed that they all refrained from laughing. He turned his eyes rapidly from Tikhon's face to the esaul's and Denisov's, unable to
make out what it all meant.

"Don't play the fool!" said Denisov, coughing angrily. "Why didn't you bwing the first one?"

Tikhon scratched his back with one hand and his head with the other, then suddenly his whole face expanded into a beaming, foolish grin, disclosing a gap where he
had lost a tooth (that was why he was called Shcherbaty-the gap-toothed). Denisov smiled, and Petya burst into a peal of merry laughter in which Tikhon himself
joined.

"Oh, but he was a regular good-for-nothing," said Tikhon. "The clothes on him-poor stuff! How could I bring him? And so rude, your honor! Why, he says: 'I'm a
general's son myself, I won't go!' he says."

"You are a bwute!" said Denisov. "I wanted to question..."

"But I questioned him," said Tikhon. "He said he didn't know much. 'There are a lot of us,' he says, 'but all poor stuff-only soldiers in name,' he says. 'Shout loud at
them,' he says, 'and you'll take them all,'" Tikhon concluded, looking cheerfully and resolutely into Denisov's eyes.

"I'll give you a hundwed sharp lashes-that'll teach you to play the fool!" said Denisov severely.

"But why are you angry?" remonstrated Tikhon, "just as if I'd never seen your Frenchmen! Only wait till it gets dark and I'll fetch you any of them you want-three if you
like."

"Well, let's go," said Denisov, and rode all the way to the watchhouse in silence and frowning angrily.

Tikhon followed behind and Petya heard the Cossacks laughing with him and at him, about some pair of boots he had thrown into the bushes.

When the fit of laughter that had seized him at Tikhon's words and smile had passed and Petya realized for a moment that this Tikhon had killed a man, he felt uneasy.
He looked round at the captive drummer boy and felt a pang in his heart. But this uneasiness lasted only a moment. He felt it necessary to hold his head higher, to brace
himself, and to question the esaul with an air of importance about tomorrow's undertaking, that he might not be unworthy of the company in which he found himself.

The officer who had been sent to inquire met Denisov on the way with the news that Dolokhov was soon coming and that all was well with him.

Denisov at once cheered up and, calling Petya to him, said: "Well, tell me about yourself."

Chapter VII

Petya, having left his people after their departure from Moscow, joined his regiment and was soon taken as orderly by a general commanding a large guerrilla
detachment. From the time he received his commission, and especially since he had joined the active army and taken part in the battle of Vyazma, Petya had been in a
constant state of blissful excitement at being grown-up and in a perpetual ecstatic hurry not to miss any chance to do something really heroic. He was highly delighted
with what he saw and experienced in the army, but at the same time it always seemed to him that the really heroic exploits were being performed just where he did not
happen to be. And he was always in a hurry to get where he was not.

When on the twenty-first of October his general expressed a wish to send somebody to Denisov's detachment, Petya begged so piteously to be sent that the general
could not refuse. But when dispatching him he recalled Petya's mad action at the battle of Vyazma, where instead of riding by the road to the place to which he had
been sent, he had galloped to the advanced line under the fire of the French and had there twice fired his pistol. So now the general explicitly forbade his taking part in
any action whatever of Denisov's. That was why Petya had blushed and grown confused when Denisov asked him whether he could stay. Before they had ridden to the
outskirts of the forest Petya had considered he must carry out his instructions strictly and return at once. But when he saw the French and saw Tikhon and learned that
 Copyright
there  would(c)  2005-2009,
              certainly       Infobase
                        be an attack that Media   Corp.
                                          night, he decided, with the rapidity with which young people change their views, that the general, whom he Page     497respected
                                                                                                                                                      had greatly   / 567
till then, was a rubbishy German, that Denisov was a hero, the esaul a hero, and Tikhon a hero too, and that it would be shameful for him to leave them at a moment of
difficulty.
could not refuse. But when dispatching him he recalled Petya's mad action at the battle of Vyazma, where instead of riding by the road to the place to which he had
been sent, he had galloped to the advanced line under the fire of the French and had there twice fired his pistol. So now the general explicitly forbade his taking part in
any action whatever of Denisov's. That was why Petya had blushed and grown confused when Denisov asked him whether he could stay. Before they had ridden to the
outskirts of the forest Petya had considered he must carry out his instructions strictly and return at once. But when he saw the French and saw Tikhon and learned that
there would certainly be an attack that night, he decided, with the rapidity with which young people change their views, that the general, whom he had greatly respected
till then, was a rubbishy German, that Denisov was a hero, the esaul a hero, and Tikhon a hero too, and that it would be shameful for him to leave them at a moment of
difficulty.

It was already growing dusk when Denisov, Petya, and the esaul rode up to the watchhouse. In the twilight saddled horses could be seen, and Cossacks and hussars
who had rigged up rough shelters in the glade and were kindling glowing fires in a hollow of the forest where the French could not see the smoke. In the passage of the
small watchhouse a Cossack with sleeves rolled up was chopping some mutton. In the room three officers of Denisov's band were converting a door into a tabletop.
Petya took off his wet clothes, gave them to be dried, and at once began helping the officers to fix up the dinner table.

In ten minutes the table was ready and a napkin spread on it. On the table were vodka, a flask of rum, white bread, roast mutton, and salt.

Sitting at table with the officers and tearing the fat savory mutton with his hands, down which the grease trickled, Petya was in an ecstatic childish state of love for all
men, and consequently of confidence that others loved him in the same way.

"So then what do you think, Vasili Dmitrich?" said he to Denisov. "It's all right my staying a day with you?" And not waiting for a reply he answered his own question:
"You see I was told to find out-well, I am finding out.... Only do let me into the very... into the chief... I don't want a reward... But I want..."

Petya clenched his teeth and looked around, throwing back his head and flourishing his arms.

"Into the vewy chief..." Denisov repeated with a smile.

"Only, please let me command something, so that I may really command..." Petya went on. "What would it be to you?... Oh, you want a knife?" he said, turning to an
officer who wished to cut himself a piece of mutton.

And he handed him his clasp knife. The officer admired it.

"Please keep it. I have several like it," said Petya, blushing. "Heavens! I was quite forgetting!" he suddenly cried. "I have some raisins, fine ones; you know, seedless
ones. We have a new sutler and he has such capital things. I bought ten pounds. I am used to something sweet. Would you like some?..." and Petya ran out into the
passage to his Cossack and brought back some bags which contained about five pounds of raisins. "Have some, gentlemen, have some!"

"You want a coffeepot, don't you?" he asked the esaul. "I bought a capital one from our sutler! He has splendid things. And he's very honest, that's the chief thing. I'll be
sure to send it to you. Or perhaps your flints are giving out, or are worn out-that happens sometimes, you know. I have brought some with me, here they are"-and he
showed a bag-"a hundred flints. I bought them very cheap. Please take as many as you want, or all if you like...."

Then suddenly, dismayed lest he had said too much, Petya stopped and blushed.

He tried to remember whether he had not done anything else that was foolish. And running over the events of the day he remembered the French drummer boy. "It's
capital for us here, but what of him? Where have they put him? Have they fed him? Haven't they hurt his feelings?" he thought. But having caught himself saying too
much about the flints, he was now afraid to speak out.

"I might ask," he thought, "but they'll say: 'He's a boy himself and so he pities the boy.' I'll show them tomorrow whether I'm a boy. Will it seem odd if I ask?" Petya
thought. "Well, never mind!" and immediately, blushing and looking anxiously at the officers to see if they appeared ironical, he said:

"May I call in that boy who was taken prisoner and give him something to eat?... Perhaps..."

"Yes, he's a poor little fellow," said Denisov, who evidently saw nothing shameful in this reminder. "Call him in. His name is Vincent Bosse. Have him fetched."

"I'll call him," said Petya.

"Yes, yes, call him. A poor little fellow," Denisov repeated.

Petya was standing at the door when Denisov said this. He slipped in between the officers, came close to Denisov, and said:

"Let me kiss you, dear old fellow! Oh, how fine, how splendid!"

And having kissed Denisov he ran out of the hut.

"Bosse! Vincent!" Petya cried, stopping outside the door.

"Who do you want, sir?" asked a voice in the darkness.

Petya replied that he wanted the French lad who had been captured that day.

"Ah, Vesenny?" said a Cossack.

Vincent, the boy's name, had already been changed by the Cossacks into Vesenny (vernal) and into Vesenya by the peasants and soldiers. In both these adaptations
the reference to spring (vesna) matched the impression made by the young lad.

"He is warming himself there by the bonfire. Ho, Vesenya! Vesenya!-Vesenny!" laughing voices were heard calling to one another in the darkness.

"He's a smart lad," said an hussar standing near Petya. "We gave him something to eat a while ago. He was awfully hungry!"

The sound of bare feet splashing through the mud was heard in the darkness, and the drummer boy came to the door.
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"Ah, c'est vous!" said Petya. "Voulez-vous manger? N'ayez pas peur, on ne vous fera pas de mal," he added shyly and affectionately, touching the boy's hand. "Entrez,
entrez."[2]
"He's a smart lad," said an hussar standing near Petya. "We gave him something to eat a while ago. He was awfully hungry!"

The sound of bare feet splashing through the mud was heard in the darkness, and the drummer boy came to the door.

"Ah, c'est vous!" said Petya. "Voulez-vous manger? N'ayez pas peur, on ne vous fera pas de mal," he added shyly and affectionately, touching the boy's hand. "Entrez,
entrez."[2]

"Merci, monsieur," said the drummer boy in a trembling almost childish voice, and he began scraping his dirty feet on the threshold.

There were many things Petya wanted to say to the drummer boy, but did not dare to. He stood irresolutely beside him in the passage. Then in the darkness he took
the boy's hand and pressed it.

"Come in, come in!" he repeated in a gentle whisper. "Oh, what can I do for him?" he thought, and opening the door he let the boy pass in first.

When the boy had entered the hut, Petya sat down at a distance from him, considering it beneath his dignity to pay attention to him. But he fingered the money in his
pocket and wondered whether it would seem ridiculous to give some to the drummer boy.

Chapter VIII

The arrival of Dolokhov diverted Petya's attention from the drummer boy, to whom Denisov had had some mutton and vodka given, and whom he had had dressed in
a Russian coat so that he might be kept with their band and not sent away with the other prisoners. Petya had heard in the army many stories of Dolokhov's
extraordinary bravery and of his cruelty to the French, so from the moment he entered the hut Petya did not take his eyes from him, but braced himself up more and
more and held his head high, that he might not be unworthy even of such company.

Dolokhov's appearance amazed Petya by its simplicity.

Denisov wore a Cossack coat, had a beard, had an icon of Nicholas the Wonder-Worker on his breast, and his way of speaking and everything he did indicated his
unusual position. But Dolokhov, who in Moscow had worn a Persian costume, had now the appearance of a most correct officer of the Guards. He was clean-shaven
and wore a Guardsman's padded coat with an Order of St. George at his buttonhole and a plain forage cap set straight on his head. He took off his wet felt cloak in a
corner of the room, and without greeting anyone went up to Denisov and began questioning him about the matter in hand. Denisov told him of the designs the large
detachments had on the transport, of the message Petya had brought, and his own replies to both generals. Then he told him all he knew of the French detachment.

"That's so. But we must know what troops they are and their numbers," said Dolokhov. "It will be necessary to go there. We can't start the affair without knowing for
certain how many there are. I like to work accurately. Here now-wouldn't one of these gentlemen like to ride over to the French camp with me? I have brought a spare
uniform."

"I, I... I'll go with you!" cried Petya.

"There's no need for you to go at all," said Denisov, addressing Dolokhov, "and as for him, I won't let him go on any account."

"I like that!" exclaimed Petya. "Why shouldn't I go?"

"Because it's useless."

"Well, you must excuse me, because... because... I shall go, and that's all. You'll take me, won't you?" he said, turning to Dolokhov.

"Why not?" Dolokhov answered absently, scrutinizing the face of the French drummer boy. "Have you had that youngster with you long?" he asked Denisov.

"He was taken today but he knows nothing. I'm keeping him with me."

"Yes, and where do you put the others?" inquired Dolokhov.

"Where? I send them away and take a weceipt for them," shouted Denisov, suddenly flushing. "And I say boldly that I have not a single man's life on my conscience.
Would it be difficult for you to send thirty or thwee hundwed men to town under escort, instead of staining-I speak bluntly-staining the honor of a soldier?"

"That kind of amiable talk would be suitable from this young count of sixteen," said Dolokhov with cold irony, "but it's time for you to drop it."

"Why, I've not said anything! I only say that I'll certainly go with you," said Petya shyly.

"But for you and me, old fellow, it's time to drop these amenities," continued Dolokhov, as if he found particular pleasure in speaking of this subject which irritated
Denisov. "Now, why have you kept this lad?" he went on, swaying his head. "Because you are sorry for him! Don't we know those 'receipts' of yours? You send a
hundred men away, and thirty get there. The rest either starve or get killed. So isn't it all the same not to send them?"

The esaul, screwing up his light-colored eyes, nodded approvingly.

"That's not the point. I'm not going to discuss the matter. I do not wish to take it on my conscience. You say they'll die. All wight. Only not by my fault!"

Dolokhov began laughing.

"Who has told them not to capture me these twenty times over? But if they did catch me they'd string me up to an aspen tree, and with all your chivalry just the same."
He paused. "However, we must get to work. Tell the Cossack to fetch my kit. I have two French uniforms in it. Well, are you coming with me?" he asked Petya.

"I? Yes, yes, certainly!" cried Petya, blushing almost to tears and glancing at Denisov.

While Dolokhov had been disputing with Denisov what should be done with prisoners, Petya had once more felt awkward and restless; but again he had no time to
grasp fully what they were talking about. "If grown-up, distinguished men think so, it must be necessary and right," thought he. "But above all Denisov must not dare to
imagine that I'll obey him and that he can order me about. I will certainly go to the French camp with Dolokhov. If he can, so can I!"
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And to all Denisov's persuasions, Petya replied that he too was accustomed to do everything accurately and not just anyhow, and that he never considered personal
danger.
While Dolokhov had been disputing with Denisov what should be done with prisoners, Petya had once more felt awkward and restless; but again he had no time to
grasp fully what they were talking about. "If grown-up, distinguished men think so, it must be necessary and right," thought he. "But above all Denisov must not dare to
imagine that I'll obey him and that he can order me about. I will certainly go to the French camp with Dolokhov. If he can, so can I!"

And to all Denisov's persuasions, Petya replied that he too was accustomed to do everything accurately and not just anyhow, and that he never considered personal
danger.

"For you'll admit that if we don't know for sure how many of them there are... hundreds of lives may depend on it, while there are only two of us. Besides, I want to go
very much and certainly will go, so don't hinder me," said he. "It will only make things worse..."

Chapter IX

Having put on French greatcoats and shakos, Petya and Dolokhov rode to the clearing from which Denisov had reconnoitered the French camp, and emerging from the
forest in pitch darkness they descended into the hollow. On reaching the bottom, Dolokhov told the Cossacks accompanying him to await him there and rode on at a
quick trot along the road to the bridge. Petya, his heart in his mouth with excitement, rode by his side.

"If we're caught, I won't be taken alive! I have a pistol," whispered he.

"Don't talk Russian," said Dolokhov in a hurried whisper, and at that very moment they heard through the darkness the challenge: "Qui vive?" and the click of a musket.

The blood rushed to Petya's face and he grasped his pistol.

"Lanciers du 6-me," replied Dolokhov, neither hastening nor slackening his horse's pace.

The black figure of a sentinel stood on the bridge.

"Mot d'ordre."

Dolokhov reined in his horse and advanced at a walk.

"Dites donc, le colonel Gerard est ici?" he asked.

"Mot d'ordre," repeated the sentinel, barring the way and not replying.

"Quand un officier fait sa ronde, les sentinelles ne demandent pas le mot d'ordre..." cried Dolokhov suddenly flaring up and riding straight at the sentinel. "Je vous
demande si le colonel est ici."

And without waiting for an answer from the sentinel, who had stepped aside, Dolokhov rode up the incline at a walk.

Noticing the black outline of a man crossing the road, Dolokhov stopped him and inquired where the commander and officers were. The man, a soldier with a sack
over his shoulder, stopped, came close up to Dolokhov's horse, touched it with his hand, and explained simply and in a friendly way that the commander and the
officers were higher up the hill to the right in the courtyard of the farm, as he called the landowner's house.

Having ridden up the road, on both sides of which French talk could be heard around the campfires, Dolokhov turned into the courtyard of the landowner's house.
Having ridden in, he dismounted and approached a big blazing campfire, around which sat several men talking noisily. Something was boiling in a small cauldron at the
edge of the fire and a soldier in a peaked cap and blue overcoat, lit up by the fire, was kneeling beside it stirring its contents with a ramrod.

"Oh, he's a hard nut to crack," said one of the officers who was sitting in the shadow at the other side of the fire.

"He'll make them get a move on, those fellows!" said another, laughing.

Both fell silent, peering out through the darkness at the sound of Dolokhov's and Petya's steps as they advanced to the fire leading their horses.

"Bonjour, messieurs!" said Dolokhov loudly and clearly.

There was a stir among the officers in the shadow beyond the fire, and one tall, long-necked officer, walking round the fire, came up to Dolokhov.

"Is that you, Clement?" he asked. "Where the devil...? But, noticing his mistake, he broke off short and, with a frown, greeted Dolokhov as a stranger, asking what he
could do for him.

Dolokhov said that he and his companion were trying to overtake their regiment, and addressing the company in general asked whether they knew anything of the 6th
Regiment. None of them knew anything, and Petya thought the officers were beginning to look at him and Dolokhov with hostility and suspicion. For some seconds all
were silent.

"If you were counting on the evening soup, you have come too late," said a voice from behind the fire with a repressed laugh.

Dolokhov replied that they were not hungry and must push on farther that night.

He handed the horses over to the soldier who was stirring the pot and squatted down on his heels by the fire beside the officer with the long neck. That officer did not
take his eyes from Dolokhov and again asked to what regiment he belonged. Dolokhov, as if he had not heard the question, did not reply, but lighting a short French
pipe which he took from his pocket began asking the officer in how far the road before them was safe from Cossacks.

"Those brigands are everywhere," replied an officer from behind the fire.

Dolokhov remarked that the Cossacks were a danger only to stragglers such as his companion and himself, "but probably they would not dare to attack large
detachments?" he added inquiringly. No one replied.
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"Well, now he'll come away," Petya thought every moment as he stood by the campfire listening to the talk.
"Those brigands are everywhere," replied an officer from behind the fire.

Dolokhov remarked that the Cossacks were a danger only to stragglers such as his companion and himself, "but probably they would not dare to attack large
detachments?" he added inquiringly. No one replied.

"Well, now he'll come away," Petya thought every moment as he stood by the campfire listening to the talk.

But Dolokhov restarted the conversation which had dropped and began putting direct questions as to how many men there were in the battalion, how many battalions,
and how many prisoners. Asking about the Russian prisoners with that detachment, Dolokhov said:

"A horrid business dragging these corpses about with one! It would be better to shoot such rabble," and burst into loud laughter, so strange that Petya thought the
French would immediately detect their disguise, and involuntarily took a step back from the campfire.

No one replied a word to Dolokhov's laughter, and a French officer whom they could not see (he lay wrapped in a greatcoat) rose and whispered something to a
companion. Dolokhov got up and called to the soldier who was holding their horses.

"Will they bring our horses or not?" thought Petya, instinctively drawing nearer to Dolokhov.

The horses were brought.

"Good evening, gentlemen," said Dolokhov.

Petya wished to say "Good night" but could not utter a word. The officers were whispering together. Dolokhov was a long time mounting his horse which would not
stand still, then he rode out of the yard at a footpace. Petya rode beside him, longing to look round to see whether or no the French were running after them, but not
daring to.

Coming out onto the road Dolokhov did not ride back across the open country, but through the village. At one spot he stopped and listened. "Do you hear?" he asked.
Petya recognized the sound of Russian voices and saw the dark figures of Russian prisoners round their campfires. When they had descended to the bridge Petya and
Dolokhov rode past the sentinel, who without saying a word paced morosely up and down it, then they descended into the hollow where the Cossacks awaited them.

"Well now, good-by. Tell Denisov, 'at the first shot at daybreak,'" said Dolokhov and was about to ride away, but Petya seized hold of him.

"Really!" he cried, "you are such a hero! Oh, how fine, how splendid! How I love you!"

"All right, all right!" said Dolokhov. But Petya did not let go of him and Dolokhov saw through the gloom that Petya was bending toward him and wanted to kiss him.
Dolokhov kissed him, laughed, turned his horse, and vanished into the darkness.

Chapter X

Having returned to the watchman's hut, Petya found Denisov in the passage. He was awaiting Petya's return in a state of agitation, anxiety, and self-reproach for having
let him go.

"Thank God!" he exclaimed. "Yes, thank God!" he repeated, listening to Petya's rapturous account. "But, devil take you, I haven't slept because of you! Well, thank
God. Now lie down. We can still get a nap before morning."

"But... no," said Petya, "I don't want to sleep yet. Besides I know myself, if I fall asleep it's finished. And then I am used to not sleeping before a battle."

He sat awhile in the hut joyfully recalling the details of his expedition and vividly picturing to himself what would happen next day.

Then, noticing that Denisov was asleep, he rose and went out of doors.

It was still quite dark outside. The rain was over, but drops were still falling from the trees. Near the watchman's hut the black shapes of the Cossacks' shanties and of
horses tethered together could be seen. Behind the hut the dark shapes of the two wagons with their horses beside them were discernible, and in the hollow the dying
campfire gleamed red. Not all the Cossacks and hussars were asleep; here and there, amid the sounds of falling drops and the munching of the horses near by, could be
heard low voices which seemed to be whispering.

Petya came out, peered into the darkness, and went up to the wagons. Someone was snoring under them, and around them stood saddled horses munching their oats.
In the dark Petya recognized his own horse, which he called "Karabakh" though it was of Ukranian breed, and went up to it.

"Well, Karabakh! We'll do some service tomorrow," said he, sniffing its nostrils and kissing it.

"Why aren't you asleep, sir?" said a Cossack who was sitting under a wagon.

"No, ah... Likhachev-isn't that your name? Do you know I have only just come back! We've been into the French camp."

And Petya gave the Cossack a detailed account not only of his ride but also of his object, and why he considered it better to risk his life than to act "just anyhow."

"Well, you should get some sleep now," said the Cossack.

"No, I am used to this," said Petya. "I say, aren't the flints in your pistols worn out? I brought some with me. Don't you want any? You can have some."

The Cossack bent forward from under the wagon to get a closer look at Petya.

"Because I am accustomed to doing everything accurately," said Petya. "Some fellows do things just anyhow, without preparation, and then they're sorry for it
afterwards. I don't like that."

"Just so," said the Cossack.
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"Oh yes, another thing! Please, my dear fellow, will you sharpen my saber for me? It's got bl..." (Petya feared to tell a lie, and the saber never had been sharpened.)
"Can you do it?"
afterwards. I don't like that."

"Just so," said the Cossack.

"Oh yes, another thing! Please, my dear fellow, will you sharpen my saber for me? It's got bl..." (Petya feared to tell a lie, and the saber never had been sharpened.)
"Can you do it?"

"Of course I can."

Likhachev got up, rummaged in his pack, and soon Petya heard the warlike sound of steel on whetstone. He climbed onto the wagon and sat on its edge. The Cossack
was sharpening the saber under the wagon.

"I say! Are the lads asleep?" asked Petya.

"Some are, and some aren't-like us."

"Well, and that boy?"

"Vesenny? Oh, he's thrown himself down there in the passage. Fast asleep after his fright. He was that glad!"

After that Petya remained silent for a long time, listening to the sounds. He heard footsteps in the darkness and a black figure appeared.

"What are you sharpening?" asked a man coming up to the wagon.

"Why, this gentleman's saber."

"That's right," said the man, whom Petya took to be an hussar. "Was the cup left here?"

"There, by the wheel!"

The hussar took the cup.

"It must be daylight soon," said he, yawning, and went away.

Petya ought to have known that he was in a forest with Denisov's guerrilla band, less than a mile from the road, sitting on a wagon captured from the French beside
which horses were tethered, that under it Likhachev was sitting sharpening a saber for him, that the big dark blotch to the right was the watchman's hut, and the red
blotch below to the left was the dying embers of a campfire, that the man who had come for the cup was an hussar who wanted a drink; but he neither knew nor waited
to know anything of all this. He was in a fairy kingdom where nothing resembled reality. The big dark blotch might really be the watchman's hut or it might be a cavern
leading to the very depths of the earth. Perhaps the red spot was a fire, or it might be the eye of an enormous monster. Perhaps he was really sitting on a wagon, but it
might very well be that he was not sitting on a wagon but on a terribly high tower from which, if he fell, he would have to fall for a whole day or a whole month, or go
on falling and never reach the bottom. Perhaps it was just the Cossack, Likhachev, who was sitting under the wagon, but it might be the kindest, bravest, most
wonderful, most splendid man in the world, whom no one knew of. It might really have been that the hussar came for water and went back into the hollow, but perhaps
he had simply vanished-disappeared altogether and dissolved into nothingness.

Nothing Petya could have seen now would have surprised him. He was in a fairy kingdom where everything was possible.

He looked up at the sky. And the sky was a fairy realm like the earth. It was clearing, and over the tops of the trees clouds were swiftly sailing as if unveiling the stars.
Sometimes it looked as if the clouds were passing, and a clear black sky appeared. Sometimes it seemed as if the black spaces were clouds. Sometimes the sky
seemed to be rising high, high overhead, and then it seemed to sink so low that one could touch it with one's hand.

Petya's eyes began to close and he swayed a little.

The trees were dripping. Quiet talking was heard. The horses neighed and jostled one another. Someone snored.

"Ozheg-zheg, Ozheg-zheg..." hissed the saber against the whetstone, and suddenly Petya heard an harmonious orchestra playing some unknown, sweetly solemn hymn.
Petya was as musical as Natasha and more so than Nicholas, but had never learned music or thought about it, and so the melody that unexpectedly came to his mind
seemed to him particularly fresh and attractive. The music became more and more audible. The melody grew and passed from one instrument to another. And what
was played was a fugue-though Petya had not the least conception of what a fugue is. Each instrument-now resembling a violin and now a horn, but better and clearer
than violin or horn-played its own part, and before it had finished the melody merged with another instrument that began almost the same air, and then with a third and a
fourth; and they all blended into one and again became separate and again blended, now into solemn church music, now into something dazzlingly brilliant and
triumphant.

"Oh-why, that was in a dream!" Petya said to himself, as he lurched forward. "It's in my ears. But perhaps it's music of my own. Well, go on, my music! Now!..."

He closed his eyes, and, from all sides as if from a distance, sounds fluttered, grew into harmonies, separated, blended, and again all mingled into the same sweet and
solemn hymn. "Oh, this is delightful! As much as I like and as I like!" said Petya to himself. He tried to conduct that enormous orchestra.

"Now softly, softly die away!" and the sounds obeyed him. "Now fuller, more joyful. Still more and more joyful!" And from an unknown depth rose increasingly
triumphant sounds. "Now voices join in!" ordered Petya. And at first from afar he heard men's voices and then women's. The voices grew in harmonious triumphant
strength, and Petya listened to their surpassing beauty in awe and joy.

With a solemn triumphal march there mingled a song, the drip from the trees, and the hissing of the saber, "Ozheg-zheg-zheg..." and again the horses jostled one another
and neighed, not disturbing the choir but joining in it.

Petya did not know how long this lasted: he enjoyed himself all the time, wondered at his enjoyment and regretted that there was no one to share it. He was awakened
by Likhachev's kindly voice.
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"It's ready, your honor; you can split a Frenchman in half with it!"

Petya woke up.
Petya did not know how long this lasted: he enjoyed himself all the time, wondered at his enjoyment and regretted that there was no one to share it. He was awakened
by Likhachev's kindly voice.

"It's ready, your honor; you can split a Frenchman in half with it!"

Petya woke up.

"It's getting light, it's really getting light!" he exclaimed.

The horses that had previously been invisible could now be seen to their very tails, and a watery light showed itself through the bare branches. Petya shook himself,
jumped up, took a ruble from his pocket and gave it to Likhachev; then he flourished the saber, tested it, and sheathed it. The Cossacks were untying their horses and
tightening their saddle girths.

"And here's the commander," said Likhachev.

Denisov came out of the watchman's hut and, having called Petya, gave orders to get ready.

Chapter XI

The men rapidly picked out their horses in the semidarkness, tightened their saddle girths, and formed companies. Denisov stood by the watchman's hut giving final
orders. The infantry of the detachment passed along the road and quickly disappeared amid the trees in the mist of early dawn, hundreds of feet splashing through the
mud. The esaul gave some orders to his men. Petya held his horse by the bridle, impatiently awaiting the order to mount. His face, having been bathed in cold water,
was all aglow, and his eyes were particularly brilliant. Cold shivers ran down his spine and his whole body pulsed rhythmically.

"Well, is ev'wything weady?" asked Denisov. "Bwing the horses."

The horses were brought. Denisov was angry with the Cossack because the saddle girths were too slack, reproved him, and mounted. Petya put his foot in the stirrup.
His horse by habit made as if to nip his leg, but Petya leaped quickly into the saddle unconscious of his own weight and, turning to look at the hussars starting in the
darkness behind him, rode up to Denisov.

"Vasili Dmitrich, entrust me with some commission! Please... for God's sake...!" said he.

Denisov seemed to have forgotten Petya's very existence. He turned to glance at him.

"I ask one thing of you," he said sternly, "to obey me and not shove yourself forward anywhere."

He did not say another word to Petya but rode in silence all the way. When they had come to the edge of the forest it was noticeably growing light over the field.
Denisov talked in whispers with the esaul and the Cossacks rode past Petya and Denisov. When they had all ridden by, Denisov touched his horse and rode down the
hill. Slipping onto their haunches and sliding, the horses descended with their riders into the ravine. Petya rode beside Denisov, the pulsation of his body constantly
increasing. It was getting lighter and lighter, but the mist still hid distant objects. Having reached the valley, Denisov looked back and nodded to a Cossack beside him.

"The signal!" said he.

The Cossack raised his arm and a shot rang out. In an instant the tramp of horses galloping forward was heard, shouts came from various sides, and then more shots.

At the first sound of trampling hoofs and shouting, Petya lashed his horse and loosening his rein galloped forward, not heeding Denisov who shouted at him. It seemed
to Petya that at the moment the shot was fired it suddenly became as bright as noon. He galloped to the bridge. Cossacks were galloping along the road in front of him.
On the bridge he collided with a Cossack who had fallen behind, but he galloped on. In front of him soldiers, probably Frenchmen, were running from right to left
across the road. One of them fell in the mud under his horse's feet.

Cossacks were crowding about a hut, busy with something. From the midst of that crowd terrible screams arose. Petya galloped up, and the first thing he saw was the
pale face and trembling jaw of a Frenchman, clutching the handle of a lance that had been aimed at him.

"Hurrah!... Lads!... ours!" shouted Petya, and giving rein to his excited horse he galloped forward along the village street.

He could hear shooting ahead of him. Cossacks, hussars, and ragged Russian prisoners, who had come running from both sides of the road, were shouting something
loudly and incoherently. A gallant-looking Frenchman, in a blue overcoat, capless, and with a frowning red face, had been defending himself against the hussars. When
Petya galloped up the Frenchman had already fallen. "Too late again!" flashed through Petya's mind and he galloped on to the place from which the rapid firing could be
heard. The shots came from the yard of the landowner's house he had visited the night before with Dolokhov. The French were making a stand there behind a wattle
fence in a garden thickly overgrown with bushes and were firing at the Cossacks who crowded at the gateway. Through the smoke, as he approached the gate, Petya
saw Dolokhov, whose face was of a pale-greenish tint, shouting to his men. "Go round! Wait for the infantry!" he exclaimed as Petya rode up to him.

"Wait?... Hurrah-ah-ah!" shouted Petya, and without pausing a moment galloped to the place whence came the sounds of firing and where the smoke was thickest.

A volley was heard, and some bullets whistled past, while others plashed against something. The Cossacks and Dolokhov galloped after Petya into the gateway of the
courtyard. In the dense wavering smoke some of the French threw down their arms and ran out of the bushes to meet the Cossacks, while others ran down the hill
toward the pond. Petya was galloping along the courtyard, but instead of holding the reins he waved both his arms about rapidly and strangely, slipping farther and
farther to one side in his saddle. His horse, having galloped up to a campfire that was smoldering in the morning light, stopped suddenly, and Petya fell heavily on to the
wet ground. The Cossacks saw that his arms and legs jerked rapidly though his head was quite motionless. A bullet had pierced his skull.

After speaking to the senior French officer, who came out of the house with a white handkerchief tied to his sword and announced that they surrendered, Dolokhov
dismounted and went up to Petya, who lay motionless with outstretched arms.

"Done for!" he said with a frown, and went to the gate to meet Denisov who was riding toward him.

"Killed?" cried Denisov, recognizing from a distance the unmistakably lifeless attitude-very familiar to him-in which Petya's body was lying.
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"Done for!" repeated Dolokhov as if the utterance of these words afforded him pleasure, and he went quickly up to the prisoners, who were surrounded by Cossacks
who had hurried up. "We won't take them!" he called out to Denisov.
"Done for!" he said with a frown, and went to the gate to meet Denisov who was riding toward him.

"Killed?" cried Denisov, recognizing from a distance the unmistakably lifeless attitude-very familiar to him-in which Petya's body was lying.

"Done for!" repeated Dolokhov as if the utterance of these words afforded him pleasure, and he went quickly up to the prisoners, who were surrounded by Cossacks
who had hurried up. "We won't take them!" he called out to Denisov.

Denisov did not reply; he rode up to Petya, dismounted, and with trembling hands turned toward himself the bloodstained, mud-bespattered face which had already
gone white.

"I am used to something sweet. Raisins, fine ones... take them all!" he recalled Petya's words. And the Cossacks looked round in surprise at the sound, like the yelp of
a dog, with which Denisov turned away, walked to the wattle fence, and seized hold of it.

Among the Russian prisoners rescued by Denisov and Dolokhov was Pierre Bezukhov.

Chapter XII

During the whole of their march from Moscow no fresh orders had been issued by the French authorities concerning the party of prisoners among whom was Pierre.
On the twenty-second of October that party was no longer with the same troops and baggage trains with which it had left Moscow. Half the wagons laden with
hardtack that had traveled the first stages with them had been captured by Cossacks, the other half had gone on ahead. Not one of those dismounted cavalrymen who
had marched in front of the prisoners was left; they had all disappeared. The artillery the prisoners had seen in front of them during the first days was now replaced by
Marshal Junot's enormous baggage train, convoyed by Westphalians. Behind the prisoners came a cavalry baggage train.

From Vyazma onwards the French army, which had till then moved in three columns, went on as a single group. The symptoms of disorder that Pierre had noticed at
their first halting place after leaving Moscow had now reached the utmost limit.

The road along which they moved was bordered on both sides by dead horses; ragged men who had fallen behind from various regiments continually changed about,
now joining the moving column, now again lagging behind it.

Several times during the march false alarms had been given and the soldiers of the escort had raised their muskets, fired, and run headlong, crushing one another, but
had afterwards reassembled and abused each other for their causeless panic.

These three groups traveling together-the cavalry stores, the convoy of prisoners, and Junot's baggage train-still constituted a separate and united whole, though each of
the groups was rapidly melting away.

Of the artillery baggage train which had consisted of a hundred and twenty wagons, not more than sixty now remained; the rest had been captured or left behind. Some
of Junot's wagons also had been captured or abandoned. Three wagons had been raided and robbed by stragglers from Davout's corps. From the talk of the Germans
Pierre learned that a larger guard had been allotted to that baggage train than to the prisoners, and that one of their comrades, a German soldier, had been shot by the
marshal's own order because a silver spoon belonging to the marshal had been found in his possession.

The group of prisoners had melted away most of all. Of the three hundred and thirty men who had set out from Moscow fewer than a hundred now remained. The
prisoners were more burdensome to the escort than even the cavalry saddles or Junot's baggage. They understood that the saddles and Junot's spoon might be of some
use, but that cold and hungry soldiers should have to stand and guard equally cold and hungry Russians who froze and lagged behind on the road (in which case the
order was to shoot them) was not merely incomprehensible but revolting. And the escort, as if afraid, in the grievous condition they themselves were in, of giving way to
the pity they felt for the prisoners and so rendering their own plight still worse, treated them with particular moroseness and severity.

At Dorogobuzh while the soldiers of the convoy, after locking the prisoners in a stable, had gone off to pillage their own stores, several of the soldier prisoners tunneled
under the wall and ran away, but were recaptured by the French and shot.

The arrangement adopted when they started, that the officer prisoners should be kept separate from the rest, had long since been abandoned. All who could walk went
together, and after the third stage Pierre had rejoined Karataev and the gray-blue bandy-legged dog that had chosen Karataev for its master.

On the third day after leaving Moscow Karataev again fell ill with the fever he had suffered from in the hospital in Moscow, and as he grew gradually weaker Pierre
kept away from him. Pierre did not know why, but since Karataev had begun to grow weaker it had cost him an effort to go near him. When he did so and heard the
subdued moaning with which Karataev generally lay down at the halting places, and when he smelled the odor emanating from him which was now stronger than
before, Pierre moved farther away and did not think about him.

While imprisoned in the shed Pierre had learned not with his intellect but with his whole being, by life itself, that man is created for happiness, that happiness is within
him, in the satisfaction of simple human needs, and that all unhappiness arises not from privation but from superfluity. And now during these last three weeks of the
march he had learned still another new, consolatory truth-that nothing in this world is terrible. He had learned that as there is no condition in which man can be happy
and entirely free, so there is no condition in which he need be unhappy and lack freedom. He learned that suffering and freedom have their limits and that those limits
are very near together; that the person in a bed of roses with one crumpled petal suffered as keenly as he now, sleeping on the bare damp earth with one side growing
chilled while the other was warming; and that when he had put on tight dancing shoes he had suffered just as he did now when he walked with bare feet that were
covered with sores-his footgear having long since fallen to pieces. He discovered that when he had married his wife-of his own free will as it had seemed to him-he had
been no more free than now when they locked him up at night in a stable. Of all that he himself subsequently termed his sufferings, but which at the time he scarcely felt,
the worst was the state of his bare, raw, and scab-covered feet. (The horseflesh was appetizing and nourishing, the saltpeter flavor of the gunpowder they used instead
of salt was even pleasant; there was no great cold, it was always warm walking in the daytime, and at night there were the campfires; the lice that devoured him
warmed his body.) The one thing that was at first hard to bear was his feet.

After the second day's march Pierre, having examined his feet by the campfire, thought it would be impossible to walk on them; but when everybody got up he went
along, limping, and, when he had warmed up, walked without feeling the pain, though at night his feet were more terrible to look at than before. However, he did not
look at them now, but thought of other things.

Only now did Pierre realize the full strength of life in man and the saving power he has of transferring his attention from one thing to another, which is like the safety
valve of a boiler that allows superfluous steam to blow off when the pressure exceeds a certain limit.

He  did not see
 Copyright   (c) and did not hear
                 2005-2009,       how they
                              Infobase     shotCorp.
                                       Media    the prisoners who lagged behind, though more than a hundred perished in that way. He did not think of Karataev who
                                                                                                                                                   Page 504 / 567
grew weaker every day and evidently would soon have to share that fate. Still less did Pierre think about himself. The harder his position became and the more terrible
the future, the more independent of that position in which he found himself were the joyful and comforting thoughts, memories, and imaginings that came to him.
Only now did Pierre realize the full strength of life in man and the saving power he has of transferring his attention from one thing to another, which is like the safety
valve of a boiler that allows superfluous steam to blow off when the pressure exceeds a certain limit.

He did not see and did not hear how they shot the prisoners who lagged behind, though more than a hundred perished in that way. He did not think of Karataev who
grew weaker every day and evidently would soon have to share that fate. Still less did Pierre think about himself. The harder his position became and the more terrible
the future, the more independent of that position in which he found himself were the joyful and comforting thoughts, memories, and imaginings that came to him.

Chapter XIII

At midday on the twenty-second of October Pierre was going uphill along the muddy, slippery road, looking at his feet and at the roughness of the way. Occasionally
he glanced at the familiar crowd around him and then again at his feet. The former and the latter were alike familiar and his own. The blue-gray bandy legged dog ran
merrily along the side of the road, sometimes in proof of its agility and self-satisfaction lifting one hind leg and hopping along on three, and then again going on all four
and rushing to bark at the crows that sat on the carrion. The dog was merrier and sleeker than it had been in Moscow. All around lay the flesh of different animals-from
men to horses-in various stages of decomposition; and as the wolves were kept off by the passing men the dog could eat all it wanted.

It had been raining since morning and had seemed as if at any moment it might cease and the sky clear, but after a short break it began raining harder than before. The
saturated road no longer absorbed the water, which ran along the ruts in streams.

Pierre walked along, looking from side to side, counting his steps in threes, and reckoning them off on his fingers. Mentally addressing the rain, he repeated: "Now then,
now then, go on! Pelt harder!"

It seemed to him that he was thinking of nothing, but far down and deep within him his soul was occupied with something important and comforting. This something was
a most subtle spiritual deduction from a conversation with Karataev the day before.

At their yesterday's halting place, feeling chilly by a dying campfire, Pierre had got up and gone to the next one, which was burning better. There Platon Karataev was
sitting covered up-head and all-with his greatcoat as if it were a vestment, telling the soldiers in his effective and pleasant though now feeble voice a story Pierre knew.
It was already past midnight, the hour when Karataev was usually free of his fever and particularly lively. When Pierre reached the fire and heard Platon's voice
enfeebled by illness, and saw his pathetic face brightly lit up by the blaze, he felt a painful prick at his heart. His feeling of pity for this man frightened him and he wished
to go away, but there was no other fire, and Pierre sat down, trying not to look at Platon.

"Well, how are you?" he asked.

"How am I? If we grumble at sickness, God won't grant us death," replied Platon, and at once resumed the story he had begun.

"And so, brother," he continued, with a smile on his pale emaciated face and a particularly happy light in his eyes, " you see, brother..."

Pierre had long been familiar with that story. Karataev had told it to him alone some half-dozen times and always with a specially joyful emotion. But well as he knew it,
Pierre now listened to that tale as to something new, and the quiet rapture Karataev evidently felt as he told it communicated itself also to Pierre. The story was of an
old merchant who lived a good and God-fearing life with his family, and who went once to the Nizhni fair with a companion-a rich merchant.

Having put up at an inn they both went to sleep, and next morning his companion was found robbed and with his throat cut. A bloodstained knife was found under the
old merchant's pillow. He was tried, knouted, and his nostrils having been torn off, "all in due form" as Karataev put it, he was sent to hard labor in Siberia.

"And so, brother" (it was at this point that Pierre came up), "ten years or more passed by. The old man was living as a convict, submitting as he should and doing no
wrong. Only he prayed to God for death. Well, one night the convicts were gathered just as we are, with the old man among them. And they began telling what each
was suffering for, and how they had sinned against God. One told how he had taken a life, another had taken two, a third had set a house on fire, while another had
simply been a vagrant and had done nothing. So they asked the old man: 'What are you being punished for, Daddy?'-'I, my dear brothers,' said he, 'am being punished
for my own and other men's sins. But I have not killed anyone or taken anything that was not mine, but have only helped my poorer brothers. I was a merchant, my
dear brothers, and had much property. 'And he went on to tell them all about it in due order. 'I don't grieve for myself,' he says, 'God, it seems, has chastened me. Only
I am sorry for my old wife and the children,' and the old man began to weep. Now it happened that in the group was the very man who had killed the other merchant.
'Where did it happen, Daddy?' he said. 'When, and in what month?' He asked all about it and his heart began to ache. So he comes up to the old man like this, and falls
down at his feet! 'You are perishing because of me, Daddy,' he says. 'It's quite true, lads, that this man,' he says, 'is being tortured innocently and for nothing! I,' he
says, 'did that deed, and I put the knife under your head while you were asleep. Forgive me, Daddy,' he says, 'for Christ's sake!'"

Karataev paused, smiling joyously as he gazed into the fire, and he drew the logs together.

"And the old man said, 'God will forgive you, we are all sinners in His sight. I suffer for my own sins,' and he wept bitter tears. Well, and what do you think, dear
friends?" Karataev continued, his face brightening more and more with a rapturous smile as if what he now had to tell contained the chief charm and the whole meaning
of his story: "What do you think, dear fellows? That murderer confessed to the authorities. 'I have taken six lives,' he says (he was a great sinner), 'but what I am most
sorry for is this old man. Don't let him suffer because of me.' So he confessed and it was all written down and the papers sent off in due form. The place was a long
way off, and while they were judging, what with one thing and another, filling in the papers all in due form-the authorities I mean-time passed. The affair reached the
Tsar. After a while the Tsar's decree came: to set the merchant free and give him a compensation that had been awarded. The paper arrived and they began to look for
the old man. 'Where is the old man who has been suffering innocently and in vain? A paper has come from the Tsar!' so they began looking for him," here Karataev's
lower jaw trembled, "but God had already forgiven him-he was dead! That's how it was, dear fellows!" Karataev concluded and sat for a long time silent, gazing before
him with a smile.

And Pierre's soul was dimly but joyfully filled not by the story itself but by its mysterious significance: by the rapturous joy that lit up Karataev's face as he told it, and
the mystic significance of that joy.

Chapter XIV

"A vos places!" suddenly cried a voice.

A pleasant feeling of excitement and an expectation of something joyful and solemn was aroused among the soldiers of the convoy and the prisoners. From all sides
came shouts of command, and from the left came smartly dressed cavalrymen on good horses, passing the prisoners at a trot. The expression on all faces showed the
tension people feel at the approach of those in authority. The prisoners thronged together and were pushed off the road. The convoy formed up.
 Copyright
"The         (c) 2005-2009,
      Emperor!   The Emperor!Infobase Media The
                                The Marshal!  Corp.                                                                                                Page
                                                   Duke!" and hardly had the sleek cavalry passed, before a carriage drawn by six gray horses rattled        505 caught
                                                                                                                                                        by. Pierre / 567 a
glimpse of a man in a three-cornered hat with a tranquil look on his handsome, plump, white face. It was one of the marshals. His eye fell on Pierre's large and striking
figure, and in the expression with which he frowned and looked away Pierre thought he detected sympathy and a desire to conceal that sympathy.
A pleasant feeling of excitement and an expectation of something joyful and solemn was aroused among the soldiers of the convoy and the prisoners. From all sides
came shouts of command, and from the left came smartly dressed cavalrymen on good horses, passing the prisoners at a trot. The expression on all faces showed the
tension people feel at the approach of those in authority. The prisoners thronged together and were pushed off the road. The convoy formed up.

"The Emperor! The Emperor! The Marshal! The Duke!" and hardly had the sleek cavalry passed, before a carriage drawn by six gray horses rattled by. Pierre caught a
glimpse of a man in a three-cornered hat with a tranquil look on his handsome, plump, white face. It was one of the marshals. His eye fell on Pierre's large and striking
figure, and in the expression with which he frowned and looked away Pierre thought he detected sympathy and a desire to conceal that sympathy.

The general in charge of the stores galloped after the carriage with a red and frightened face, whipping up his skinny horse. Several officers formed a group and some
soldiers crowded round them. Their faces all looked excited and worried.

"What did he say? What did he say?" Pierre heard them ask.

While the marshal was passing, the prisoners had huddled together in a crowd, and Pierre saw Karataev whom he had not yet seen that morning. He sat in his short
overcoat leaning against a birch tree. On his face, besides the look of joyful emotion it had worn yesterday while telling the tale of the merchant who suffered innocently,
there was now an expression of quiet solemnity.

Karataev looked at Pierre with his kindly round eyes now filled with tears, evidently wishing him to come near that he might say something to him. But Pierre was not
sufficiently sure of himself. He made as if he did not notice that look and moved hastily away.

When the prisoners again went forward Pierre looked round. Karataev was still sitting at the side of the road under the birch tree and two Frenchmen were talking over
his head. Pierre did not look round again but went limping up the hill.

From behind, where Karataev had been sitting, came the sound of a shot. Pierre heard it plainly, but at that moment he remembered that he had not yet finished
reckoning up how many stages still remained to Smolensk-a calculation he had begun before the marshal went by. And he again started reckoning. Two French soldiers
ran past Pierre, one of whom carried a lowered and smoking gun. They both looked pale, and in the expression on their faces-one of them glanced timidly at Pierre-
there was something resembling what he had seen on the face of the young soldier at the execution. Pierre looked at the soldier and remembered that, two days before,
that man had burned his shirt while drying it at the fire and how they had laughed at him.

Behind him, where Karataev had been sitting, the dog began to howl. "What a stupid beast! Why is it howling?" thought Pierre.

His comrades, the prisoner soldiers walking beside him, avoided looking back at the place where the shot had been fired and the dog was howling, just as Pierre did,
but there was a set look on all their faces.

Chapter XV

The stores, the prisoners, and the marshal's baggage train stopped at the village of Shamshevo. The men crowded together round the campfires. Pierre went up to the
fire, ate some roast horseflesh, lay down with his back to the fire, and immediately fell asleep. He again slept as he had done at Mozhaysk after the battle of Borodino.

Again real events mingled with dreams and again someone, he or another, gave expression to his thoughts, and even to the same thoughts that had been expressed in his
dream at Mozhaysk.

"Life is everything. Life is God. Everything changes and moves and that movement is God. And while there is life there is joy in consciousness of the divine. To love life
is to love God. Harder and more blessed than all else is to love this life in one's sufferings, in innocent sufferings."

"Karataev!" came to Pierre's mind.

And suddenly he saw vividly before him a long-forgotten, kindly old man who had given him geography lessons in Switzerland. "Wait a bit," said the old man, and
showed Pierre a globe. This globe was alive-a vibrating ball without fixed dimensions. Its whole surface consisted of drops closely pressed together, and all these drops
moved and changed places, sometimes several of them merging into one, sometimes one dividing into many. Each drop tried to spread out and occupy as much space
as possible, but others striving to do the same compressed it, sometimes destroyed it, and sometimes merged with it.

"That is life," said the old teacher.

"How simple and clear it is," thought Pierre. "How is it I did not know it before?"

"God is in the midst, and each drop tries to expand so as to reflect Him to the greatest extent. And it grows, merges, disappears from the surface, sinks to the depths,
and again emerges. There now, Karataev has spread out and disappeared. Do you understand, my child?" said the teacher.

"Do you understand, damn you?" shouted a voice, and Pierre woke up.

He lifted himself and sat up. A Frenchman who had just pushed a Russian soldier away was squatting by the fire, engaged in roasting a piece of meat stuck on a
ramrod. His sleeves were rolled up and his sinewy, hairy, red hands with their short fingers deftly turned the ramrod. His brown morose face with frowning brows was
clearly visible by the glow of the charcoal.

"It's all the same to him," he muttered, turning quickly to a soldier who stood behind him. "Brigand! Get away!"

And twisting the ramrod he looked gloomily at Pierre, who turned away and gazed into the darkness. A prisoner, the Russian soldier the Frenchman had pushed away,
was sitting near the fire patting something with his hand. Looking more closely Pierre recognized the blue-gray dog, sitting beside the soldier, wagging its tail.

"Ah, he's come?" said Pierre. "And Plat-" he began, but did not finish.

Suddenly and simultaneously a crowd of memories awoke in his fancy-of the look Platon had given him as he sat under the tree, of the shot heard from that spot, of the
dog's howl, of the guilty faces of the two Frenchmen as they ran past him, of the lowered and smoking gun, and of Karataev's absence at this halt-and he was on the
point of realizing that Karataev had been killed, but just at that instant, he knew not why, the recollection came to his mind of a summer evening he had spent with a
beautiful Polish lady on the veranda of his house in Kiev. And without linking up the events of the day or drawing a conclusion from them, Pierre closed his eyes, seeing
a vision of the country in summertime mingled with memories of bathing and of the liquid, vibrating globe, and he sank into water so that it closed over his head.
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Before sunrise he was awakened by shouts and loud and rapid firing. French soldiers were running past him.
dog's howl, of the guilty faces of the two Frenchmen as they ran past him, of the lowered and smoking gun, and of Karataev's absence at this halt-and he was on the
point of realizing that Karataev had been killed, but just at that instant, he knew not why, the recollection came to his mind of a summer evening he had spent with a
beautiful Polish lady on the veranda of his house in Kiev. And without linking up the events of the day or drawing a conclusion from them, Pierre closed his eyes, seeing
a vision of the country in summertime mingled with memories of bathing and of the liquid, vibrating globe, and he sank into water so that it closed over his head.

Before sunrise he was awakened by shouts and loud and rapid firing. French soldiers were running past him.

"The Cossacks!" one of them shouted, and a moment later a crowd of Russians surrounded Pierre.

For a long time he could not understand what was happening to him. All around he heard his comrades sobbing with joy.

"Brothers! Dear fellows! Darlings!" old soldiers exclaimed, weeping, as they embraced Cossacks and hussars.

The hussars and Cossacks crowded round the prisoners; one offered them clothes, another boots, and a third bread. Pierre sobbed as he sat among them and could
not utter a word. He hugged the first soldier who approached him, and kissed him, weeping.

Dolokhov stood at the gate of the ruined house, letting a crowd of disarmed Frenchmen pass by. The French, excited by all that had happened, were talking loudly
among themselves, but as they passed Dolokhov who gently switched his boots with his whip and watched them with cold glassy eyes that boded no good, they
became silent. On the opposite side stood Dolokhov's Cossack, counting the prisoners and marking off each hundred with a chalk line on the gate.

"How many?" Dolokhov asked the Cossack.

"The second hundred," replied the Cossack.

"Filez, filez!" Dolokhov kept saying, having adopted this expression from the French, and when his eyes met those of the prisoners they flashed with a cruel light.

Denisov, bareheaded and with a gloomy face, walked behind some Cossacks who were carrying the body of Petya Rostov to a hole that had been dug in the garden.

Chapter XVI

After the twenty-eighth of October when the frosts began, the flight of the French assumed a still more tragic character, with men freezing, or roasting themselves to
death at the campfires, while carriages with people dressed in furs continued to drive past, carrying away the property that had been stolen by the Emperor, kings, and
dukes; but the process of the flight and disintegration of the French army went on essentially as before.

From Moscow to Vyazma the French army of seventy-three thousand men not reckoning the Guards (who did nothing during the whole war but pillage) was reduced
to thirty-six thousand, though not more than five thousand had fallen in battle. From this beginning the succeeding terms of the progression could be determined
mathematically. The French army melted away and perished at the same rate from Moscow to Vyazma, from Vyazma to Smolensk, from Smolensk to the Berezina,
and from the Berezina to Vilna-independently of the greater or lesser intensity of the cold, the pursuit, the barring of the way, or any other particular conditions. Beyond
Vyazma the French army instead of moving in three columns huddled together into one mass, and so went on to the end. Berthier wrote to his Emperor (we know how
far commanding officers allow themselves to diverge from the truth in describing the condition of an army) and this is what he said:

I deem it my duty to report to Your Majesty the condition of the various corps I have had occasion to observe during different stages of the last two or three days'
march. They are almost disbanded. Scarcely a quarter of the soldiers remain with the standards of their regiments, the others go off by themselves in different directions
hoping to find food and escape discipline. In general they regard Smolensk as the place where they hope to recover. During the last few days many of the men have
been seen to throw away their cartridges and their arms. In such a state of affairs, whatever your ultimate plans may be, the interest of Your Majesty's service demands
that the army should be rallied at Smolensk and should first of all be freed from ineffectives, such as dismounted cavalry, unnecessary baggage, and artillery material that
is no longer in proportion to the present forces. The soldiers, who are worn out with hunger and fatigue, need these supplies as well as a few days' rest. Many have
died last days on the road or at the bivouacs. This state of things is continually becoming worse and makes one fear that unless a prompt remedy is applied the troops
will no longer be under control in case of an engagement.

November 9: twenty miles from Smolensk.

After staggering into Smolensk which seemed to them a promised land, the French, searching for food, killed one another, sacked their own stores, and when
everything had been plundered fled farther.

They all went without knowing whither or why they were going. Still less did that genius, Napoleon, know it, for no one issued any orders to him. But still he and those
about him retained their old habits: wrote commands, letters, reports, and orders of the day; called one another sire, mon cousin, prince d'Eckmuhl, roi de Naples, and
so on. But these orders and reports were only on paper, nothing in them was acted upon for they could not be carried out, and though they entitled one another
Majesties, Highnesses, or Cousins, they all felt that they were miserable wretches who had done much evil for which they had now to pay. And though they pretended
to be concerned about the army, each was thinking only of himself and of how to get away quickly and save himself.

Chapter XVII

The movements of the Russian and French armies during the campaign from Moscow back to the Niemen were like those in a game of Russian blindman's bluff, in
which two players are blindfolded and one of them occasionally rings a little bell to inform the catcher of his whereabouts. First he rings his bell fearlessly, but when he
gets into a tight place he runs away as quietly as he can, and often thinking to escape runs straight into his opponent's arms.

At first while they were still moving along the Kaluga road, Napoleon's armies made their presence known, but later when they reached the Smolensk road they ran
holding the clapper of their bell tight-and often thinking they were escaping ran right into the Russians.

Owing to the rapidity of the French flight and the Russian pursuit and the consequent exhaustion of the horses, the chief means of approximately ascertaining the
enemy's position-by cavalry scouting-was not available. Besides, as a result of the frequent and rapid change of position by each army, even what information was
obtained could not be delivered in time. If news was received one day that the enemy had been in a certain position the day before, by the third day when something
could have been done, that army was already two days' march farther on and in quite another position.

One army fled and the other pursued. Beyond Smolensk there were several different roads available for the French, and one would have thought that during their stay
of four days they might have learned where the enemy was, might have arranged some more advantageous plan and undertaken something new. But after a four days'
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Krasnoe and Orsha.
could have been done, that army was already two days' march farther on and in quite another position.

One army fled and the other pursued. Beyond Smolensk there were several different roads available for the French, and one would have thought that during their stay
of four days they might have learned where the enemy was, might have arranged some more advantageous plan and undertaken something new. But after a four days'
halt the mob, with no maneuvers or plans, again began running along the beaten track, neither to the right nor to the left but along the old-the worst-road, through
Krasnoe and Orsha.

Expecting the enemy from behind and not in front, the French separated in their flight and spread out over a distance of twenty-four hours. In front of them all fled the
Emperor, then the kings, then the dukes. The Russian army, expecting Napoleon to take the road to the right beyond the Dnieper-which was the only reasonable thing
for him to do-themselves turned to the right and came out onto the highroad at Krasnoe. And here as in a game of blindman's buff the French ran into our vanguard.
Seeing their enemy unexpectedly the French fell into confusion and stopped short from the sudden fright, but then they resumed their flight, abandoning their comrades
who were farther behind. Then for three days separate portions of the French army-first Murat's (the vice-king's), then Davout's, and then Ney's-ran, as it were, the
gauntlet of the Russian army. They abandoned one another, abandoned all their heavy baggage, their artillery, and half their men, and fled, getting past the Russians by
night by making semicircles to the right.

Ney, who came last, had been busying himself blowing up the walls of Smolensk which were in nobody's way, because despite the unfortunate plight of the French or
because of it, they wished to punish the floor against which they had hurt themselves. Ney, who had had a corps of ten thousand men, reached Napoleon at Orsha with
only one thousand men left, having abandoned all the rest and all his cannon, and having crossed the Dnieper at night by stealth at a wooded spot.

From Orsha they fled farther along the road to Vilna, still playing at blindman's buff with the pursuing army. At the Berezina they again became disorganized, many were
drowned and many surrendered, but those who got across the river fled farther. Their supreme chief donned a fur coat and, having seated himself in a sleigh, galloped
on alone, abandoning his companions. The others who could do so drove away too, leaving those who could not to surrender or die.

Chapter XVIII

This campaign consisted in a flight of the French during which they did all they could to destroy themselves. From the time they turned onto the Kaluga road to the day
their leader fled from the army, none of the movements of the crowd had any sense. So one might have thought that regarding this period of the campaign the historians,
who attributed the actions of the mass to the will of one man, would have found it impossible to make the story of the retreat fit their theory. But no! Mountains of
books have been written by the historians about this campaign, and everywhere are described Napoleon's arrangements, the maneuvers, and his profound plans which
guided the army, as well as the military genius shown by his marshals.

The retreat from Malo-Yaroslavets when he had a free road into a well-supplied district and the parallel road was open to him along which Kutuzov afterwards
pursued him-this unnecessary retreat along a devastated road-is explained to us as being due to profound considerations. Similarly profound considerations are given
for his retreat from Smolensk to Orsha. Then his heroism at Krasnoe is described, where he is reported to have been prepared to accept battle and take personal
command, and to have walked about with a birch stick and said:

"J'ai assez fait l'empereur; il est temps de faire le general," but nevertheless immediately ran away again, abandoning to its fate the scattered fragments of the army he left
behind.

Then we are told of the greatness of soul of the marshals, especially of Ney-a greatness of soul consisting in this: that he made his way by night around through the
forest and across the Dnieper and escaped to Orsha, abandoning standards, artillery, and nine tenths of his men.

And lastly, the final departure of the great Emperor from his heroic army is presented to us by the historians as something great and characteristic of genius. Even that
final running away, described in ordinary language as the lowest depth of baseness which every child is taught to be ashamed of-even that act finds justification in the
historians' language.

When it is impossible to stretch the very elastic threads of historical ratiocination any farther, when actions are clearly contrary to all that humanity calls right or even
just, the historians produce a saving conception of "greatness." "Greatness," it seems, excludes the standards of right and wrong. For the "great" man nothing is wrong,
there is no atrocity for which a "great" man can be blamed.

"C'est grand!" say the historians, and there no longer exists either good or evil but only "grand" and "not grand." Grand is good, not grand is bad. Grand is the
characteristic, in their conception, of some special animals called "heroes." And Napoleon, escaping home in a warm fur coat and leaving to perish those who were not
merely his comrades but were (in his opinion) men he had brought there, feels que c'est grand,[2] and his soul is tranquil.

"Du sublime (he saw something sublime in himself) au ridicule il n'y a qu'un pas," said he. And the whole world for fifty years has been repeating: "Sublime! Grand!
Napoleon le Grand!" Du sublime au ridicule il n'y a qu'un pas.

And it occurs to no one that to admit a greatness not commensurable with the standard of right and wrong is merely to admit one's own nothingness and immeasurable
meanness.

For us with the standard of good and evil given us by Christ, no human actions are incommensurable. And there is no greatness where simplicity, goodness, and truth
are absent.

Chapter XIX

What Russian, reading the account of the last part of the campaign of 1812, has not experienced an uncomfortable feeling of regret, dissatisfaction, and perplexity?
Who has not asked himself how it is that the French were not all captured or destroyed when our three armies surrounded them in superior numbers, when the
disordered French, hungry and freezing, surrendered in crowds, and when (as the historians relate) the aim of the Russians was to stop the French, to cut them off, and
capture them all?

How was it that the Russian army, which when numerically weaker than the French had given battle at Borodino, did not achieve its purpose when it had surrounded
the French on three sides and when its aim was to capture them? Can the French be so enormously superior to us that when we had surrounded them with superior
forces we could not beat them? How could that happen?

History (or what is called by that name) replying to these questions says that this occurred because Kutuzov and Tormasov and Chichagov, and this man and that man,
did not execute such and such maneuvers...

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But why did(c) 2005-2009,
             they not executeInfobase Media Corp.
                               those maneuvers? And why if they were guilty of not carrying out a prearranged plan were they not tried and punished? Page   508 if/ we
                                                                                                                                                        But even    567
admitted that Kutuzov, Chichagov, and others were the cause of the Russian failures, it is still incomprehensible why, the position of the Russian army being what it was
at Krasnoe and at the Berezina (in both cases we had superior forces), the French army with its marshals, kings, and Emperor was not captured, if that was what the
History (or what is called by that name) replying to these questions says that this occurred because Kutuzov and Tormasov and Chichagov, and this man and that man,
did not execute such and such maneuvers...

But why did they not execute those maneuvers? And why if they were guilty of not carrying out a prearranged plan were they not tried and punished? But even if we
admitted that Kutuzov, Chichagov, and others were the cause of the Russian failures, it is still incomprehensible why, the position of the Russian army being what it was
at Krasnoe and at the Berezina (in both cases we had superior forces), the French army with its marshals, kings, and Emperor was not captured, if that was what the
Russians aimed at.

The explanation of this strange fact given by Russian military historians (to the effect that Kutuzov hindered an attack) is unfounded, for we know that he could not
restrain the troops from attacking at Vyazma and Tarutino.

Why was the Russian army-which with inferior forces had withstood the enemy in full strength at Borodino-defeated at Krasnoe and the Berezina by the disorganized
crowds of the French when it was numerically superior?

If the aim of the Russians consisted in cutting off and capturing Napoleon and his marshals-and that aim was not merely frustrated but all attempts to attain it were most
shamefully baffled-then this last period of the campaign is quite rightly considered by the French to be a series of victories, and quite wrongly considered victorious by
Russian historians.

The Russian military historians in so far as they submit to claims of logic must admit that conclusion, and in spite of their lyrical rhapsodies about valor, devotion, and so
forth, must reluctantly admit that the French retreat from Moscow was a series of victories for Napoleon and defeats for Kutuzov.

But putting national vanity entirely aside one feels that such a conclusion involves a contradiction, since the series of French victories brought the French complete
destruction, while the series of Russian defeats led to the total destruction of their enemy and the liberation of their country.

The source of this contradiction lies in the fact that the historians studying the events from the letters of the sovereigns and the generals, from memoirs, reports, projects,
and so forth, have attributed to this last period of the war of 1812 an aim that never existed, namely that of cutting off and capturing Napoleon with his marshals and his
army.

There never was or could have been such an aim, for it would have been senseless and its attainment quite impossible.

It would have been senseless, first because Napoleon's disorganized army was flying from Russia with all possible speed, that is to say, was doing just what every
Russian desired. So what was the use of performing various operations on the French who were running away as fast as they possibly could?

Secondly, it would have been senseless to block the passage of men whose whole energy was directed to flight.

Thirdly, it would have been senseless to sacrifice one's own troops in order to destroy the French army, which without external interference was destroying itself at such
a rate that, though its path was not blocked, it could not carry across the frontier more than it actually did in December, namely a hundredth part of the original army.

Fourthly, it would have been senseless to wish to take captive the Emperor, kings, and dukes-whose capture would have been in the highest degree embarrassing for
the Russians, as the most adroit diplomatists of the time (Joseph de Maistre and others) recognized. Still more senseless would have been the wish to capture army
corps of the French, when our own army had melted away to half before reaching Krasnoe and a whole division would have been needed to convoy the corps of
prisoners, and when our men were not always getting full rations and the prisoners already taken were perishing of hunger.

All the profound plans about cutting off and capturing Napoleon and his army were like the plan of a market gardener who, when driving out of his garden a cow that
had trampled down the beds he had planted, should run to the gate and hit the cow on the head. The only thing to be said in excuse of that gardener would be that he
was very angry. But not even that could be said for those who drew up this project, for it was not they who had suffered from the trampled beds.

But besides the fact that cutting off Napoleon with his army would have been senseless, it was impossible.

It was impossible first because-as experience shows that a three-mile movement of columns on a battlefield never coincides with the plans-the probability of Chichagov,
Kutuzov, and Wittgenstein effecting a junction on time at an appointed place was so remote as to be tantamount to impossibility, as in fact thought Kutuzov, who when
he received the plan remarked that diversions planned over great distances do not yield the desired results.

Secondly it was impossible, because to paralyze the momentum with which Napoleon's army was retiring, incomparably greater forces than the Russians possessed
would have been required.

Thirdly it was impossible, because the military term "to cut off" has no meaning. One can cut off a slice of bread, but not an army. To cut off an army-to bar its road-is
quite impossible, for there is always plenty of room to avoid capture and there is the night when nothing can be seen, as the military scientists might convince themselves
by the example of Krasnoe and of the Berezina. It is only possible to capture prisoners if they agree to be captured, just as it is only possible to catch a swallow if it
settles on one's hand. Men can only be taken prisoners if they surrender according to the rules of strategy and tactics, as the Germans did. But the French troops quite
rightly did not consider that this suited them, since death by hunger and cold awaited them in flight or captivity alike.

Fourthly and chiefly it was impossible, because never since the world began has a war been fought under such conditions as those that obtained in 1812, and the
Russian army in its pursuit of the French strained its strength to the utmost and could not have done more without destroying itself.

During the movement of the Russian army from Tarutino to Krasnoe it lost fifty thousand sick or stragglers, that is a number equal to the population of a large provincial
town. Half the men fell out of the army without a battle.

And it is of this period of the campaign-when the army lacked boots and sheepskin coats, was short of provisions and without vodka, and was camping out at night for
months in the snow with fifteen degrees of frost, when there were only seven or eight hours of daylight and the rest was night in which the influence of discipline cannot
be maintained, when men were taken into that region of death where discipline fails, not for a few hours only as in a battle, but for months, where they were every
moment fighting death from hunger and cold, when half the army perished in a single month-it is of this period of the campaign that the historians tell us how
Miloradovich should have made a flank march to such and such a place, Tormasov to another place, and Chichagov should have crossed (more than knee-deep in
snow) to somewhere else, and how so-and-so "routed" and "cut off" the French and so on and so on.

The Russians, half of whom died, did all that could and should have been done to attain an end worthy of the nation, and they are not to blame because other Russians,
sitting in warm
 Copyright       rooms, proposed
             (c) 2005-2009,      that they
                            Infobase       should
                                       Media      do what was impossible.
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All that strange contradiction now difficult to understand between the facts and the historical accounts only arises because the historians dealing with the matter have
written the history of the beautiful words and sentiments of various generals, and not the history of the events.
snow) to somewhere else, and how so-and-so "routed" and "cut off" the French and so on and so on.

The Russians, half of whom died, did all that could and should have been done to attain an end worthy of the nation, and they are not to blame because other Russians,
sitting in warm rooms, proposed that they should do what was impossible.

All that strange contradiction now difficult to understand between the facts and the historical accounts only arises because the historians dealing with the matter have
written the history of the beautiful words and sentiments of various generals, and not the history of the events.

To them the words of Miloradovich seem very interesting, and so do their surmises and the rewards this or that general received; but the question of those fifty
thousand men who were left in hospitals and in graves does not even interest them, for it does not come within the range of their investigation.

Yet one need only discard the study of the reports and general plans and consider the movement of those hundreds of thousands of men who took a direct part in the
events, and all the questions that seemed insoluble easily and simply receive an immediate and certain solution.

The aim of cutting off Napoleon and his army never existed except in the imaginations of a dozen people. It could not exist because it was senseless and unattainable.

The people had a single aim: to free their land from invasion. That aim was attained in the first place of itself, as the French ran away, and so it was only necessary not
to stop their flight. Secondly it was attained by the guerrilla warfare which was destroying the French, and thirdly by the fact that a large Russian army was following the
French, ready to use its strength in case their movement stopped.

The Russian army had to act like a whip to a running animal. And the experienced driver knew it was better to hold the whip raised as a menace than to strike the
running animal on the head.

Book Fifteen-1812-13
Chapter I

When seeing a dying animal a man feels a sense of horror: substance similar to his own is perishing before his eyes. But when it is a beloved and intimate human being
that is dying, besides this horror at the extinction of life there is a severance, a spiritual wound, which like a physical wound is sometimes fatal and sometimes heals, but
always aches and shrinks at any external irritating touch.

After Prince Andrew's death Natasha and Princess Mary alike felt this. Drooping in spirit and closing their eyes before the menacing cloud of death that overhung them,
they dared not look life in the face. They carefully guarded their open wounds from any rough and painful contact. Everything: a carriage passing rapidly in the street, a
summons to dinner, the maid's inquiry what dress to prepare, or worse still any word of insincere or feeble sympathy, seemed an insult, painfully irritated the wound,
interrupting that necessary quiet in which they both tried to listen to the stern and dreadful choir that still resounded in their imagination, and hindered their gazing into
those mysterious limitless vistas that for an instant had opened out before them.

Only when alone together were they free from such outrage and pain. They spoke little even to one another, and when they did it was of very unimportant matters.

Both avoided any allusion to the future. To admit the possibility of a future seemed to them to insult his memory. Still more carefully did they avoid anything relating to
him who was dead. It seemed to them that what they had lived through and experienced could not be expressed in words, and that any reference to the details of his
life infringed the majesty and sacredness of the mystery that had been accomplished before their eyes.

Continued abstention from speech, and constant avoidance of everything that might lead up to the subject-this halting on all sides at the boundary of what they might not
mention-brought before their minds with still greater purity and clearness what they were both feeling.

But pure and complete sorrow is as impossible as pure and complete joy. Princess Mary, in her position as absolute and independent arbiter of her own fate and
guardian and instructor of her nephew, was the first to be called back to life from that realm of sorrow in which she had dwelt for the first fortnight. She received letters
from her relations to which she had to reply; the room in which little Nicholas had been put was damp and he began to cough; Alpatych came to Yaroslavl with reports
on the state of their affairs and with advice and suggestions that they should return to Moscow to the house on the Vozdvizhenka Street, which had remained uninjured
and needed only slight repairs. Life did not stand still and it was necessary to live. Hard as it was for Princess Mary to emerge from the realm of secluded
contemplation in which she had lived till then, and sorry and almost ashamed as she felt to leave Natasha alone, yet the cares of life demanded her attention and she
involuntarily yielded to them. She went through the accounts with Alpatych, conferred with Dessalles about her nephew, and gave orders and made preparations for the
journey to Moscow.

Natasha remained alone and, from the time Princess Mary began making preparations for departure, held aloof from her too.

Princess Mary asked the countess to let Natasha go with her to Moscow, and both parents gladly accepted this offer, for they saw their daughter losing strength every
day and thought that a change of scene and the advice of Moscow doctors would be good for her.

"I am not going anywhere," Natasha replied when this was proposed to her. "Do please just leave me alone!" And she ran out of the room, with difficulty refraining from
tears of vexation and irritation rather than of sorrow.

After she felt herself deserted by Princes Mary and alone in her grief, Natasha spent most of the time in her room by herself, sitting huddled up feet and all in the corner
of the sofa, tearing and twisting something with her slender nervous fingers and gazing intently and fixedly at whatever her eyes chanced to fall on. This solitude
exhausted and tormented her but she was in absolute need of it. As soon as anyone entered she got up quickly, changed her position and expression, and picked up a
book or some sewing, evidently waiting impatiently for the intruder to go.

She felt all the time as if she might at any moment penetrate that on which-with a terrible questioning too great for her strength-her spiritual gaze was fixed.

One day toward the end of December Natasha, pale and thin, dressed in a black woolen gown, her plaited hair negligently twisted into a knot, was crouched feet and
all in the corner of her sofa, nervously crumpling and smoothing out the end of her sash while she looked at a corner of the door.

She was gazing in the direction in which he had gone-to the other side of life. And that other side of life, of which she had never before thought and which had formerly
seemed to her so far away and improbable, was now nearer and more akin and more comprehensible than this side of life, where everything was either emptiness and
desolation or suffering and indignity.
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She was gazing where she knew him to be; but she could not imagine him otherwise than as he had been here. She now saw him again as he had been at Mytishchi, at
Troitsa, and at Yaroslavl.
She was gazing in the direction in which he had gone-to the other side of life. And that other side of life, of which she had never before thought and which had formerly
seemed to her so far away and improbable, was now nearer and more akin and more comprehensible than this side of life, where everything was either emptiness and
desolation or suffering and indignity.

She was gazing where she knew him to be; but she could not imagine him otherwise than as he had been here. She now saw him again as he had been at Mytishchi, at
Troitsa, and at Yaroslavl.

She saw his face, heard his voice, repeated his words and her own, and sometimes devised other words they might have spoken.

There he is lying back in an armchair in his velvet cloak, leaning his head on his thin pale hand. His chest is dreadfully hollow and his shoulders raised. His lips are firmly
closed, his eyes glitter, and a wrinkle comes and goes on his pale forehead. One of his legs twitches just perceptibly, but rapidly. Natasha knows that he is struggling
with terrible pain. "What is that pain like? Why does he have that pain? What does he feel? How does it hurt him?" thought Natasha. He noticed her watching him,
raised his eyes, and began to speak seriously:

"One thing would be terrible," said he: "to bind oneself forever to a suffering man. It would be continual torture." And he looked searchingly at her. Natasha as usual
answered before she had time to think what she would say. She said: "This can't go on-it won't. You will get well-quite well."

She now saw him from the commencement of that scene and relived what she had then felt. She recalled his long sad and severe look at those words and understood
the meaning of the rebuke and despair in that protracted gaze.

"I agreed," Natasha now said to herself, "that it would be dreadful if he always continued to suffer. I said it then only because it would have been dreadful for him, but
he understood it differently. He thought it would be dreadful for me. He then still wished to live and feared death. And I said it so awkwardly and stupidly! I did not say
what I meant. I thought quite differently. Had I said what I thought, I should have said: even if he had to go on dying, to die continually before my eyes, I should have
been happy compared with what I am now. Now there is nothing... nobody. Did he know that? No, he did not and never will know it. And now it will never, never be
possible to put it right." And now he again seemed to be saying the same words to her, only in her imagination Natasha this time gave him a different answer. She
stopped him and said: "Terrible for you, but not for me! You know that for me there is nothing in life but you, and to suffer with you is the greatest happiness for me,"
and he took her hand and pressed it as he had pressed it that terrible evening four days before his death. And in her imagination she said other tender and loving words
which she might have said then but only spoke now: "I love thee!... thee! I love, love..." she said, convulsively pressing her hands and setting her teeth with a desperate
effort...

She was overcome by sweet sorrow and tears were already rising in her eyes; then she suddenly asked herself to whom she was saying this. Again everything was
shrouded in hard, dry perplexity, and again with a strained frown she peered toward the world where he was. And now, now it seemed to her she was penetrating the
mystery.... But at the instant when it seemed that the incomprehensible was revealing itself to her a loud rattle of the door handle struck painfully on her ears. Dunyasha,
her maid, entered the room quickly and abruptly with a frightened look on her face and showing no concern for her mistress.

"Come to your Papa at once, please!" said she with a strange, excited look. "A misfortune... about Peter Ilynich... a letter," she finished with a sob.

Chapter II

Besides a feeling of aloofness from everybody Natasha was feeling a special estrangement from the members of her own family. All of them-her father, mother, and
Sonya-were so near to her, so familiar, so commonplace, that all their words and feelings seemed an insult to the world in which she had been living of late, and she felt
not merely indifferent to them but regarded them with hostility. She heard Dunyasha's words about Peter Ilynich and a misfortune, but did not grasp them.

"What misfortune? What misfortune can happen to them? They just live their own old, quiet, and commonplace life," thought Natasha.

As she entered the ballroom her father was hurriedly coming out of her mother's room. His face was puckered up and wet with tears. He had evidently run out of that
room to give vent to the sobs that were choking him. When he saw Natasha he waved his arms despairingly and burst into convulsively painful sobs that distorted his
soft round face.

"Pe... Petya... Go, go, she... is calling..." and weeping like a child and quickly shuffling on his feeble legs to a chair, he almost fell into it, covering his face with his hands.

Suddenly an electric shock seemed to run through Natasha's whole being. Terrible anguish struck her heart, she felt a dreadful ache as if something was being torn
inside her and she were dying. But the pain was immediately followed by a feeling of release from the oppressive constraint that had prevented her taking part in life.
The sight of her father, the terribly wild cries of her mother that she heard through the door, made her immediately forget herself and her own grief.

She ran to her father, but he feebly waved his arm, pointing to her mother's door. Princess Mary, pale and with quivering chin, came out from that room and taking
Natasha by the arm said something to her. Natasha neither saw nor heard her. She went in with rapid steps, pausing at the door for an instant as if struggling with
herself, and then ran to her mother.

The countess was lying in an armchair in a strange and awkward position, stretching out and beating her head against the wall. Sonya and the maids were holding her
arms.

"Natasha! Natasha!..." cried the countess. "It's not true... it's not true... He's lying... Natasha!" she shrieked, pushing those around her away. "Go away, all of you; it's
not true! Killed!... ha, ha, ha!... It's not true!"

Natasha put one knee on the armchair, stooped over her mother, embraced her, and with unexpected strength raised her, turned her face toward herself, and clung to
her.

"Mummy!... darling!... I am here, my dearest Mummy," she kept on whispering, not pausing an instant.

She did not let go of her mother but struggled tenderly with her, demanded a pillow and hot water, and unfastened and tore open her mother's dress.

"My dearest darling... Mummy, my precious!..." she whispered incessantly, kissing her head, her hands, her face, and feeling her own irrepressible and streaming tears
tickling her nose and cheeks.

The countess pressed her daughter's hand, closed her eyes, and became quiet for a moment. Suddenly she sat up with unaccustomed swiftness, glanced vacantly
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tickling her nose and cheeks.

The countess pressed her daughter's hand, closed her eyes, and became quiet for a moment. Suddenly she sat up with unaccustomed swiftness, glanced vacantly
around her, and seeing Natasha began to press her daughter's head with all her strength. Then she turned toward her daughter's face which was wincing with pain and
gazed long at it.

"Natasha, you love me?" she said in a soft trustful whisper. "Natasha, you would not deceive me? You'll tell me the whole truth?"

Natasha looked at her with eyes full of tears and in her look there was nothing but love and an entreaty for forgiveness.

"My darling Mummy!" she repeated, straining all the power of her love to find some way of taking on herself the excess of grief that crushed her mother.

And again in a futile struggle with reality her mother, refusing to believe that she could live when her beloved boy was killed in the bloom of life, escaped from reality
into a world of delirium.

Natasha did not remember how that day passed nor that night, nor the next day and night. She did not sleep and did not leave her mother. Her persevering and patient
love seemed completely to surround the countess every moment, not explaining or consoling, but recalling her to life.

During the third night the countess kept very quiet for a few minutes, and Natasha rested her head on the arm of her chair and closed her eyes, but opened them again
on hearing the bedstead creak. The countess was sitting up in bed and speaking softly.

"How glad I am you have come. You are tired. Won't you have some tea?" Natasha went up to her. "You have improved in looks and grown more manly," continued
the countess, taking her daughter's hand.

"Mamma! What are you saying..."

"Natasha, he is no more, no more!"

And embracing her daughter, the countess began to weep for the first time.

Chapter III

Princess Mary postponed her departure. Sonya and the count tried to replace Natasha but could not. They saw that she alone was able to restrain her mother from
unreasoning despair. For three weeks Natasha remained constantly at her mother's side, sleeping on a lounge chair in her room, making her eat and drink, and talking
to her incessantly because the mere sound of her tender, caressing tones soothed her mother.

The mother's wounded spirit could not could not heal. Petya's death had torn from her half her life. When the news of Petya's death had come she had been a fresh and
vigorous woman of fifty, but a month later she left her room a listless old woman taking no interest in life. But the same blow that almost killed the countess, this second
blow, restored Natasha to life.

A spiritual wound produced by a rending of the spiritual body is like a physical wound and, strange as it may seem, just as a deep wound may heal and its edges join,
physical and spiritual wounds alike can yet heal completely only as the result of a vital force from within.

Natasha's wound healed in that way. She thought her life was ended, but her love for her mother unexpectedly showed her that the essence of life-love-was still active
within her. Love awoke and so did life.

Prince Andrew's last days had bound Princess Mary and Natasha together; this new sorrow brought them still closer to one another. Princess Mary put off her
departure, and for three weeks looked after Natasha as if she had been a sick child. The last weeks passed in her mother's bedroom had strained Natasha's physical
strength.

One afternoon noticing Natasha shivering with fever, Princess Mary took her to her own room and made her lie down on the bed. Natasha lay down, but when
Princess Mary had drawn the blinds and was going away she called her back.

"I don't want to sleep, Mary, sit by me a little."

"You are tired-try to sleep."

"No, no. Why did you bring me away? She will be asking for me."

"She is much better. She spoke so well today," said Princess Mary.

Natasha lay on the bed and in the semidarkness of the room scanned Princess Mary's face.

"Is she like him?" thought Natasha. "Yes, like and yet not like. But she is quite original, strange, new, and unknown. And she loves me. What is in her heart? All that is
good. But how? What is her mind like? What does she think about me? Yes, she is splendid!"

"Mary," she said timidly, drawing Princess Mary's hand to herself, "Mary, you mustn't think me wicked. No? Mary darling, how I love you! Let us be quite, quite
friends."

And Natasha, embracing her, began kissing her face and hands, making Princess Mary feel shy but happy by this demonstration of her feelings.

From that day a tender and passionate friendship such as exists only between women was established between Princess Mary and Natasha. They were continually
kissing and saying tender things to one another and spent most of their time together. When one went out the other became restless and hastened to rejoin her.
Together they felt more in harmony with one another than either of them felt with herself when alone. A feeling stronger than friendship sprang up between them; an
exclusive feeling of life being possible only in each other's presence.

Sometimes
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past. Princess Mary spoke of her childhood, of her mother, her father, and her daydreams; and Natasha, who with a passive lack of understanding had formerly turned
away from that life of devotion, submission, and the poetry of Christian self-sacrifice, now feeling herself bound to Princess Mary by affection, learned to love her past
too and to understand a side of life previously incomprehensible to her. She did not think of applying submission and self-abnegation to her own life, for she was
Together they felt more in harmony with one another than either of them felt with herself when alone. A feeling stronger than friendship sprang up between them; an
exclusive feeling of life being possible only in each other's presence.

Sometimes they were silent for hours; sometimes after they were already in bed they would begin talking and go on till morning. They spoke most of what was long
past. Princess Mary spoke of her childhood, of her mother, her father, and her daydreams; and Natasha, who with a passive lack of understanding had formerly turned
away from that life of devotion, submission, and the poetry of Christian self-sacrifice, now feeling herself bound to Princess Mary by affection, learned to love her past
too and to understand a side of life previously incomprehensible to her. She did not think of applying submission and self-abnegation to her own life, for she was
accustomed to seek other joys, but she understood and loved in another those previously incomprehensible virtues. For Princess Mary, listening to Natasha's tales of
childhood and early youth, there also opened out a new and hitherto uncomprehended side of life: belief in life and its enjoyment.

Just as before, they never mentioned him so as not to lower (as they thought) their exalted feelings by words; but this silence about him had the effect of making them
gradually begin to forget him without being conscious of it.

Natasha had grown thin and pale and physically so weak that they all talked about her health, and this pleased her. But sometimes she was suddenly overcome by fear
not only of death but of sickness, weakness, and loss of good looks, and involuntarily she examined her bare arm carefully, surprised at its thinness, and in the morning
noticed her drawn and, as it seemed to her, piteous face in her glass. It seemed to her that things must be so, and yet it was dreadfully sad.

One day she went quickly upstairs and found herself out of breath. Unconsciously she immediately invented a reason for going down, and then, testing her strength, ran
upstairs again, observing the result.

Another time when she called Dunyasha her voice trembled, so she called again-though she could hear Dunyasha coming-called her in the deep chest tones in which
she had been wont to sing, sing, and listened attentively to herself.

She did not know and would not have believed it, but beneath the layer of slime that covered her soul and seemed to her impenetrable, delicate young shoots of grass
were already sprouting, which taking root would so cover with their living verdure the grief that weighed her down that it would soon no longer be seen or noticed. The
wound had begun to heal from within.

At the end of January Princess Mary left for Moscow, and the count insisted on Natasha's going with her to consult the doctors.

Chapter IV

After the encounter at Vyazma, where Kutuzov had been unable to hold back his troops in their anxiety to overwhelm and cut off the enemy and so on, the farther
movement of the fleeing French, and of the Russians who pursued them, continued as far as Krasnoe without a battle. The flight was so rapid that the Russian army
pursuing the French could not keep up with them; cavalry and artillery horses broke down, and the information received of the movements of the French was never
reliable.

The men in the Russian army were so worn out by this continuous marching at the rate of twenty-seven miles a day that they could not go any faster.

To realize the degree of exhaustion of the Russian army it is only necessary to grasp clearly the meaning of the fact that, while not losing more than five thousand killed
and wounded after Tarutino and less than a hundred prisoners, the Russian army which left that place a hundred thousand strong reached Krasnoe with only fifty
thousand.

The rapidity of the Russian pursuit was just as destructive to our army as the flight of the French was to theirs. The only difference was that the Russian army moved
voluntarily, with no such threat of destruction as hung over the French, and that the sick Frenchmen were left behind in enemy hands while the sick Russians left behind
were among their own people. The chief cause of the wastage of Napoleon's army was the rapidity of its movement, and a convincing proof of this is the corresponding
decrease of the Russian army.

Kutuzov as far as was in his power, instead of trying to check the movement of the French as was desired in Petersburg and by the Russian army generals, directed his
whole activity here, as he had done at Tarutino and Vyazma, to hastening it on while easing the movement of our army.

But besides this, since the exhaustion and enormous diminution of the army caused by the rapidity of the advance had become evident, another reason for slackening
the pace and delaying presented itself to Kutuzov. The aim of the Russian army was to pursue the French. The road the French would take was unknown, and so the
closer our troops trod on their heels the greater distance they had to cover. Only by following at some distance could one cut across the zigzag path of the French. All
the artful maneuvers suggested by our generals meant fresh movements of the army and a lengthening of its marches, whereas the only reasonable aim was to shorten
those marches. To that end Kutuzov's activity was directed during the whole campaign from Moscow to Vilna-not casually or intermittently but so consistently that he
never once deviated from it.

Kutuzov felt and knew-not by reasoning or science but with the whole of his Russian being-what every Russian soldier felt: that the French were beaten, that the enemy
was flying and must be driven out; but at the same time he like the soldiers realized all the hardship of this march, the rapidity of which was unparalleled for such a time
of the year.

But to the generals, especially the foreign ones in the Russian army, who wished to distinguish themselves, to astonish somebody, and for some reason to capture a king
or a duke-it seemed that now-when any battle must be horrible and senseless-was the very time to fight and conquer somebody. Kutuzov merely shrugged his
shoulders when one after another they presented projects of maneuvers to be made with those soldiers-ill-shod, insufficiently clad, and half starved-who within a month
and without fighting a battle had dwindled to half their number, and who at the best if the flight continued would have to go a greater distance than they had already
traversed, before they reached the frontier.

This longing to distinguish themselves, to maneuver, to overthrow, and to cut off showed itself particularly whenever the Russians stumbled on the French army.

So it was at Krasnoe, where they expected to find one of the three French columns and stumbled instead on Napoleon himself with sixteen thousand men. Despite all
Kutuzov's efforts to avoid that ruinous encounter and to preserve his troops, the massacre of the broken mob of French soldiers by worn-out Russians continued at
Krasnoe for three days.

Toll wrote a disposition: "The first column will march to so and so," etc. And as usual nothing happened in accord with the disposition. Prince Eugene of Wurttemberg
fired from a hill over the French crowds that were running past, and demanded reinforcements which did not arrive. The French, avoiding the Russians, dispersed and
hid themselves in the forest by night, making their way round as best they could, and continued their flight.

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chevalier sans peur et sans reproche as he styled himself-who was fond of parleys with the French, sent envoys demanding their surrender, wasted time, and did not do
what he was ordered to do.
Toll wrote a disposition: "The first column will march to so and so," etc. And as usual nothing happened in accord with the disposition. Prince Eugene of Wurttemberg
fired from a hill over the French crowds that were running past, and demanded reinforcements which did not arrive. The French, avoiding the Russians, dispersed and
hid themselves in the forest by night, making their way round as best they could, and continued their flight.

Miloradovich, who said he did not want to know anything about the commissariat affairs of his detachment, and could never be found when he was wanted-that
chevalier sans peur et sans reproche as he styled himself-who was fond of parleys with the French, sent envoys demanding their surrender, wasted time, and did not do
what he was ordered to do.

"I give you that column, lads," he said, riding up to the troops and pointing out the French to the cavalry.

And the cavalry, with spurs and sabers urging on horses that could scarcely move, trotted with much effort to the column presented to them-that is to say, to a crowd
of Frenchmen stark with cold, frost-bitten, and starving-and the column that had been presented to them threw down its arms and surrendered as it had long been
anxious to do.

At Krasnoe they took twenty-six thousand prisoners, several hundred cannon, and a stick called a "marshal's staff," and disputed as to who had distinguished himself
and were pleased with their achievement-though they much regretted not having taken Napoleon, or at least a marshal or a hero of some sort, and reproached one
another and especially Kutuzov for having failed to do so.

These men, carried away by their passions, were but blind tools of the most melancholy law of necessity, but considered themselves heroes and imagined that they
were accomplishing a most noble and honorable deed. They blamed Kutuzov and said that from the very beginning of the campaign he had prevented their vanquishing
Napoleon, that he thought nothing but satisfying his passions and would not advance from the Linen Factories because he was comfortable there, that at Krasnoe he
checked the advance because on learning that Napoleon was there he had quite lost his head, and that it was probable that he had an understanding with Napoleon and
had been bribed by him, and so on, and so on.

Not only did his contempories, carried away by their passions, talk in this way, but posterity and history have acclaimed Napoleon as grand, while Kutuzov is
described by foreigners as a crafty, dissolute, weak old courtier, and by Russians as something indefinite-a sort of puppet useful only because he had a Russian name.

Chapter V

In 1812 and 1813 Kutuzov was openly accused of blundering. The Emperor was dissatisfied with him. And in a history recently written by order of the Highest
Authorities it is said that Kutuzov was a cunning court liar, frightened of the name of Napoleon, and that by his blunders at Krasnoe and the Berezina he deprived the
Russian army of the glory of complete victory over the French.

Such is the fate not of great men (grands hommes) whom the Russian mind does not acknowledge, but of those rare and always solitary individuals who, discerning the
will of Providence, submit their personal will to it. The hatred and contempt of the crowd punish such men for discerning the higher laws.

For Russian historians, strange and terrible to say, Napoleon-that most insignificant tool of history who never anywhere, even in exile, showed human dignity-Napoleon
is the object of adulation and enthusiasm; he is grand. But Kutuzov-the man who from the beginning to the end of his activity in 1812, never once swerving by word or
deed from Borodino to Vilna, presented an example exceptional in history of self-sacrifice and a present conciousness of the future importance of what was happening-
Kutuzov seems to them something indefinite and pitiful, and when speaking of him and of the year 1812 they always seem a little ashamed.

And yet it is difficult to imagine an historical character whose activity was so unswervingly directed to a single aim; and it would be difficult to imagine any aim more
worthy or more consonant with the will of the whole people. Still more difficult would it be to find an instance in history of the aim of an historical personage being so
completely accomplished as that to which all Kutuzov's efforts were directed in 1812.

Kutuzov never talked of "forty centuries looking down from the Pyramids," of the sacrifices he offered for the fatherland, or of what he intended to accomplish or had
accomplished; in general he said nothing about himself, adopted no prose, always appeared to be the simplest and most ordinary of men, and said the simplest and
most ordinary things. He wrote letters to his daughters and to Madame de Stael, read novels, liked the society of pretty women, jested with generals, officers, and
soldiers, and never contradicted those who tried to prove anything to him. When Count Rostopchin at the Yauza bridge galloped up to Kutuzov with personal
reproaches for having caused the destruction of Moscow, and said: "How was it you promised not to abandon Moscow without a battle?" Kutuzov replied: "And I
shall not abandon Moscow without a battle," though Moscow was then already abandoned. When Arakcheev, coming to him from the Emperor, said that Ermolov
ought to be appointed chief of the artillery, Kutuzov replied: "Yes, I was just saying so myself," though a moment before he had said quite the contrary. What did it
matter to him-who then alone amid a senseless crowd understood the whole tremendous significance of what was happening-what did it matter to him whether
Rostopchin attributed the calamities of Moscow to him or to himself? Still less could it matter to him who was appointed chief of the artillery.

Not merely in these cases but continually did that old man-who by experience of life had reached the conviction that thoughts and the words serving as their expression
are not what move people-use quite meaningless words that happened to enter his head.

But that man, so heedless of his words, did not once during the whole time of his activity utter one word inconsistent with the single aim toward which he moved
throughout the whole war. Obviously in spite of himself, in very diverse circumstances, he repeatedly expressed his real thoughts with the bitter conviction that he would
not be understood. Beginning with the battle of Borodino, from which time his disagreement with those about him began, he alone said that the battle of Borodino was a
victory, and repeated this both verbally and in his dispatches and reports up to the time of his death. He alone said that the loss of Moscow is not the loss of Russia. In
reply to Lauriston's proposal of peace, he said: There can be no peace, for such is the people's will. He alone during the retreat of the French said that all our
maneuvers are useless, everything is being accomplished of itself better than we could desire; that the enemy must be offered "a golden bridge"; that neither the
Tarutino, the Vyazma, nor the Krasnoe battles were necessary; that we must keep some force to reach the frontier with, and that he would not sacrifice a single Russian
for ten Frenchmen.

And this courtier, as he is described to us, who lies to Arakcheev to please the Emperor, he alone-incurring thereby the Emperor's displeasure-said in Vilna that to
carry the war beyond the frontier is useless and harmful.

Nor do words alone prove that only he understood the meaning of the events. His actions-without the smallest deviation-were all directed to one and the same
threefold end: (1) to brace all his strength for conflict with the French, (2) to defeat them, and (3) to drive them out of Russia, minimizing as far as possible the sufferings
of our people and of our army.

This procrastinator Kutuzov, whose motto was "Patience and Time," this enemy of decisive action, gave battle at Borodino, investing the preparations for it with
unparalleled solemnity. This Kutuzov who before the battle of Austerlitz began said that it would be lost, he alone, in contradiction to everyone else, declared till his
death that Borodino was a victory, despite the assurance of generals that the battle was lost and despite the fact that for an army to have to retire after winning a battle
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This procrastinator Kutuzov, whose motto was "Patience and Time," this enemy of decisive action, gave battle at Borodino, investing the preparations for it with
unparalleled solemnity. This Kutuzov who before the battle of Austerlitz began said that it would be lost, he alone, in contradiction to everyone else, declared till his
death that Borodino was a victory, despite the assurance of generals that the battle was lost and despite the fact that for an army to have to retire after winning a battle
was unprecedented. He alone during the whole retreat insisted that battles, which were useless then, should not be fought, and that a new war should not be begun nor
the frontiers of Russia crossed.

It is easy now to understand the significance of these events-if only we abstain from attributing to the activity of the mass aims that existed only in the heads of a dozen
individuals-for the events and results now lie before us.

But how did that old man, alone, in opposition to the general opinion, so truly discern the importance of the people's view of the events that in all his activity he was
never once untrue to it?

The source of that extraordinary power of penetrating the meaning of the events then occuring lay in the national feeling which he possessed in full purity and strength.

Only the recognition of the fact that he possessed this feeling caused the people in so strange a manner, contrary to the Tsar's wish, to select him-an old man in
disfavor-to be their representative in the national war. And only that feeling placed him on that highest human pedestal from which he, the commander in chief, devoted
all his powers not to slaying and destroying men but to saving and showing pity on them.

That simple, modest, and therefore truly great, figure could not be cast in the false mold of a European hero-the supposed ruler of men-that history has invented.

To a lackey no man can be great, for a lackey has his own conception of greatness.

Chapter VI

The fifth of November was the first day of what is called the battle of Krasnoe. Toward evening-after much disputing and many mistakes made by generals who did not
go to their proper places, and after adjutants had been sent about with counterorders-when it had become plain that the enemy was everywhere in flight and that there
could and would be no battle, Kutuzov left Krasnoe and went to Dobroe whither his headquarters had that day been transferred.

The day was clear and frosty. Kutuzov rode to Dobroe on his plump little white horse, followed by an enormous suite of discontented generals who whispered among
themselves behind his back. All along the road groups of French prisoners captured that day (there were seven thousand of them) were crowding to warm themselves
at campfires. Near Dobroe an immense crowd of tattered prisoners, buzzing with talk and wrapped and bandaged in anything they had been able to get hold of, were
standing in the road beside a long row of unharnessed French guns. At the approach of the commander in chief the buzz of talk ceased and all eyes were fixed on
Kutuzov who, wearing a white cap with a red band and a padded overcoat that bulged on his round shoulders, moved slowly along the road on his white horse. One of
the generals was reporting to him where the guns and prisoners had been captured.

Kutuzov seemed preoccupied and did not listen to what the general was saying. He screwed up his eyes with a dissatisfied look as he gazed attentively and fixedly at
these prisoners, who presented a specially wretched appearance. Most of them were disfigured by frost-bitten noses and cheeks, and nearly all had red, swollen and
festering eyes.

One group of the French stood close to the road, and two of them, one of whom had his face covered with sores, were tearing a piece of raw flesh with their hands.
There was something horrible and bestial in the fleeting glance they threw at the riders and in the malevolent expression with which, after a glance at Kutuzov, the
soldier with the sores immediately turned away and went on with what he was doing.

Kutuzov looked long and intently at these two soldiers. He puckered his face, screwed up his eyes, and pensively swayed his head. At another spot he noticed a
Russian soldier laughingly patting a Frenchman on the shoulder, saying something to him in a friendly manner, and Kutuzov with the same expression on his face again
swayed his head.

"What were you saying?" he asked the general, who continuing his report directed the commander in chief's attention to some standards captured from the French and
standing in front of the Preobrazhensk regiment.

"Ah, the standards!" said Kutuzov, evidently detaching himself with difficulty from the thoughts that preoccupied him.

He looked about him absently. Thousands of eyes were looking at him from all sides awaiting a word from him.

He stopped in front of the Preobrazhensk regiment, sighed deeply, and closed his eyes. One of his suite beckoned to the soldiers carrying the standards to advance and
surround the commander in chief with them. Kutuzov was silent for a few seconds and then, submitting with evident reluctance to the duty imposed by his position,
raised his head and began to speak. A throng of officers surrounded him. He looked attentively around at the circle of officers, recognizing several of them.

"I thank you all!" he said, addressing the soldiers and then again the officers. In the stillness around him his slowly uttered words were distinctly heard. "I thank you all
for your hard and faithful service. The victory is complete and Russia will not forget you! Honor to you forever."

He paused and looked around.

"Lower its head, lower it!" he said to a soldier who had accidentally lowered the French eagle he was holding before the Preobrazhensk standards. "Lower, lower,
that's it. Hurrah lads!" he added, addressing the men with a rapid movement of his chin.

"Hur-r-rah!" roared thousands of voices.

While the soldiers were shouting Kutuzov leaned forward in his saddle and bowed his head, and his eye lit up with a mild and apparently ironic gleam.

"You see, brothers..." said he when the shouts had ceased... and all at once his voice and the expression of his face changed. It was no longer the commander in chief
speaking but an ordinary old man who wanted to tell his comrades something very important.

There was a stir among the throng of officers and in the ranks of the soldiers, who moved that they might hear better what he was going to say.

"You see, brothers, I know it's hard for you, but it can't be helped! Bear up; it won't be for long now! We'll see our visitors off and then we'll rest. The Tsar won't
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                                                   you are at home while they-you see what they have come to," said he, pointing to the prisoners. "Worse       515our
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poorest beggars. While they were strong we didn't spare ourselves, but now we may even pity them. They are human beings too. Isn't it so, lads?"
There was a stir among the throng of officers and in the ranks of the soldiers, who moved that they might hear better what he was going to say.

"You see, brothers, I know it's hard for you, but it can't be helped! Bear up; it won't be for long now! We'll see our visitors off and then we'll rest. The Tsar won't
forget your service. It is hard for you, but still you are at home while they-you see what they have come to," said he, pointing to the prisoners. "Worse off than our
poorest beggars. While they were strong we didn't spare ourselves, but now we may even pity them. They are human beings too. Isn't it so, lads?"

He looked around, and in the direct, respectful, wondering gaze fixed upon him he read sympathy with what he had said. His face grew brighter and brighter with an
old man's mild smile, which drew the corners of his lips and eyes into a cluster of wrinkles. He ceased speaking and bowed his head as if in perplexity.

"But after all who asked them here? Serves them right, the bloody bastards!" he cried, suddenly lifting his head.

And flourishing his whip he rode off at a gallop for the first time during the whole campaign, and left the broken ranks of the soldiers laughing joyfully and shouting
"Hurrah!"

Kutuzov's words were hardly understood by the troops. No one could have repeated the field marshal's address, begun solemnly and then changing into an old man's
simplehearted talk; but the hearty sincerity of that speech, the feeling of majestic triumph combined with pity for the foe and consciousness of the justice of our cause,
exactly expressed by that old man's good-natured expletives, was not merely understood but lay in the soul of every soldier and found expression in their joyous and
long-sustained shouts. Afterwards when one of the generals addressed Kutuzov asking whether he wished his caleche to be sent for, Kutuzov in answering
unexpectedly gave a sob, being evidently greatly moved.

Chapter VII

When the troops reached their night's halting place on the eighth of November, the last day of the Krasnoe battles, it was already growing dusk. All day it had been
calm and frosty with occasional lightly falling snow and toward evening it began to clear. Through the falling snow a purple-black and starry sky showed itself and the
frost grew keener.

An infantry regiment which had left Tarutino three thousand strong but now numbered only nine hundred was one of the first to arrive that night at its halting place-a
village on the highroad. The quartermasters who met the regiment announced that all the huts were full of sick and dead Frenchmen, cavalrymen, and members of the
staff. There was only one hut available for the regimental commander.

The commander rode up to his hut. The regiment passed through the village and stacked its arms in front of the last huts.

Like some huge many-limbed animal, the regiment began to prepare its lair and its food. One part of it dispersed and waded knee-deep through the snow into a birch
forest to the right of the village, and immediately the sound of axes and swords, the crashing of branches, and merry voices could be heard from there. Another section
amid the regimental wagons and horses which were standing in a group was busy getting out caldrons and rye biscuit, and feeding the horses. A third section scattered
through the village arranging quarters for the staff officers, carrying out the French corpses that were in the huts, and dragging away boards, dry wood, and thatch from
the roofs, for the campfires, or wattle fences to serve for shelter.

Some fifteen men with merry shouts were shaking down the high wattle wall of a shed, the roof of which had already been removed.

"Now then, all together-shove!" cried the voices, and the huge surface of the wall, sprinkled with snow and creaking with frost, was seen swaying in the gloom of the
night. The lower stakes cracked more and more and at last the wall fell, and with it the men who had been pushing it. Loud, coarse laughter and joyous shouts ensued.

"Now then, catch hold in twos! Hand up the lever! That's it... Where are you shoving to?"

"Now, all together! But wait a moment, boys... With a song!"

All stood silent, and a soft, pleasant velvety voice began to sing. At the end of the third verse as the last note died away, twenty voices roared out at once: "Oo-oo-oo-
oo! That's it. All together! Heave away, boys!..." but despite their united efforts the wattle hardly moved, and in the silence that followed the heavy breathing of the men
was audible.

"Here, you of the Sixth Company! Devils that you are! Lend a hand... will you? You may want us one of these days."

Some twenty men of the Sixth Company who were on their way into the village joined the haulers, and the wattle wall, which was about thirty-five feet long an seven
feet high, moved forward along the village street, swaying, pressing upon and cutting the shoulders of the gasping men.

"Get along... Falling? What are you stopping for? There now..."

Merry senseless words of abuse flowed freely.

"What are you up to?" suddenly came the authoritative voice of a sergeant major who came upon the men who were hauling their burden. "There are gentry here; the
general himself is in that hut, and you foul-mouthed devils, you brutes, I'll give it to you!" shouted he, hitting the first man who came in his way a swinging blow on the
back. "Can't you make less noise?"

The men became silent. The soldier who had been struck groaned and wiped his face, which had been scratched till it bled by his falling against the wattle.

"There, how that devil hits out! He's made my face all bloody," said he in a frightened whisper when the sergeant major had passed on.

"Don't you like it?" said a laughing voice, and moderating their tones the men moved forward.

When they were out of the village they began talking again as loud as before, interlarding their talk with the same aimless expletives.

In the hut which the men had passed, the chief officers had gathered and were in animated talk over their tea about the events of the day and the maneuvers suggested
for tomorrow. It was proposed to make a flank march to the left, cut off the Vice-King (Murat) and capture him.

By the time the soldiers had dragged the wattle fence to its place the campfires were blazing on all sides ready for cooking, the wood crackled, the snow was melting,
and black shadows
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                                         Media     all over the occupied space where the snow had been trodden down.
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Axes and choppers were plied all around. Everything was done without any orders being given. Stores of wood were brought for the night, shelters were rigged up for
the officers, caldrons were being boiled, and muskets and accouterments put in order.
for tomorrow. It was proposed to make a flank march to the left, cut off the Vice-King (Murat) and capture him.

By the time the soldiers had dragged the wattle fence to its place the campfires were blazing on all sides ready for cooking, the wood crackled, the snow was melting,
and black shadows of soldiers flitted to and fro all over the occupied space where the snow had been trodden down.

Axes and choppers were plied all around. Everything was done without any orders being given. Stores of wood were brought for the night, shelters were rigged up for
the officers, caldrons were being boiled, and muskets and accouterments put in order.

The wattle wall the men had brought was set up in a semicircle by the Eighth Company as a shelter from the north, propped up by musket rests, and a campfire was
built before it. They beat the tattoo, called the roll, had supper, and settled down round the fires for the night-some repairing their footgear, some smoking pipes, and
some stripping themselves naked to steam the lice out of their shirts.

Chapter VIII

One would have thought that under the almost incredibly wretched conditions the Russian soldiers were in at that time-lacking warm boots and sheepskin coats, without
a roof over their heads, in the snow with eighteen degrees of frost, and without even full rations (the commissariat did not always keep up with the troops)-they would
have presented a very sad and depressing spectacle.

On the contrary, the army had never under the best material conditions presented a more cheerful and animated aspect. This was because all who began to grow
depressed or who lost strength were sifted out of the army day by day. All the physically or morally weak had long since been left behind and only the flower of the
army-physically and mentally-remained.

More men collected behind the wattle fence of the Eighth Company than anywhere else. Two sergeants major were sitting with them and their campfire blazed brighter
than others. For leave to sit by their wattle they demanded contributions of fuel.

"Eh, Makeev! What has become of you, you son of a bitch? Are you lost or have the wolves eaten you? Fetch some more wood!" shouted a red-haired and red-faced
man, screwing up his eyes and blinking because of the smoke but not moving back from the fire. "And you, Jackdaw, go and fetch some wood!" said he to another
soldier.

This red-haired man was neither a sergeant nor a corporal, but being robust he ordered about those weaker than himself. The soldier they called "Jackdaw," a thin little
fellow with a sharp nose, rose obediently and was about to go but at that instant there came into the light of the fire the slender, handsome figure of a young soldier
carrying a load of wood.

"Bring it here-that's fine!"

They split up the wood, pressed it down on the fire, blew at it with their mouths, and fanned it with the skirts of their greatcoats, making the flames hiss and crackle.
The men drew nearer and lit their pipes. The handsome young soldier who had brought the wood, setting his arms akimbo, began stamping his cold feet rapidly and
deftly on the spot where he stood.

"Mother! The dew is cold but clear.... It's well that I'm a musketeer..." he sang, pretending to hiccough after each syllable.

"Look out, your soles will fly off!" shouted the red-haired man, noticing that the sole of the dancer's boot was hanging loose. "What a fellow you are for dancing!"

The dancer stopped, pulled off the loose piece of leather, and threw it on the fire.

"Right enough, friend," said he, and, having sat down, took out of his knapsack a scrap of blue French cloth, and wrapped it round his foot. "It's the steam that spoils
them," he added, stretching out his feet toward the fire.

"They'll soon be issuing us new ones. They say that when we've finished hammering them, we're to receive double kits!"

"And that son of a bitch Petrov has lagged behind after all, it seems," said one sergeant major.

"I've had an eye on him this long while," said the other.

"Well, he's a poor sort of soldier..."

"But in the Third Company they say nine men were missing yesterday."

"Yes, it's all very well, but when a man's feet are frozen how can he walk?"

"Eh? Don't talk nonsense!" said a sergeant major.

"Do you want to be doing the same?" said an old soldier, turning reproachfully to the man who had spoken of frozen feet.

"Well, you know," said the sharp-nosed man they called Jackdaw in a squeaky and unsteady voice, raising himself at the other side of the fire, "a plump man gets thin,
but for a thin one it's death. Take me, now! I've got no strength left," he added, with sudden resolution turning to the sergeant major. "Tell them to send me to hospital;
I'm aching all over; anyway I shan't be able to keep up."

"That'll do, that'll do!" replied the sergeant major quietly.

The soldier said no more and the talk went on.

"What a lot of those Frenchies were taken today, and the fact is that not one of them had what you might call real boots on," said a soldier, starting a new theme. "They
were no more than make-believes."

"The Cossacks have taken their boots. They were clearing the hut for the colonel and carried them out. It was pitiful to see them, boys," put in the dancer. "As they
turned them over one seemed still alive and, would you believe it, he jabbered something in their lingo."
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"But they're a clean folk, lads," the first man went on; "he was white-as white as birchbark-and some of them are such fine fellows, you might think they were nobles."
were no more than make-believes."

"The Cossacks have taken their boots. They were clearing the hut for the colonel and carried them out. It was pitiful to see them, boys," put in the dancer. "As they
turned them over one seemed still alive and, would you believe it, he jabbered something in their lingo."

"But they're a clean folk, lads," the first man went on; "he was white-as white as birchbark-and some of them are such fine fellows, you might think they were nobles."

"Well, what do you think? They make soldiers of all classes there."

"But they don't understand our talk at all," said the dancer with a puzzled smile. "I asked him whose subject he was, and he jabbered in his own way. A queer lot!"

"But it's strange, friends," continued the man who had wondered at their whiteness, "the peasants at Mozhaysk were saying that when they began burying the dead-
where the battle was you know-well, those dead had been lying there for nearly a month, and says the peasant, 'they lie as white as paper, clean, and not as much smell
as a puff of powder smoke.'"

"Was it from the cold?" asked someone.

"You're a clever fellow! From the cold indeed! Why, it was hot. If it had been from the cold, ours would not have rotted either. 'But,' he says, 'go up to ours and they
are all rotten and maggoty. So,' he says, 'we tie our faces up with kerchiefs and turn our heads away as we drag them off: we can hardly do it. But theirs,' he says, 'are
white as paper and not so much smell as a whiff of gunpowder.'"

All were silent.

"It must be from their food," said the sergeant major. "They used to gobble the same food as the gentry."

No one contradicted him.

"That peasant near Mozhaysk where the battle was said the men were all called up from ten villages around and they carted for twenty days and still didn't finish carting
the dead away. And as for the wolves, he says..."

"That was a real battle," said an old soldier. "It's the only one worth remembering; but since that... it's only been tormenting folk."

"And do you know, Daddy, the day before yesterday we ran at them and, my word, they didn't let us get near before they just threw down their muskets and went on
their knees. 'Pardon!' they say. That's only one case. They say Platov took 'Poleon himself twice. But he didn't know the right charm. He catches him and catches him-
no good! He turns into a bird in his hands and flies away. And there's no way of killing him either."

"You're a first-class liar, Kiselev, when I come to look at you!"

"Liar, indeed! It's the real truth."

"If he fell into my hands, when I'd caught him I'd bury him in the ground with an aspen stake to fix him down. What a lot of men he's ruined!"

"Well, anyhow we're going to end it. He won't come here again," remarked the old soldier, yawning.

The conversation flagged, and the soldiers began settling down to sleep.

"Look at the stars. It's wonderful how they shine! You would think the women had spread out their linen," said one of the men, gazing with admiration at the Milky
Way.

"That's a sign of a good harvest next year."

"We shall want some more wood."

"You warm your back and your belly gets frozen. That's queer."

"O Lord!"

"What are you pushing for? Is the fire only for you? Look how he's sprawling!"

In the silence that ensued, the snoring of those who had fallen asleep could be heard. Others turned over and warmed themselves, now and again exchanging a few
words. From a campfire a hundred paces off came a sound of general, merry laughter.

"Hark at them roaring there in the Fifth Company!" said one of the soldiers, and what a lot of them there are!"

One of the men got up and went over to the Fifth Company.

"They're having such fun," said he, coming back. "Two Frenchies have turned up. One's quite frozen and the other's an awful swaggerer. He's singing songs...."

"Oh, I'll go across and have a look...."

And several of the men went over to the Fifth Company.

Chapter IX

The fifth company was bivouacking at the very edge of the forest. A huge campfire was blazing brightly in the midst of the snow, lighting up the branches of trees heavy
with hoarfrost.

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                                            in the snow of the forest, and the crackling of dry branches.                                            Page 518 / 567

"A bear, lads," said one of the men.
The fifth company was bivouacking at the very edge of the forest. A huge campfire was blazing brightly in the midst of the snow, lighting up the branches of trees heavy
with hoarfrost.

About midnight they heard the sound of steps in the snow of the forest, and the crackling of dry branches.

"A bear, lads," said one of the men.

They all raised their heads to listen, and out of the forest into the bright firelight stepped two strangely clad human figures clinging to one another.

These were two Frenchmen who had been hiding in the forest. They came up to the fire, hoarsely uttering something in a language our soldiers did not understand. One
was taller than the other; he wore an officer's hat and seemed quite exhausted. On approaching the fire he had been going to sit down, but fell. The other, a short sturdy
soldier with a shawl tied round his head, was stronger. He raised his companion and said something, pointing to his mouth. The soldiers surrounded the Frenchmen,
spread a greatcoat on the ground for the sick man, and brought some buckwheat porridge and vodka for both of them.

The exhausted French officer was Ramballe and the man with his head wrapped in the shawl was Morel, his orderly.

When Morel had drunk some vodka and finished his bowl of porridge he suddenly became unnaturally merry and chattered incessantly to the soldiers, who could not
understand him. Ramballe refused food and resting his head on his elbow lay silent beside the campfire, looking at the Russian soldiers with red and vacant eyes.
Occasionally he emitted a long-drawn groan and then again became silent. Morel, pointing to his shoulders, tried to impress on the soldiers the fact that Ramballe was
an officer and ought to be warmed. A Russian officer who had come up to the fire sent to ask his colonel whether he would not take a French officer into his hut to
warm him, and when the messenger returned and said that the colonel wished the officer to be brought to him, Ramballe was told to go. He rose and tried to walk, but
staggered and would have fallen had not a soldier standing by held him up.

"You won't do it again, eh?" said one of the soldiers, winking and turning mockingly to Ramballe.

"Oh, you fool! Why talk rubbish, lout that you are-a real peasant!" came rebukes from all sides addressed to the jesting soldier.

They surrounded Ramballe, lifted him on the crossed arms of two soldiers, and carried him to the hut. Ramballe put his arms around their necks while they carried him
and began wailing plaintively:

"Oh, you fine fellows, my kind, kind friends! These are men! Oh, my brave, kind friends," and he leaned his head against the shoulder of one of the men like a child.

Meanwhile Morel was sitting in the best place by the fire, surrounded by the soldiers.

Morel, a short sturdy Frenchman with inflamed and streaming eyes, was wearing a woman's cloak and had a shawl tied woman fashion round his head over his cap. He
was evidently tipsy, and was singing a French song in a hoarse broken voice, with an arm thrown round the nearest soldier. The soldiers simply held their sides as they
watched him.

"Now then, now then, teach us how it goes! I'll soon pick it up. How is it?" said the man-a singer and a wag-whom Morel was embracing.

"Vive Henri Quatre! Vive ce roi valiant!" sang Morel, winking. "Ce diable a quatre..."

"Vivarika! Vif-seruvaru! Sedyablyaka!" repeated the soldier, flourishing his arm and really catching the tune.

"Bravo! Ha, ha, ha!" rose their rough, joyous laughter from all sides.

Morel, wrinkling up his face, laughed too.

"Well, go on, go on!"

"Qui eut le triple talent,

De boire, de battre,

Et d'etre un vert galant."

"It goes smoothly, too. Well, now, Zaletaev!"

"Ke..." Zaletaev, brought out with effort: "ke-e-e-e," he drawled, laboriously pursing his lips, "le-trip-ta-la-de-bu-de-ba, e de-tra-va-ga-la " he sang.

"Fine! Just like the Frenchie! Oh, ho ho! Do you want some more to eat?"

"Give him some porridge: it takes a long time to get filled up after starving."

They gave him some more porridge and Morel with a laugh set to work on his third bowl. All the young soldiers smiled gaily as they watched him. The older men, who
thought it undignified to amuse themselves with such nonsense, continued to lie at the opposite side of the fire, but one would occasionally raise himself on an elbow and
glance at Morel with a smile.

"They are men too," said one of them as he wrapped himself up in his coat. "Even wormwood grows on its own root."

"O Lord, O Lord! How starry it is! Tremendous! That means a hard frost...."

They all grew silent. The stars, as if knowing that no one was looking at them, began to disport themselves in the dark sky: now flaring up, now vanishing, now
trembling, they were busy whispering something gladsome and mysterious to one another.

Chapter X
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The French army melted away at the uniform rate of a mathematical progression; and that crossing of the Berezina about which so much has been written was only one
intermediate stage in its destruction, and not at all the decisive episode of the campaign. If so much has been and still is written about the Berezina, on the French side
trembling, they were busy whispering something gladsome and mysterious to one another.

Chapter X

The French army melted away at the uniform rate of a mathematical progression; and that crossing of the Berezina about which so much has been written was only one
intermediate stage in its destruction, and not at all the decisive episode of the campaign. If so much has been and still is written about the Berezina, on the French side
this is only because at the broken bridge across that river the calamities their army had been previously enduring were suddenly concentrated at one moment into a
tragic spectacle that remained in every memory, and on the Russian side merely because in Petersburg-far from the seat of war-a plan (again one of Pfuel's) had been
devised to catch Napoleon in a strategic trap at the Berezina River. Everyone assured himself that all would happen according to plan, and therefore insisted that it was
just the crossing of the Berezina that destroyed the French army. In reality the results of the crossing were much less disastrous to the French-in guns and men lost-than
Krasnoe had been, as the figures show.

The sole importance of the crossing of the Berezina lies in the fact that it plainly and indubitably proved the fallacy of all the plans for cutting off the enemy's retreat and
the soundness of the only possible line of action-the one Kutuzov and the general mass of the army demanded-namely, simply to follow the enemy up. The French
crowd fled at a continually increasing speed and all its energy was directed to reaching its goal. It fled like a wounded animal and it was impossible to block its path.
This was shown not so much by the arrangements it made for crossing as by what took place at the bridges. When the bridges broke down, unarmed soldiers, people
from Moscow and women with children who were with the French transport, all-carried on by vis inertiae-pressed forward into boats and into the ice-covered water
and did not, surrender.

That impulse was reasonable. The condition of fugitives and of pursuers was equally bad. As long as they remained with their own people each might hope for help
from his fellows and the definite place he held among them. But those who surrendered, while remaining in the same pitiful plight, would be on a lower level to claim a
share in the necessities of life. The French did not need to be informed of the fact that half the prisoners-with whom the Russians did not know what to do-perished of
cold and hunger despite their captors' desire to save them; they felt that it could not be otherwise. The most compassionate Russian commanders, those favorable to the
French-and even the Frenchmen in the Russian service-could do nothing for the prisoners. The French perished from the conditions to which the Russian army was
itself exposed. It was impossible to take bread and clothes from our hungry and indispensable soldiers to give to the French who, though not harmful, or hated, or
guilty, were simply unnecessary. Some Russians even did that, but they were exceptions.

Certain destruction lay behind the French but in front there was hope. Their ships had been burned, there was no salvation save in collective flight, and on that the
whole strength of the French was concentrated.

The farther they fled the more wretched became the plight of the remnant, especially after the Berezina, on which (in consequence of the Petersburg plan) special hopes
had been placed by the Russians, and the keener grew the passions of the Russian commanders, blamed one another and Kutuzov most of all. Anticipation that the
failure of the Petersburg Berezina plan would be attributed to Kutuzov led to dissatisfaction, contempt, and ridicule, more and more strongly expressed. The ridicule
and contempt were of course expressed in a respectful form, making it impossible for him to ask wherein he was to blame. They did not talk seriously to him; when
reporting to him or asking for his sanction they appeared to be fulfilling a regrettable formality, but they winked behind his back and tried to mislead him at every turn.

Because they could not understand him all these people assumed that it was useless to talk to the old man; that he would never grasp the profundity of their plans, that
he would answer with his phrases (which they thought were mere phrases) about a "golden bridge," about the impossibility of crossing the frontier with a crowd of
tatterdemalions, and so forth. They had heard all that before. And all he said-that it was necessary to await provisions, or that the men had no boots-was so simple,
while what they proposed was so complicated and clever, that it was evident that he was old and stupid and that they, though not in power, were commanders of
genius.

After the junction with the army of the brilliant admiral and Petersburg hero Wittgenstein, this mood and the gossip of the staff reached their maximum. Kutuzov saw this
and merely sighed and shrugged his shoulders. Only once, after the affair of the Berezina, did he get angry and write to Bennigsen (who reported separately to the
Emperor) the following letter:

"On account of your spells of ill health, will your excellency please be so good as to set off for Kaluga on receipt of this, and there await further commands and
appointments from His Imperial Majesty."

But after Bennigsen's departure, the Grand Duke Tsarevich Constantine Pavlovich joined the army. He had taken part in the beginning of the campaign but had
subsequently been removed from the army by Kutuzov. Now having come to the army, he informed Kutuzov of the Emperor's displeasure at the poor success of our
forces and the slowness of their advance. The Emperor intended to join the army personally in a few days' time.

The old man, experienced in court as well as in military affairs-this same Kutuzov who in August had been chosen commander in chief against the sovereign's wishes
and who had removed the Grand Duke and heir-apparent from the army-who on his own authority and contrary to the Emperor's will had decided on the abandonment
of Moscow, now realized at once that his day was over, that his part was played, and that the power he was supposed to hold was no longer his. And he understood
this not merely from the attitude of the court. He saw on the one hand that the military business in which he had played his part was ended and felt that his mission was
accomplished; and at the same time he began to be conscious of the physical weariness of his aged body and of the necessity of physical rest.

On the twenty-ninth of November Kutuzov entered Vilna-his "dear Vilna" as he called it. Twice during his career Kutuzov had been governor of Vilna. In that wealthy
town, which had not been injured, he found old friends and associations, besides the comforts of life of which he had so long been deprived. And he suddenly turned
from the cares of army and state and, as far as the passions that seethed around him allowed, immersed himself in the quiet life to which he had formerly been
accustomed, as if all that was taking place and all that had still to be done in the realm of history did not concern him at all.

Chichagov, one of the most zealous "cutters-off" and "breakers-up," who had first wanted to effect a diversion in Greece and then in Warsaw but never wished to go
where he was sent: Chichagov, noted for the boldness with which he spoke to the Emperor, and who considered Kutuzov to be under an obligation to him because
when he was sent to make peace with Turkey in 1811 independently of Kutuzov, and found that peace had already been concluded, he admitted to the Emperor that
the merit of securing that peace was really Kutuzov's; this Chichagov was the first to meet Kutuzov at the castle where the latter was to stay. In undress naval uniform,
with a dirk, and holding his cap under his arm, he handed Kutuzov a garrison report and the keys of the town. The contemptuously respectful attitude of the younger
men to the old man in his dotage was expressed in the highest degree by the behavior of Chichagov, who knew of the accusations that were being directed against
Kutuzov.

When speaking to Chichagov, Kutuzov incidentally mentioned that the vehicles packed with china that had been captured from him at Borisov had been recovered and
would be restored to him.

"You mean to imply that I have nothing to eat out of.... On the contrary, I can supply you with everything even if you want to give dinner parties," warmly replied
Chichagov, who tried by every word he spoke to prove his own rectitude and therefore imagined Kutuzov to be animated by the same desire.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                             Page 520 / 567
Kutuzov, shrugging his shoulders, replied with his subtle penetrating smile: "I meant merely to say what I said."
would be restored to him.

"You mean to imply that I have nothing to eat out of.... On the contrary, I can supply you with everything even if you want to give dinner parties," warmly replied
Chichagov, who tried by every word he spoke to prove his own rectitude and therefore imagined Kutuzov to be animated by the same desire.

Kutuzov, shrugging his shoulders, replied with his subtle penetrating smile: "I meant merely to say what I said."

Contrary to the Emperor's wish Kutuzov detained the greater part of the army at Vilna. Those about him said that he became extraordinarily slack and physically feeble
during his stay in that town. He attended to army affairs reluctantly, left everything to his generals, and while awaiting the Emperor's arrival led a dissipated life.

Having left Petersburg on the seventh of December with his suite-Count Tolstoy, Prince Volkonski, Arakcheev, and others-the Emperor reached Vilna on the eleventh,
and in his traveling sleigh drove straight to the castle. In spite of the severe frost some hundred generals and staff officers in full parade uniform stood in front of the
castle, as well as a guard of honor of the Semenov regiment.

A courier who galloped to the castle in advance, in a troyka with three foam-flecked horses, shouted "Coming!" and Konovnitsyn rushed into the vestibule to inform
Kutuzov, who was waiting in the hall porter's little lodge.

A minute later the old man's large stout figure in full-dress uniform, his chest covered with orders and a scarf drawn round his stomach, waddled out into the porch. He
put on his hat with its peaks to the sides and, holding his gloves in his hand and walking with an effort sideways down the steps to the level of the street, took in his hand
the report he had prepared for the Emperor.

There was running to and fro and whispering; another troyka furiously up, and then all eyes were turned on an approaching sleigh in which the figures of the Emperor
and Volkonski could already be descried.

From the habit of fifty years all this had a physically agitating effect on the old general. He carefully and hastily felt himself all over, readjusted his hat, and pulling himself
together drew himself up and, at the very moment when the Emperor, having alighted from the sleigh, lifted his eyes to him, handed him the report and began speaking
in his smooth, ingratiating voice.

The Emperor with a rapid glance scanned Kutuzov from head to foot, frowned for an instant, but immediately mastering himself went up to the old man, extended his
arms and embraced him. And this embrace too, owing to a long-standing impression related to his innermost feelings, had its usual effect on Kutuzov and he gave a
sob.

The Emperor greeted the officers and the Semenov guard, and again pressing the old man's hand went with him into the castle.

When alone with the field marshal the Emperor expressed his dissatisfaction at the slowness of the pursuit and at the mistakes made at Krasnoe and the Berezina, and
informed him of his intentions for a future campaign abroad. Kutuzov made no rejoinder or remark. The same submissive, expressionless look with which he had
listened to the Emperor's commands on the field of Austerlitz seven years before settled on his face now.

When Kutuzov came out of the study and with lowered head was crossing the ballroom with his heavy waddling gait, he was arrested by someone's voice saying:

"Your Serene Highness!"

Kutuzov raised his head and looked for a long while into the eyes of Count Tolstoy, who stood before him holding a silver salver on which lay a small object. Kutuzov
seemed not to understand what was expected of him.

Suddenly he seemed to remember; a scarcely perceptible smile flashed across his puffy face, and bowing low and respectfully he took the object that lay on the salver.
It was the Order of St. George of the First Class.

Chapter XI

Next day the field marshal gave a dinner and ball which the Emperor honored by his presence. Kutuzov had received the Order of St. George of the First Class and the
Emperor showed him the highest honors, but everyone knew of the imperial dissatisfaction with him. The proprieties were observed and the Emperor was the first to
set that example, but everybody understood that the old man was blameworthy and good-for-nothing. When Kutuzov, conforming to a custom of Catherine's day,
ordered the standards that had been captured to be lowered at the Emperor's feet on his entering the ballroom, the Emperor made a wry face and muttered something
in which some people caught the words, "the old comedian."

The Emperor's displeasure with Kutuzov was specially increased at Vilna by the fact that Kutuzov evidently could not or would not understand the importance of the
coming campaign.

When on the following morning the Emperor said to the officers assembled about him: "You have not only saved Russia, you have saved Europe!" they all understood
that the war was not ended.

Kutuzov alone would not see this and openly expressed his opinion that no fresh war could improve the position or add to the glory of Russia, but could only spoil and
lower the glorious position that Russia had gained. He tried to prove to the Emperor the impossibility of levying fresh troops, spoke of the hardships already endured by
the people, of the possibility of failure and so forth.

This being the field marshal's frame of mind he was naturally regarded as merely a hindrance and obstacle to the impending war.

To avoid unpleasant encounters with the old man, the natural method was to do what had been done with him at Austerlitz and with Barclay at the beginning of the
Russian campaign-to transfer the authority to the Emperor himself, thus cutting the ground from under the commander in chief's feet without upsetting the old man by
informing him of the change.

With this object his staff was gradually reconstructed and its real strength removed and transferred to the Emperor. Toll, Konovnitsyn, and Ermolov received fresh
appointments. Everyone spoke loudly of the field marshal's great weakness and failing health.

His health had to be bad for his place to be taken away and given to another. And in fact his health was poor.

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there-now when his part was played out, Kutuzov's place was taken by a new and necessary performer.
appointments. Everyone spoke loudly of the field marshal's great weakness and failing health.

His health had to be bad for his place to be taken away and given to another. And in fact his health was poor.

So naturally, simply, and gradually-just as he had come from Turkey to the Treasury in Petersburg to recruit the militia, and then to the army when he was needed
there-now when his part was played out, Kutuzov's place was taken by a new and necessary performer.

The war 1812, besides its national significance dear to every Russian heart, was now to assume another, a European, significance.

The movement of peoples from west to east was to be succeeded by a movement of peoples from east to west, and for this fresh war another leader was necessary,
having qualities and views differing from Kutuzov's and animated by different motives.

Alexander I was as necessary for the movement of the peoples from east to west and for the refixing of national frontiers as Kutuzov had been for the salvation and
glory of Russia.

Kutuzov did not understand what Europe, the balance of power, or Napoleon meant. He could not understand it. For the representative of the Russian people, after
the enemy had been destroyed and Russia had been liberated and raised to the summit of her glory, there was nothing left to do as a Russian. Nothing remained for the
representative of the national war but to die, and Kutuzov died.

Chapter XII

As generally happens, Pierre did not feel the full effects of the physical privation and strain he had suffered as prisoner until after they were over. After his liberation he
reached Orel, and on the third day there, when preparing to go to Kiev, he fell ill and was laid up for three months. He had what the doctors termed "bilious fever." But
despite the fact that the doctors treated him, bled him, and gave him medicines to drink, he recovered.

Scarcely any impression was left on Pierre's mind by all that happened to him from the time of his rescue till his illness. He remembered only the dull gray weather now
rainy and now snowy, internal physical distress, and pains in his feet and side. He remembered a general impression of the misfortunes and sufferings of people and of
being worried by the curiosity of officers and generals who questioned him, he also remembered his difficulty in procuring a conveyance and horses, and above all he
remembered his incapacity to think and feel all that time. On the day of his rescue he had seen the body of Petya Rostov. That same day he had learned that Prince
Andrew, after surviving the battle of Borodino for more than a month had recently died in the Rostovs' house at Yaroslavl, and Denisov who told him this news also
mentioned Helene's death, supposing that Pierre had heard of it long before. All this at the time seemed merely strange to Pierre: he felt he could not grasp its
significance. Just then he was only anxious to get away as quickly as possible from places where people were killing one another, to some peaceful refuge where he
could recover himself, rest, and think over all the strange new facts he had learned; but on reaching Orel he immediately fell ill. When he came to himself after his illness
he saw in attendance on him two of his servants, Terenty and Vaska, who had come from Moscow; and also his cousin the eldest princess, who had been living on his
estate at Elets and hearing of his rescue and illness had come to look after him.

It was only gradually during his convalescence that Pierre lost the impressions he had become accustomed to during the last few months and got used to the idea that no
one would oblige him to go anywhere tomorrow, that no one would deprive him of his warm bed, and that he would be sure to get his dinner, tea, and supper. But for a
long time in his dreams he still saw himself in the conditions of captivity. In the same way little by little he came to understand the news he had been told after his rescue,
about the death of Prince Andrew, the death of his wife, and the destruction of the French.

A joyous feeling of freedom-that complete inalienable freedom natural to man which he had first experienced at the first halt outside Moscow-filled Pierre's soul during
his convalescence. He was surprised to find that this inner freedom, which was independent of external conditions, now had as it were an additional setting of external
liberty. He was alone in a strange town, without acquaintances. No one demanded anything of him or sent him anywhere. He had all he wanted: the thought of his wife
which had been a continual torment to him was no longer there, since she was no more.

"Oh, how good! How splendid!" said he to himself when a cleanly laid table was moved up to him with savory beef tea, or when he lay down for the night on a soft
clean bed, or when he remembered that the French had gone and that his wife was no more. "Oh, how good, how splendid!"

And by old habit he asked himself the question: "Well, and what then? What am I going to do?" And he immediately gave himself the answer: "Well, I shall live. Ah,
how splendid!"

The very question that had formerly tormented him, the thing he had continually sought to find-the aim of life-no longer existed for him now. That search for the aim of
life had not merely disappeared temporarily-he felt that it no longer existed for him and could not present itself again. And this very absence of an aim gave him the
complete, joyous sense of freedom which constituted his happiness at this time.

He could not see an aim, for he now had faith-not faith in any kind of rule, or words, or ideas, but faith in an ever-living, ever-manifest God. Formerly he had sought
Him in aims he set himself. That search for an aim had been simply a search for God, and suddenly in his captivity he had learned not by words or reasoning but by
direct feeling what his nurse had told him long ago: that God is here and everywhere. In his captivity he had learned that in Karataev God was greater, more infinite and
unfathomable than in the Architect of the Universe recognized by the Freemasons. He felt like a man who after straining his eyes to see into the far distance finds what
he sought at his very feet. All his life he had looked over the heads of the men around him, when he should have merely looked in front of him without straining his eyes.

In the past he had never been able to find that great inscrutable infinite something. He had only felt that it must exist somewhere and had looked for it. In everything near
and comprehensible he had only what was limited, petty, commonplace, and senseless. He had equipped himself with a mental telescope and looked into remote space,
where petty worldliness hiding itself in misty distance had seemed to him great and infinite merely because it was not clearly seen. And such had European life, politics,
Freemasonry, philosophy, and philanthropy seemed to him. But even then, at moments of weakness as he had accounted them, his mind had penetrated to those
distances and he had there seen the same pettiness, worldliness, and senselessness. Now, however, he had learned to see the great, eternal, and infinite in everything,
and therefore-to see it and enjoy its contemplation-he naturally threw away the telescope through which he had till now gazed over men's heads, and gladly regarded
the ever-changing, eternally great, unfathomable, and infinite life around him. And the closer he looked the more tranquil and happy he became. That dreadful question,
"What for?" which had formerly destroyed all his mental edifices, no longer existed for him. To that question, "What for?" a simple answer was now always ready in his
soul: "Because there is a God, that God without whose will not one hair falls from a man's head."

Chapter XIII

In external ways Pierre had hardly changed at all. In appearance he was just what he used to be. As before he was absent-minded and seemed occupied not with what
was before his eyes but with something special of his own. The difference between his former and present self was that formerly when he did not grasp what lay before
him or was said to him, he had puckered his forehead painfully as if vainly seeking to distinguish something at a distance. At present he still forgot what was said to him
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was said, though evidently seeing and hearing something quite different. Formerly he had appeared to be a kindhearted but unhappy man, and so people had been
inclined to avoid him. Now a smile at the joy of life always played round his lips, and sympathy for others, shone in his eyes with a questioning look as to whether they
In external ways Pierre had hardly changed at all. In appearance he was just what he used to be. As before he was absent-minded and seemed occupied not with what
was before his eyes but with something special of his own. The difference between his former and present self was that formerly when he did not grasp what lay before
him or was said to him, he had puckered his forehead painfully as if vainly seeking to distinguish something at a distance. At present he still forgot what was said to him
and still did not see what was before his eyes, but he now looked with a scarcely perceptible and seemingly ironic smile at what was before him and listened to what
was said, though evidently seeing and hearing something quite different. Formerly he had appeared to be a kindhearted but unhappy man, and so people had been
inclined to avoid him. Now a smile at the joy of life always played round his lips, and sympathy for others, shone in his eyes with a questioning look as to whether they
were as contented as he was, and people felt pleased by his presence.

Previously he had talked a great deal, grew excited when he talked, and seldom listened; now he was seldom carried away in conversation and knew how to listen so
that people readily told him their most intimate secrets.

The princess, who had never liked Pierre and had been particularly hostile to him since she had felt herself under obligations to him after the old count's death, now after
staying a short time in Orel-where she had come intending to show Pierre that in spite of his ingratitude she considered it her duty to nurse him-felt to her surprise and
vexation that she had become fond of him. Pierre did not in any way seek her approval, he merely studied her with interest. Formerly she had felt that he regarded her
with indifference and irony, and so had shrunk into herself as she did with others and had shown him only the combative side of her nature; but now he seemed to be
trying to understand the most intimate places of her heart, and, mistrustfully at first but afterwards gratefully, she let him see the hidden, kindly sides of her character.

The most cunning man could not have crept into her confidence more successfully, evoking memories of the best times of her youth and showing sympathy with them.
Yet Pierre's cunning consisted simply in finding pleasure in drawing out the human qualities of the embittered, hard, and (in her own way) proud princess.

"Yes, he is a very, very kind man when he is not under the influence of bad people but of people such as myself," thought she.

His servants too-Terenty and Vaska-in their own way noticed the change that had taken place in Pierre. They considered that he had become much "simpler." Terenty,
when he had helped him undress and wished him good night, often lingered with his master's boots in his hands and clothes over his arm, to see whether he would not
start a talk. And Pierre, noticing that Terenty wanted a chat, generally kept him there.

"Well, tell me... now, how did you get food?" he would ask.

And Terenty would begin talking of the destruction of Moscow, and of the old count, and would stand for a long time holding the clothes and talking, or sometimes
listening to Pierre's stories, and then would go out into the hall with a pleasant sense of intimacy with his master and affection for him.

The doctor who attended Pierre and visited him every day, though he considered it his duty as a doctor to pose as a man whose every moment was of value to
suffering humanity, would sit for hours with Pierre telling him his favorite anecdotes and his observations on the characters of his patients in general, and especially of the
ladies.

"It's a pleasure to talk to a man like that; he is not like our provincials," he would say.

There were several prisoners from the French army in Orel, and the doctor brought one of them, a young Italian, to see Pierre.

This officer began visiting Pierre, and the princess used to make fun of the tenderness the Italian expressed for him.

The Italian seemed happy only when he could come to see Pierre, talk with him, tell him about his past, his life at home, and his love, and pour out to him his indignation
against the French and especially against Napoleon.

"If all Russians are in the least like you, it is sacrilege to fight such a nation," he said to Pierre. "You, who have suffered so from the French, do not even feel animosity
toward them."

Pierre had evoked the passionate affection of the Italian merely by evoking the best side of his nature and taking a pleasure in so doing.

During the last days of Pierre's stay in Orel his old Masonic acquaintance Count Willarski, who had introduced him to the lodge in 1807, came to see him. Willarski
was married to a Russian heiress who had a large estate in Orel province, and he occupied a temporary post in the commissariat department in that town.

Hearing that Bezukhov was in Orel, Willarski, though they had never been intimate, came to him with the professions of friendship and intimacy that people who meet in
a desert generally express for one another. Willarski felt dull in Orel and was pleased to meet a man of his own circle and, as he supposed, of similar interests.

But to his surprise Willarski soon noticed that Pierre had lagged much behind the times, and had sunk, as he expressed it to himself, into apathy and egotism.

"You are letting yourself go, my dear fellow," he said.

But for all that Willarski found it pleasanter now than it had been formerly to be with Pierre, and came to see him every day. To Pierre as he looked at and listened to
Willarski, it seemed strange to think that he had been like that himself but a short time before.

Willarski was a married man with a family, busy with his family affairs, his wife's affairs, and his official duties. He regarded all these occupations as hindrances to life,
and considered that they were all contemptible because their aim was the welfare of himself and his family. Military, administrative, political, and Masonic interests
continually absorbed his attention. And Pierre, without trying to change the other's views and without condemning him, but with the quiet, joyful, and amused smile now
habitual to him, was interested in this strange though very familiar phenomenon.

There was a new feature in Pierre's relations with Willarski, with the princess, with the doctor, and with all the people he now met, which gained for him the general
good will. This was his acknowledgment of the impossibility of changing a man's convictions by words, and his recognition of the possibility of everyone thinking,
feeling, and seeing things each from his own point of view. This legitimate peculiarity of each individual which used to excite and irritate Pierre now became a basis of
the sympathy he felt for, and the interest he took in, other people. The difference, and sometimes complete contradiction, between men's opinions and their lives, and
between one man and another, pleased him and drew from him an amused and gentle smile.

In practical matters Pierre unexpectedly felt within himself a center of gravity he had previously lacked. Formerly all pecuniary questions, especially requests for money
to which, as an extremely wealthy man, he was very exposed, produced in him a state of hopeless agitation and perplexity. "To give or not to give?" he had asked
himself. "I have it and he needs it. But someone else needs it still more. Who needs it most? And perhaps they are both impostors?" In the old days he had been unable
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regard to every question concerning his property, when one person advised one thing and another something else.

Now to his surprise he found that he no longer felt either doubt or perplexity about these questions. There was now within him a judge who by some rule unknown to
In practical matters Pierre unexpectedly felt within himself a center of gravity he had previously lacked. Formerly all pecuniary questions, especially requests for money
to which, as an extremely wealthy man, he was very exposed, produced in him a state of hopeless agitation and perplexity. "To give or not to give?" he had asked
himself. "I have it and he needs it. But someone else needs it still more. Who needs it most? And perhaps they are both impostors?" In the old days he had been unable
to find a way out of all these surmises and had given to all who asked as long as he had anything to give. Formerly he had been in a similar state of perplexity with
regard to every question concerning his property, when one person advised one thing and another something else.

Now to his surprise he found that he no longer felt either doubt or perplexity about these questions. There was now within him a judge who by some rule unknown to
him decided what should or should not be done.

He was as indifferent as heretofore to money matters, but now he felt certain of what ought and what ought not to be done. The first time he had recourse to his new
judge was when a French prisoner, a colonel, came to him and, after talking a great deal about his exploits, concluded by making what amounted to a demand that
Pierre should give him four thousand francs to send to his wife and children. Pierre refused without the least difficulty or effort, and was afterwards surprised how
simple and easy had been what used to appear so insurmountably difficult. At the same time that he refused the colonel's demand he made up his mind that he must
have recourse to artifice when leaving Orel, to induce the Italian officer to accept some money of which he was evidently in need. A further proof to Pierre of his own
more settled outlook on practical matters was furnished by his decision with regard to his wife's debts and to the rebuilding of his houses in and near Moscow.

His head steward came to him at Orel and Pierre reckoned up with him his diminished income. The burning of Moscow had cost him, according to the head steward's
calculation, about two million rubles.

To console Pierre for these losses the head steward gave him an estimate showing that despite these losses his income would not be diminished but would even be
increased if he refused to pay his wife's debts which he was under no obligation to meet, and did not rebuild his Moscow house and the country house on his Moscow
estate, which had cost him eighty thousand rubles a year and brought in nothing.

"Yes, of course that's true," said Pierre with a cheerful smile. "I don't need all that at all. By being ruined I have become much richer."

But in January Savelich came from Moscow and gave him an account of the state of things there, and spoke of the estimate an architect had made of the cost of
rebuilding the town and country houses, speaking of this as of a settled matter. About the same time he received letters from Prince Vasili and other Petersburg
acquaintances speaking of his wife's debts. And Pierre decided that the steward's proposals which had so pleased him were wrong and that he must go to Petersburg
and settle his wife's affairs and must rebuild in Moscow. Why this was necessary he did not know, but he knew for certain that it was necessary. His income would be
reduced by three fourths, but he felt it must be done.

Willarski was going to Moscow and they agreed to travel together.

During the whole time of his convalescence in Orel Pierre had experienced a feeling of joy, freedom, and life; but when during his journey he found himself in the open
world and saw hundreds of new faces, that feeling was intensified. Throughout his journey he felt like a schoolboy on holiday. Everyone-the stagecoach driver, the
post-house overseers, the peasants on the roads and in the villages-had a new significance for him. The presence and remarks of Willarski who continually deplored the
ignorance and poverty of Russia and its backwardness compared with Europe only heightened Pierre's pleasure. Where Willarski saw deadness Pierre saw an
extraordinary strength and vitality-the strength which in that vast space amid the snows maintained the life of this original, peculiar, and unique people. He did not
contradict Willarski and even seemed to agree with him-an apparent agreement being the simplest way to avoid discussions that could lead to nothing-and he smiled
joyfully as he listened to him.

Chapter XIV

It would be difficult to explain why and whither ants whose heap has been destroyed are hurrying: some from the heap dragging bits of rubbish, larvae, and corpses,
others back to the heap, or why they jostle, overtake one another, and fight, and it would be equally difficult to explain what caused the Russians after the departure of
the French to throng to the place that had formerly been Moscow. But when we watch the ants round their ruined heap, the tenacity, energy, and immense number of
the delving insects prove that despite the destruction of the heap, something indestructible, which though intangible is the real strength of the colony, still exists; and
similarly, though in Moscow in the month of October there was no government no churches, shrines, riches, or houses-it was still the Moscow it had been in August. All
was destroyed, except something intangible yet powerful and indestructible.

The motives of those who thronged from all sides to Moscow after it had been cleared of the enemy were most diverse and personal, and at first for the most part
savage and brutal. One motive only they all had in common: a desire to get to the place that had been called Moscow, to apply their activities there.

Within a week Moscow already had fifteen thousand inhabitants, in a fortnight twenty-five thousand, and so on. By the autumn of 1813 the number, ever increasing and
increasing, exceeded what it had been in 1812.

The first Russians to enter Moscow were the Cossacks of Wintzingerode's detachment, peasants from the adjacent villages, and residents who had fled from Moscow
and had been hiding in its vicinity. The Russians who entered Moscow, finding it plundered, plundered it in their turn. They continued what the French had begun. Trains
of peasant carts came to Moscow to carry off to the villages what had been abandoned in the ruined houses and the streets. The Cossacks carried off what they could
to their camps, and the householders seized all they could find in other houses and moved it to their own, pretending that it was their property.

But the first plunderers were followed by a second and a third contingent, and with increasing numbers plundering became more and more difficult and assumed more
definite forms.

The French found Moscow abandoned but with all the organizations of regular life, with diverse branches of commerce and craftsmanship, with luxury, and
governmental and religious institutions. These forms were lifeless but still existed. There were bazaars, shops, warehouses, market stalls, granaries-for the most part still
stocked with goods-and there were factories and workshops, palaces and wealthy houses filled with luxuries, hospitals, prisons, government offices, churches, and
cathedrals. The longer the French remained the more these forms of town life perished, until finally all was merged into one confused, lifeless scene of plunder.

The more the plundering by the French continued, the more both the wealth of Moscow and the strength of its plunderers was destroyed. But plundering by the
Russians, with which the reoccupation of the city began, had an opposite effect: the longer it continued and the greater the number of people taking part in it the more
rapidly was the wealth of the city and its regular life restored.

Besides the plunderers, very various people, some drawn by curiosity, some by official duties, some by self-interest-house owners, clergy, officials of all kinds,
tradesmen, artisans, and peasants-streamed into Moscow as blood flows to the heart.

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peasants, having heard of their comrades' discomfiture, came to town bringing rye, oats, and hay, and beat down one another's prices to below what they had been in
former days. Gangs of carpenters hoping for high pay arrived in Moscow every day, and on all sides logs were being hewn, new houses built, and old, charred ones
Besides the plunderers, very various people, some drawn by curiosity, some by official duties, some by self-interest-house owners, clergy, officials of all kinds,
tradesmen, artisans, and peasants-streamed into Moscow as blood flows to the heart.

Within a week the peasants who came with empty carts to carry off plunder were stopped by the authorities and made to cart the corpses out of the town. Other
peasants, having heard of their comrades' discomfiture, came to town bringing rye, oats, and hay, and beat down one another's prices to below what they had been in
former days. Gangs of carpenters hoping for high pay arrived in Moscow every day, and on all sides logs were being hewn, new houses built, and old, charred ones
repaired. Tradesmen began trading in booths. Cookshops and taverns were opened in partially burned houses. The clergy resumed the services in many churches that
had not been burned. Donors contributed Church property that had been stolen. Government clerks set up their baize-covered tables and their pigeonholes of
documents in small rooms. The higher authorities and the police organized the distribution of goods left behind by the French. The owners of houses in which much
property had been left, brought there from other houses, complained of the injustice of taking everything to the Faceted Palace in the Kremlin; others insisted that as the
French had gathered things from different houses into this or that house, it would be unfair to allow its owner to keep all that was found there. They abused the police
and bribed them, made out estimates at ten times their value for government stores that had perished in the fire, and demanded relief. And Count Rostopchin wrote
proclamations.

Chapter XV

At the end of January Pierre went to Moscow and stayed in an annex of his house which had not been burned. He called on Count Rostopchin and on some
acquaintances who were back in Moscow, and he intended to leave for Petersburg two days later. Everybody was celebrating the victory, everything was bubbling
with life in the ruined but reviving city. Everyone was pleased to see Pierre, everyone wished to meet him, and everyone questioned him about what he had seen. Pierre
felt particularly well disposed toward them all, but was now instinctively on his guard for fear of binding himself in any way. To all questions put to him-whether
important or quite trifling-such as: Where would he live? Was he going to rebuild? When was he going to Petersburg and would he mind taking a parcel for someone?-
he replied: "Yes, perhaps," or, "I think so," and so on.

He had heard that the Rostovs were at Kostroma but the thought of Natasha seldom occurred to him. If it did it was only as a pleasant memory of the distant past. He
felt himself not only free from social obligations but also from that feeling which, it seemed to him, he had aroused in himself.

On the third day after his arrival he heard from the Drubetskoys that Princess Mary was in Moscow. The death, sufferings, and last days of Prince Andrew had often
occupied Pierre's thoughts and now recurred to him with fresh vividness. Having heard at dinner that Princess Mary was in Moscow and living in her house-which had
not been burned-in Vozdvizhenka Street, he drove that same evening to see her.

On his way to the house Pierre kept thinking of Prince Andrew, of their friendship, of his various meetings with him, and especially of the last one at Borodino.

"Is it possible that he died in the bitter frame of mind he was then in? Is it possible that the meaning of life was not disclosed to him before he died?" thought Pierre. He
recalled Karataev and his death and involuntarily began to compare these two men, so different, and yet so similar in that they had both lived and both died and in the
love he felt for both of them.

Pierre drove up to the house of the old prince in a most serious mood. The house had escaped the fire; it showed signs of damage but its general aspect was
unchanged. The old footman, who met Pierre with a stern face as if wishing to make the visitor feel that the absence of the old prince had not disturbed the order of
things in the house, informed him that the princess had gone to her own apartments, and that she received on Sundays.

"Announce me. Perhaps she will see me," said Pierre.

"Yes, sir," said the man. "Please step into the portrait gallery."

A few minutes later the footman returned with Dessalles, who brought word from the princess that she would be very glad to see Pierre if he would excuse her want of
ceremony and come upstairs to her apartment.

In a rather low room lit by one candle sat the princess and with her another person dressed in black. Pierre remembered that the princess always had lady companions,
but who they were and what they were like he never knew or remembered. "This must be one of her companions," he thought, glancing at the lady in the black dress.

The princess rose quickly to meet him and held out her hand.

"Yes," she said, looking at his altered face after he had kissed her hand, "so this is how we meet again. He of spoke of you even at the very last," she went on, turning
her eyes from Pierre to her companion with a shyness that surprised him for an instant.

"I was so glad to hear of your safety. It was the first piece of good news we had received for a long time."

Again the princess glanced round at her companion with even more uneasiness in her manner and was about to add something, but Pierre interrupted her.

"Just imagine-I knew nothing about him!" said he. "I thought he had been killed. All I know I heard at second hand from others. I only know that he fell in with the
Rostovs.... What a strange coincidence!"

Pierre spoke rapidly and with animation. He glanced once at the companion's face, saw her attentive and kindly gaze fixed on him, and, as often happens when one is
talking, felt somehow that this companion in the black dress was a good, kind, excellent creature who would not hinder his conversing freely with Princess Mary.

But when he mentioned the Rostovs, Princess Mary's face expressed still greater embarrassment. She again glanced rapidly from Pierre's face to that of the lady in the
black dress and said:

"Do you really not recognize her?"

Pierre looked again at the companion's pale, delicate face with its black eyes and peculiar mouth, and something near to him, long forgotten and more than sweet,
looked at him from those attentive eyes.

"But no, it can't be!" he thought. "This stern, thin, pale face that looks so much older! It cannot be she. It merely reminds me of her." But at that moment Princess Mary
said, "Natasha!" And with difficulty, effort, and stress, like the opening of a door grown rusty on its hinges, a smile appeared on the face with the attentive eyes, and
from that opening door came a breath of fragrance which suffused Pierre with a happiness he had long forgotten and of which he had not even been thinking-especially
atCopyright  (c) 2005-2009,
   that moment.                Infobase
                  It suffused him, seizedMedia   Corp.
                                          him, and  enveloped him completely. When she smiled doubt was no longer possible, it was Natasha and hePage          525 / 567
                                                                                                                                                        loved her.

At that moment Pierre involuntarily betrayed to her, to Princess Mary, and above all to himself, a secret of which he himself had been unaware. He flushed joyfully yet
"But no, it can't be!" he thought. "This stern, thin, pale face that looks so much older! It cannot be she. It merely reminds me of her." But at that moment Princess Mary
said, "Natasha!" And with difficulty, effort, and stress, like the opening of a door grown rusty on its hinges, a smile appeared on the face with the attentive eyes, and
from that opening door came a breath of fragrance which suffused Pierre with a happiness he had long forgotten and of which he had not even been thinking-especially
at that moment. It suffused him, seized him, and enveloped him completely. When she smiled doubt was no longer possible, it was Natasha and he loved her.

At that moment Pierre involuntarily betrayed to her, to Princess Mary, and above all to himself, a secret of which he himself had been unaware. He flushed joyfully yet
with painful distress. He tried to hide his agitation. But the more he tried to hide it the more clearly-clearer than any words could have done-did he betray to himself, to
her, and to Princess Mary that he loved her.

"No, it's only the unexpectedness of it," thought Pierre. But as soon as he tried to continue the conversation he had begun with Princess Mary he again glanced at
Natasha, and a still-deeper flush suffused his face and a still-stronger agitation of mingled joy and fear seized his soul. He became confused in his speech and stopped in
the middle of what he was saying.

Pierre had failed to notice Natasha because he did not at all expect to see her there, but he had failed to recognize her because the change in her since he last saw her
was immense. She had grown thin and pale, but that was not what made her unrecognizable; she was unrecognizable at the moment he entered because on that face
whose eyes had always shone with a suppressed smile of the joy of life, now when he first entered and glanced at her there was not the least shadow of a smile: only
her eyes were kindly attentive and sadly interrogative.

Pierre's confusion was not reflected by any confusion on Natasha's part, but only by the pleasure that just perceptibly lit up her whole face.

Chapter XVI

"She has come to stay with me," said Princess Mary. "The count and countess will be here in a few days. The countess is in a dreadful state; but it was necessary for
Natasha herself to see a doctor. They insisted on her coming with me."

"Yes, is there a family free from sorrow now?" said Pierre, addressing Natasha. "You know it happened the very day we were rescued. I saw him. What a delightful
boy he was!"

Natasha looked at him, and by way of answer to his words her eyes widened and lit up.

"What can one say or think of as a consolation?" said Pierre. "Nothing! Why had such a splendid boy, so full of life, to die?"

"Yes, in these days it would be hard to live without faith..." remarked Princess Mary.

"Yes, yes, that is really true," Pierre hastily interrupted her.

"Why is it true?" Natasha asked, looking attentively into Pierre's eyes.

"How can you ask why?" said Princess Mary. "The thought alone of what awaits..."

Natasha without waiting for Princess Mary to finish again looked inquiringly at Pierre.

"And because," Pierre continued, "only one who believes that there is a God ruling us can bear a loss such as hers and... yours."

Natasha had already opened her mouth to speak but suddenly stopped. Pierre hurriedly turned away from her and again addressed Princess Mary, asking about his
friend's last days.

Pierre's confusion had now almost vanished, but at the same time he felt that his freedom had also completely gone. He felt that there was now a judge of his every
word and action whose judgment mattered more to him than that of all the rest of the world. As he spoke now he was considering what impression his words would
make on Natasha. He did not purposely say things to please her, but whatever he was saying he regarded from her standpoint.

Princess Mary-reluctantly as is usual in such cases-began telling of the condition in which she had found Prince Andrew. But Pierre's face quivering with emotion, his
questions and his eager restless expression, gradually compelled her to go into details which she feared to recall for her own sake.

"Yes, yes, and so...? " Pierre kept saying as he leaned toward her with his whole body and eagerly listened to her story. "Yes, yes... so he grew tranquil and softened?
With all his soul he had always sought one thing-to be perfectly good-so he could not be afraid of death. The faults he had-if he had any-were not of his making. So he
did soften?... What a happy thing that he saw you again," he added, suddenly turning to Natasha and looking at her with eyes full of tears.

Natasha's face twitched. She frowned and lowered her eyes for a moment. She hesitated for an instant whether to speak or not.

"Yes, that was happiness," she then said in her quiet voice with its deep chest notes. "For me it certainly was happiness." She paused. "And he... he... he said he was
wishing for it at the very moment I entered the room...."

Natasha's voice broke. She blushed, pressed her clasped hands on her knees, and then controlling herself with an evident effort lifted her head and began to speak
rapidly.

"We knew nothing of it when we started from Moscow. I did not dare to ask about him. Then suddenly Sonya told me he was traveling with us. I had no idea and
could not imagine what state he was in, all I wanted was to see him and be with him," she said, trembling, and breathing quickly.

And not letting them interrupt her she went on to tell what she had never yet mentioned to anyone-all she had lived through during those three weeks of their journey
and life at Yaroslavl.

Pierre listened to her with lips parted and eyes fixed upon her full of tears. As he listened he did not think of Prince Andrew, nor of death, nor of what she was telling.
He listened to her and felt only pity for her, for what she was suffering now while she was speaking.

Princess Mary, frowning in her effort to hold back her tears, sat beside Natasha, and heard for the first time the story of those last days of her brother's and Natasha's
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.
love.                                                                                                                                                 Page 526 / 567

Evidently Natasha needed to tell that painful yet joyful tale.
He listened to her and felt only pity for her, for what she was suffering now while she was speaking.

Princess Mary, frowning in her effort to hold back her tears, sat beside Natasha, and heard for the first time the story of those last days of her brother's and Natasha's
love.

Evidently Natasha needed to tell that painful yet joyful tale.

She spoke, mingling most trifling details with the intimate secrets of her soul, and it seemed as if she could never finish. Several times she repeated the same thing twice.

Dessalles' voice was heard outside the door asking whether little Nicholas might come in to say good night.

"Well, that's all-everything," said Natasha.

She got up quickly just as Nicholas entered, almost ran to the door which was hidden by curtains, struck her head against it, and rushed from the room with a moan
either of pain or sorrow.

Pierre gazed at the door through which she had disappeared and did not understand why he suddenly felt all alone in the world.

Princess Mary roused him from his abstraction by drawing his attention to her nephew who had entered the room.

At that moment of emotional tenderness young Nicholas' face, which resembled his father's, affected Pierre so much that when he had kissed the boy he got up quickly,
took out his handkerchief, and went to the window. He wished to take leave of Princess Mary, but she would not let him go.

"No, Natasha and I sometimes don't go to sleep till after two, so please don't go. I will order supper. Go downstairs, we will come immediately."

Before Pierre left the room Princess Mary told him: "This is the first time she has talked of him like that."

Chapter XVII

Pierre was shown into the large, brightly lit dining room; a few minutes later he heard footsteps and Princess Mary entered with Natasha. Natasha was calm, though a
severe and grave expression had again settled on her face. They all three of them now experienced that feeling of awkwardness which usually follows after a serious
and heartfelt talk. It is impossible to go back to the same conversation, to talk of trifles is awkward, and yet the desire to speak is there and silence seems like
affectation. They went silently to table. The footmen drew back the chairs and pushed them up again. Pierre unfolded his cold table napkin and, resolving to break the
silence, looked at Natasha and at Princess Mary. They had evidently both formed the same resolution; the eyes of both shone with satisfaction and a confession that
besides sorrow life also has joy.

"Do you take vodka, Count?" asked Princess Mary, and those words suddenly banished the shadows of the past. "Now tell us about yourself," said she. "One hears
such improbable wonders about you."

"Yes," replied Pierre with the smile of mild irony now habitual to him. "They even tell me wonders I myself never dreamed of! Mary Abramovna invited me to her house
and kept telling me what had happened, or ought to have happened, to me. Stepan Stepanych also instructed me how I ought to tell of my experiences. In general I
have noticed that it is very easy to be an interesting man (I am an interesting man now); people invite me out and tell me all about myself."

Natasha smiled and was on the point of speaking.

"We have been told," Princess Mary interrupted her, "that you lost two millions in Moscow. Is that true?"

"But I am three times as rich as before," returned Pierre.

Though the position was now altered by his decision to pay his wife's debts and to rebuild his houses, Pierre still maintained that he had become three times as rich as
before.

"What I have certainly gained is freedom," he began seriously, but did not continue, noticing that this theme was too egotistic.

"And are you building?"

"Yes. Savelich says I must!"

"Tell me, you did not know of the countess' death when you decided to remain in Moscow?" asked Princess Mary and immediately blushed, noticing that her question,
following his mention of freedom, ascribed to his words a meaning he had perhaps not intended.

"No," answered Pierre, evidently not considering awkward the meaning Princess Mary had given to his words. "I heard of it in Orel and you cannot imagine how it
shocked me. We were not an exemplary couple," he added quickly, glancing at Natasha and noticing on her face curiosity as to how he would speak of his wife, "but
her death shocked me terribly. When two people quarrel they are always both in fault, and one's own guilt suddenly becomes terribly serious when the other is no
longer alive. And then such a death... without friends and without consolation! I am very, very sorry for her," he concluded, and was pleased to notice a look of glad
approval on Natasha's face.

"Yes, and so you are once more an eligible bachelor," said Princess Mary.

Pierre suddenly flushed crimson and for a long time tried not to look at Natasha. When he ventured to glance her way again her face was cold, stern, and he fancied
even contemptuous.

"And did you really see and speak to Napoleon, as we have been told?" said Princess Mary.

Pierre laughed.

"No, not once!
 Copyright     Everybody seems
           (c) 2005-2009,      to imagine
                          Infobase  Media that being taken prisoner means being Napoleon's guest. Not only did I never see him but I heard nothing about him-I was
                                           Corp.
in much lower company!"
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Supper was over, and Pierre who at first declined to speak about his captivity was gradually led on to do so.
Pierre laughed.

"No, not once! Everybody seems to imagine that being taken prisoner means being Napoleon's guest. Not only did I never see him but I heard nothing about him-I was
in much lower company!"

Supper was over, and Pierre who at first declined to speak about his captivity was gradually led on to do so.

"But it's true that you remained in Moscow to kill Napoleon?" Natasha asked with a slight smile. "I guessed it then when we met at the Sukharev tower, do you
remember?"

Pierre admitted that it was true, and from that was gradually led by Princess Mary's questions and especially by Natasha's into giving a detailed account of his
adventures.

At first he spoke with the amused and mild irony now customary with him toward everybody and especially toward himself, but when he came to describe the horrors
and sufferings he had witnessed he was unconsciously carried away and began speaking with the suppressed emotion of a man re-experiencing in recollection strong
impressions he has lived through.

Princess Mary with a gentle smile looked now at Pierre and now at Natasha. In the whole narrative she saw only Pierre and his goodness. Natasha, leaning on her
elbow, the expression of her face constantly changing with the narrative, watched Pierre with an attention that never wandered-evidently herself experiencing all that he
described. Not only her look, but her exclamations and the brief questions she put, showed Pierre that she understood just what he wished to convey. It was clear that
she understood not only what he said but also what he wished to, but could not, express in words. The account Pierre gave of the incident with the child and the
woman for protecting whom he was arrested was this: "It was an awful sight-children abandoned, some in the flames... One was snatched out before my eyes... and
there were women who had their things snatched off and their earrings torn out..." he flushed and grew confused. "Then a patrol arrived and all the men-all those who
were not looting, that is-were arrested, and I among them."

"I am sure you're not telling us everything; I am sure you did something..." said Natasha and pausing added, "something fine?"

Pierre continued. When he spoke of the execution he wanted to pass over the horrible details, but Natasha insisted that he should not omit anything.

Pierre began to tell about Karataev, but paused. By this time he had risen from the table and was pacing the room, Natasha following him with her eyes. Then he
added:

"No, you can't understand what I learned from that illiterate man-that simple fellow."

"Yes, yes, go on!" said Natasha. "Where is he?"

"They killed him almost before my eyes."

And Pierre, his voice trembling continually, went on to tell of the last days of their retreat, of Karataev's illness and his death.

He told of his adventures as he had never yet recalled them. He now, as it were, saw a new meaning in all he had gone through. Now that he was telling it all to
Natasha he experienced that pleasure which a man has when women listen to him-not clever women who when listening either try to remember what they hear to enrich
their minds and when opportunity offers to retell it, or who wish to adopt it to some thought of their own and promptly contribute their own clever comments prepared
in their little mental workshop-but the pleasure given by real women gifted with a capacity to select and absorb the very best a man shows of himself. Natasha without
knowing it was all attention: she did not lose a word, no single quiver in Pierre's voice, no look, no twitch of a muscle in his face, nor a single gesture. She caught the
unfinished word in its flight and took it straight into her open heart, divining the secret meaning of all Pierre's mental travail.

Princess Mary understood his story and sympathized with him, but she now saw something else that absorbed all her attention. She saw the possibility of love and
happiness between Natasha and Pierre, and the first thought of this filled her heart with gladness.

It was three o'clock in the morning. The footmen came in with sad and stern faces to change the candles, but no one noticed them.

Pierre finished his story. Natasha continued to look at him intently with bright, attentive, and animated eyes, as if trying to understand something more which he had
perhaps left untold. Pierre in shamefaced and happy confusion glanced occasionally at her, and tried to think what to say next to introduce a fresh subject. Princess
Mary was silent. It occurred to none of them that it was three o'clock and time to go to bed.

"People speak of misfortunes and sufferings," remarked Pierre, "but if at this moment I were asked: 'Would you rather be what you were before you were taken
prisoner, or go through all this again?' then for heaven's sake let me again have captivity and horseflesh! We imagine that when we are thrown out of our usual ruts all is
lost, but it is only then that what is new and good begins. While there is life there is happiness. There is much, much before us. I say this to you," he added, turning to
Natasha.

"Yes, yes," she said, answering something quite different. "I too should wish nothing but to relive it all from the beginning."

Pierre looked intently at her.

"Yes, and nothing more." said Natasha.

"It's not true, not true!" cried Pierre. "I am not to blame for being alive and wishing to live-nor you either."

Suddenly Natasha bent her head, covered her face with her hands, and began to cry.

"What is it, Natasha?" said Princess Mary.

"Nothing, nothing." She smiled at Pierre through her tears. "Good night! It is time for bed."

Pierre rose and took his leave.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                        Page 528 / 567
Princess Mary and Natasha met as usual in the bedroom. They talked of what Pierre had told them. Princess Mary did not express her opinion of Pierre nor did
Natasha speak of him.
"Nothing, nothing." She smiled at Pierre through her tears. "Good night! It is time for bed."

Pierre rose and took his leave.

Princess Mary and Natasha met as usual in the bedroom. They talked of what Pierre had told them. Princess Mary did not express her opinion of Pierre nor did
Natasha speak of him.

"Well, good night, Mary!" said Natasha. "Do you know, I am often afraid that by not speaking of him" (she meant Prince Andrew) "for fear of not doing justice to our
feelings, we forget him."

Princess Mary sighed deeply and thereby acknowledged the justice of Natasha's remark, but she did not express agreement in words.

"Is it possible to forget?" said she.

"It did me so much good to tell all about it today. It was hard and painful, but good, very good!" said Natasha. "I am sure he really loved him. That is why I told him...
Was it all right?" she added, suddenly blushing.

"To tell Pierre? Oh, yes. What a splendid man he is!" said Princess Mary.

"Do you know, Mary..." Natasha suddenly said with a mischievous smile such as Princess Mary had not seen on her face for a long time, "he has somehow grown so
clean, smooth, and fresh-as if he had just come out of a Russian bath; do you understand? Out of a moral bath. Isn't it true?"

"Yes," replied Princess Mary. "He has greatly improved."

"With a short coat and his hair cropped; just as if, well, just as if he had come straight from the bath... Papa used to..."

"I understand why he" (Prince Andrew) "liked no one so much as him," said Princess Mary.

"Yes, and yet he is quite different. They say men are friends when they are quite different. That must be true. Really he is quite unlike him-in everything."

"Yes, but he's wonderful."

"Well, good night," said Natasha.

And the same mischievous smile lingered for a long time on her face as if it had been forgotten there.

Chapter XVIII

It was a long time before Pierre could fall asleep that night. He paced up and down his room, now turning his thoughts on a difficult problem and frowning, now
suddenly shrugging his shoulders and wincing, and now smiling happily.

He was thinking of Prince Andrew, of Natasha, and of their love, at one moment jealous of her past, then reproaching himself for that feeling. It was already six in the
morning and he still paced up and down the room.

"Well, what's to be done if it cannot be avoided? What's to be done? Evidently it has to be so," said he to himself, and hastily undressing he got into bed, happy and
agitated but free from hesitation or indecision.

"Strange and impossible as such happiness seems, I must do everything that she and I may be man and wife," he told himself.

A few days previously Pierre had decided to go to Petersburg on the Friday. When he awoke on the Thursday, Savelich came to ask him about packing for the
journey.

"What, to Petersburg? What is Petersburg? Who is there in Petersburg?" he asked involuntarily, though only to himself. "Oh, yes, long ago before this happened I did
for some reason mean to go to Petersburg," he reflected. "Why? But perhaps I shall go. What a good fellow he is and how attentive, and how he remembers
everything," he thought, looking at Savelich's old face, "and what a pleasant smile he has!"

"Well, Savelich, do you still not wish to accept your freedom?" Pierre asked him.

"What's the good of freedom to me, your excellency? We lived under the late count-the kingdom of heaven be his!-and we have lived under you too, without ever
being wronged."

"And your children?"

"The children will live just the same. With such masters one can live."

"But what about my heirs?" said Pierre. "Supposing I suddenly marry... it might happen," he added with an involuntary smile.

"If I may take the liberty, your excellency, it would be a good thing."

"How easy he thinks it," thought Pierre. "He doesn't know how terrible it is and how dangerous. Too soon or too late... it is terrible!"

"So what are your orders? Are you starting tomorrow?" asked Savelich.

"No, I'll put it off for a bit. I'll tell you later. You must forgive the trouble I have put you to," said Pierre, and seeing Savelich smile, he thought: "But how strange it is that
he should not know that now there is no Petersburg for me, and that that must be settled first of all! But probably he knows it well enough and is only pretending. Shall I
have a talk with him and see what he thinks?" Pierre reflected. "No, another time."
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                                                                                                                                                      529 / 567
At breakfast Pierre told the princess, his cousin, that he had been to see Princess Mary the day before and had there met-"Whom do you think? Natasha

The princess seemed to see nothing more extraordinary in that than if he had seen Anna Semenovna.
"No, I'll put it off for a bit. I'll tell you later. You must forgive the trouble I have put you to," said Pierre, and seeing Savelich smile, he thought: "But how strange it is that
he should not know that now there is no Petersburg for me, and that that must be settled first of all! But probably he knows it well enough and is only pretending. Shall I
have a talk with him and see what he thinks?" Pierre reflected. "No, another time."

At breakfast Pierre told the princess, his cousin, that he had been to see Princess Mary the day before and had there met-"Whom do you think? Natasha Rostova!"

The princess seemed to see nothing more extraordinary in that than if he had seen Anna Semenovna.

"Do you know her?" asked Pierre.

"I have seen the princess," she replied. "I heard that they were arranging a match for her with young Rostov. It would be a very good thing for the Rostovs, they are
said to be utterly ruined."

"No; I mean do you know Natasha Rostova?"

"I heard about that affair of hers at the time. It was a great pity."

"No, she either doesn't understand or is pretending," thought Pierre. "Better not say anything to her either."

The princess too had prepared provisions for Pierre's journey.

"How kind they all are," thought Pierre. "What is surprising is that they should trouble about these things now when it can no longer be of interest to them. And all for
me!"

On the same day the Chief of Police came to Pierre, inviting him to send a representative to the Faceted Palace to recover things that were to be returned to their
owners that day.

"And this man too," thought Pierre, looking into the face of the Chief of Police. "What a fine, good-looking officer and how kind. Fancy bothering about such trifies
now! And they actually say he is not honest and takes bribes. What nonsense! Besides, why shouldn't he take bribes? That's the way he was brought up, and
everybody does it. But what a kind, pleasant face and how he smiles as he looks at me."

Pierre went to Princess Mary's to dinner.

As he drove through the streets past the houses that had been burned down, he was surprised by the beauty of those ruins. The picturesqueness of the chimney stacks
and tumble-down walls of the burned-out quarters of the town, stretching out and concealing one another, reminded him of the Rhine and the Colosseum. The cabmen
he met and their passengers, the carpenters cutting the timber for new houses with axes, the women hawkers, and the shopkeepers, all looked at him with cheerful
beaming eyes that seemed to say: "Ah, there he is! Let's see what will come of it!"

At the entrance to Princess Mary's house Pierre felt doubtful whether he had really been there the night before and really seen Natasha and talked to her. "Perhaps I
imagined it; perhaps I shall go in and find no one there." But he had hardly entered the room before he felt her presence with his whole being by the loss of his sense of
freedom. She was in the same black dress with soft folds and her hair was done the same way as the day before, yet she was quite different. Had she been like this
when he entered the day before he could not for a moment have failed to recognize her.

She was as he had known her almost as a child and later on as Prince Andrew's fiancee. A bright questioning light shone in her eyes, and on her face was a friendly and
strangely roguish expression.

Pierre dined with them and would have spent the whole evening there, but Princess Mary was going to vespers and Pierre left the house with her.

Next day he came early, dined, and stayed the whole evening. Though Princess Mary and Natasha were evidently glad to see their visitor and though all Pierre's
interest was now centered in that house, by the evening they had talked over everything and the conversation passed from one trivial topic to another and repeatedly
broke off. He stayed so long that Princess Mary and Natasha exchanged glances, evidently wondering when he would go. Pierre noticed this but could not go. He felt
uneasy and embarrassed, but sat on because he simply could not get up and take his leave.

Princess Mary, foreseeing no end to this, rose first, and complaining of a headache began to say good night.

"So you are going to Petersburg tomorrow?" she asked.

"No, I am not going," Pierre replied hastily, in a surprised tone and as though offended. "Yes... no... to Petersburg? Tomorrow-but I won't say good-by yet. I will call
round in case you have any commissions for me," said he, standing before Princess Mary and turning red, but not taking his departure.

Natasha gave him her hand and went out. Princess Mary on the other hand instead of going away sank into an armchair, and looked sternly and intently at him with her
deep, radiant eyes. The weariness she had plainly shown before had now quite passed off. With a deep and long-drawn sigh she seemed to be prepared for a lengthy
talk.

When Natasha left the room Pierre's confusion and awkwardness immediately vanished and were replaced by eager excitement. He quickly moved an armchair toward
Princess Mary.

"Yes, I wanted to tell you," said he, answering her look as if she had spoken. "Princess, help me! What am I to do? Can I hope? Princess, my dear friend, listen! I
know it all. I know I am not worthy of her, I know it's impossible to speak of it now. But I want to be a brother to her. No, not that, I don't, I can't..."

He paused and rubbed his face and eyes with his hands.

"Well," he went on with an evident effort at self-control and coherence. "I don't know when I began to love her, but I have loved her and her alone all my life, and I
love her so that I cannot imagine life without her. I cannot propose to her at present, but the thought that perhaps she might someday be my wife and that I may be
missing that possibility... that possibility... is terrible. Tell me, can I hope? Tell me what I am to do, dear princess!" he added after a pause, and touched her hand as she
did not reply.

"ICopyright
   am thinking
            (c) of what you have
                2005-2009,       told me,"
                            Infobase  Mediaanswered
                                             Corp. Princess Mary. "This is what I will say. You are right that to speak to her of love at present..."Page 530 / 567

Princess Mary stopped. She was going to say that to speak of love was impossible, but she stopped because she had seen by the sudden change in Natasha two days
before that she would not only not be hurt if Pierre spoke of his love, but that it was the very thing she wished for.
love her so that I cannot imagine life without her. I cannot propose to her at present, but the thought that perhaps she might someday be my wife and that I may be
missing that possibility... that possibility... is terrible. Tell me, can I hope? Tell me what I am to do, dear princess!" he added after a pause, and touched her hand as she
did not reply.

"I am thinking of what you have told me," answered Princess Mary. "This is what I will say. You are right that to speak to her of love at present..."

Princess Mary stopped. She was going to say that to speak of love was impossible, but she stopped because she had seen by the sudden change in Natasha two days
before that she would not only not be hurt if Pierre spoke of his love, but that it was the very thing she wished for.

"To speak to her now wouldn't do," said the princess all the same.

"But what am I to do?

"Leave it to me," said Princess Mary. "I know..."

Pierre was looking into Princess Mary's eyes.

"Well?... Well?..." he said.

"I know that she loves... will love you," Princess Mary corrected herself.

Before her words were out, Pierre had sprung up and with a frightened expression seized Princess Mary's hand.

"What makes you think so? You think I may hope? You think...?"

"Yes, I think so," said Princess Mary with a smile. "Write to her parents, and leave it to me. I will tell her when I can. I wish it to happen and my heart tells me it will."

"No, it cannot be! How happy I am! But it can't be.... How happy I am! No, it can't be!" Pierre kept saying as he kissed Princess Mary's hands.

"Go to Petersburg, that will be best. And I will write to you," she said.

"To Petersburg? Go there? Very well, I'll go. But I may come again tomorrow?"

Next day Pierre came to say good-by. Natasha was less animated than she had been the day before; but that day as he looked at her Pierre sometimes felt as if he was
vanishing and that neither he nor she existed any longer, that nothing existed but happiness. "Is it possible? No, it can't be," he told himself at every look, gesture, and
word that filled his soul with joy.

When on saying good-by he took her thin, slender hand, he could not help holding it a little longer in his own.

"Is it possible that this hand, that face, those eyes, all this treasure of feminine charm so strange to me now, is it possible that it will one day be mine forever, as familiar
to me as I am to myself?... No, that's impossible!..."

"Good-by, Count," she said aloud. "I shall look forward very much to your return," she added in a whisper.

And these simple words, her look, and the expression on her face which accompanied them, formed for two months the subject of inexhaustible memories,
interpretations, and happy meditations for Pierre. "'I shall look forward very much to your return....' Yes, yes, how did she say it? Yes, 'I shall look forward very much
to your return.' Oh, how happy I am! What is happening to me? How happy I am!" said Pierre to himself.

Chapter XIX

There was nothing in Pierre's soul now at all like what had troubled it during his courtship of Helene.

He did not repeat to himself with a sickening feeling of shame the words he had spoken, or say: "Oh, why did I not say that?" and, "Whatever made me say 'Je vous
aime'?" On the contrary, he now repeated in imagination every word that he or Natasha had spoken and pictured every detail of her face and smile, and did not wish to
diminish or add anything, but only to repeat it again and again. There was now not a shadow of doubt in his mind as to whether what he had undertaken was right or
wrong. Only one terrible doubt sometimes crossed his mind: "Wasn't it all a dream? Isn't Princess Mary mistaken? Am I not too conceited and self-confident? I believe
all this-and suddenly Princess Mary will tell her, and she will be sure to smile and say: 'How strange! He must be deluding himself. Doesn't he know that he is a man,
just a man, while I...? I am something altogether different and higher.'"

That was the only doubt often troubling Pierre. He did not now make any plans. The happiness before him appeared so inconceivable that if only he could attain it, it
would be the end of all things. Everything ended with that.

A joyful, unexpected frenzy, of which he had thought himself incapable, possessed him. The whole meaning of life-not for him alone but for the whole world-seemed to
him centered in his love and the possibility of being loved by her. At times everybody seemed to him to be occupied with one thing only-his future happiness.
Sometimes it seemed to him that other people were all as pleased as he was himself and merely tried to hide that pleasure by pretending to be busy with other interests.
In every word and gesture he saw allusions to his happiness. He often surprised those he met by his significantly happy looks and smiles which seemed to express a
secret understanding between him and them. And when he realized that people might not be aware of his happiness, he pitied them with his whole heart and felt a desire
somehow to explain to them that all that occupied them was a mere frivolous trifle unworthy of attention.

When it was suggested to him that he should enter the civil service, or when the war or any general political affairs were discussed on the assumption that everybody's
welfare depended on this or that issue of events, he would listen with a mild and pitying smile and surprise people by his strange comments. But at this time he saw
everybody-both those who, as he imagined, understood the real meaning of life (that is, what he was feeling) and those unfortunates who evidently did not understand
it-in the bright light of the emotion that shone within himself, and at once without any effort saw in everyone he met everything that was good and worthy of being loved.

When dealing with the affairs and papers of his dead wife, her memory aroused in him no feeling but pity that she had not known the bliss he now knew. Prince Vasili,
who having obtained a new post and some fresh decorations was particularly proud at this time, seemed to him a pathetic, kindly old man much to be pitied.

 Copyright
Often       (c) 2005-2009,
      in afterlife             Infobase
                   Pierre recalled        Media
                                   this period    Corp. insanity. All the views he formed of men and circumstances at this time remained true for himPage
                                               of blissful                                                                                           always.531 / 567
                                                                                                                                                            He not only
did not renounce them subsequently, but when he was in doubt or inwardly at variance, he referred to the views he had held at this time of his madness and they always
proved correct.
When dealing with the affairs and papers of his dead wife, her memory aroused in him no feeling but pity that she had not known the bliss he now knew. Prince Vasili,
who having obtained a new post and some fresh decorations was particularly proud at this time, seemed to him a pathetic, kindly old man much to be pitied.

Often in afterlife Pierre recalled this period of blissful insanity. All the views he formed of men and circumstances at this time remained true for him always. He not only
did not renounce them subsequently, but when he was in doubt or inwardly at variance, he referred to the views he had held at this time of his madness and they always
proved correct.

"I may have appeared strange and queer then," he thought, "but I was not so mad as I seemed. On the contrary I was then wiser and had more insight than at any other
time, and understood all that is worth understanding in life, because... because I was happy."

Pierre's insanity consisted in not waiting, as he used to do, to discover personal attributes which he termed "good qualities" in people before loving them; his heart was
now overflowing with love, and by loving people without cause he discovered indubitable causes for loving them.

Chapter XX

After Pierre's departure that first evening, when Natasha had said to Princess Mary with a gaily mocking smile: "He looks just, yes, just as if he had come out of a
Russian bath-in a short coat and with his hair cropped," something hidden and unknown to herself, but irrepressible, awoke in Natasha's soul.

Everything: her face, walk, look, and voice, was suddenly altered. To her own surprise a power of life and hope of happiness rose to the surface and demanded
satisfaction. From that evening she seemed to have forgotten all that had happened to her. She no longer complained of her position, did not say a word about the past,
and no longer feared to make happy plans for the future. She spoke little of Pierre, but when Princess Mary mentioned him a long-extinguished light once more kindled
in her eyes and her lips curved with a strange smile.

The change that took place in Natasha at first surprised Princess Mary; but when she understood its meaning it grieved her. "Can she have loved my brother so little as
to be able to forget him so soon?" she thought when she reflected on the change. But when she was with Natasha she was not vexed with her and did not reproach her.
The reawakened power of life that had seized Natasha was so evidently irrepressible and unexpected by her that in her presence Princess Mary felt that she had no
right to reproach her even in her heart.

Natasha gave herself up so fully and frankly to this new feeling that she did not try to hide the fact that she was no longer sad, but bright and cheerful.

When Princess Mary returned to her room after her nocturnal talk with Pierre, Natasha met her on the threshold.

"He has spoken? Yes? He has spoken?" she repeated.

And a joyful yet pathetic expression which seemed to beg forgiveness for her joy settled on Natasha's face.

"I wanted to listen at the door, but I knew you would tell me."

Understandable and touching as the look with which Natasha gazed at her seemed to Princess Mary, and sorry as she was to see her agitation, these words pained her
for a moment. She remembered her brother and his love.

"But what's to be done? She can't help it," thought the princess.

And with a sad and rather stern look she told Natasha all that Pierre had said. On hearing that he was going to Petersburg Natasha was astounded.

"To Petersburg!" she repeated as if unable to understand.

But noticing the grieved expression on Princess Mary's face she guessed the reason of that sadness and suddenly began to cry.

"Mary," said she, "tell me what I should do! I am afraid of being bad. Whatever you tell me, I will do. Tell me...."

"You love him?"

"Yes," whispered Natasha.

"Then why are you crying? I am happy for your sake," said Princess Mary, who because of those tears quite forgave Natasha's joy.

"It won't be just yet-someday. Think what fun it will be when I am his wife and you marry Nicholas!"

"Natasha, I have asked you not to speak of that. Let us talk about you."

They were silent awhile.

"But why go to Petersburg?" Natasha suddenly asked, and hastily replied to her own question. "But no, no, he must... Yes, Mary, He must...."

First Epilogue-1813-20
Chapter I

Seven years had passed. The storm-tossed sea of European history had subsided within its shores and seemed to have become calm. But the mysterious forces that
move humanity (mysterious because the laws of their motion are unknown to us) continued to operate.

Though the surface of the sea of history seemed motionless, the movement of humanity went on as unceasingly as the flow of time. Various groups of people formed
and dissolved, the coming formation and dissolution of kingdoms and displacement of peoples was in course of preparation.

The sea of history was not driven spasmodically from shore to shore as previously. It was seething in its depths. Historic figures were not borne by the waves from one
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                     Page      532  / 567
shore to another as before. They now seemed to rotate on one spot. The historical figures at the head of armies, who formerly reflected the movement     of the masses by
ordering wars, campaigns, and battles, now reflected the restless movement by political and diplomatic combinations, laws, and treaties.
Though the surface of the sea of history seemed motionless, the movement of humanity went on as unceasingly as the flow of time. Various groups of people formed
and dissolved, the coming formation and dissolution of kingdoms and displacement of peoples was in course of preparation.

The sea of history was not driven spasmodically from shore to shore as previously. It was seething in its depths. Historic figures were not borne by the waves from one
shore to another as before. They now seemed to rotate on one spot. The historical figures at the head of armies, who formerly reflected the movement of the masses by
ordering wars, campaigns, and battles, now reflected the restless movement by political and diplomatic combinations, laws, and treaties.

The historians call this activity of the historical figures "the reaction."

In dealing with this period they sternly condemn the historical personages who, in their opinion, caused what they describe as the reaction. All the well-known people of
that period, from Alexander and Napoleon to Madame de Stael, Photius, Schelling, Fichte, Chateaubriand, and the rest, pass before their stern judgment seat and are
acquitted or condemned according to whether they conduced to progress or to reaction.

According to their accounts a reaction took place at that time in Russia also, and the chief culprit was Alexander I, the same man who according to them was the chief
cause of the liberal movement at the commencement of his reign, being the savior of Russia.

There is no one in Russian literature now, from schoolboy essayist to learned historian, who does not throw his little stone at Alexander for things he did wrong at this
period of his reign.

"He ought to have acted in this way and in that way. In this case he did well and in that case badly. He behaved admirably at the beginning of his reign and during 1812,
but acted badly by giving a constitution to Poland, forming the Holy Alliance, entrusting power to Arakcheev, favoring Golitsyn and mysticism, and afterwards Shishkov
and Photius. He also acted badly by concerning himself with the active army and disbanding the Semenov regiment."

It would take a dozen pages to enumerate all the reproaches the historians address to him, based on their knowledge of what is good for humanity.

What do these reproaches mean?

Do not the very actions for which the historians praise Alexander I (the liberal attempts at the beginning of his reign, his struggle with Napoleon, the firmness he
displayed in 1812 and the campaign of 1813) flow from the same sources-the circumstances of his birth, education, and life-that made his personality what it was and
from which the actions for which they blame him (the Holy Alliance, the restoration of Poland, and the reaction of 1820 and later) also flowed?

In what does the substance of those reproaches lie?

It lies in the fact that an historic character like Alexander I, standing on the highest possible pinnacle of human power with the blinding light of history focused upon him;
a character exposed to those strongest of all influences: the intrigues, flattery, and self-deception inseparable from power; a character who at every moment of his life
felt a responsibility for all that was happening in Europe; and not a fictitious but a live character who like every man had his personal habits, passions, and impulses
toward goodness, beauty, and truth-that this character-though not lacking in virtue (the historians do not accuse him of that)-had not the same conception of the welfare
of humanity fifty years ago as a present-day professor who from his youth upwards has been occupied with learning: that is, with books and lectures and with taking
notes from them.

But even if we assume that fifty years ago Alexander I was mistaken in his view of what was good for the people, we must inevitably assume that the historian who
judges Alexander will also after the lapse of some time turn out to be mistaken in his view of what is good for humanity. This assumption is all the more natural and
inevitable because, watching the movement of history, we see that every year and with each new writer, opinion as to what is good for mankind changes; so that what
once seemed good, ten years later seems bad, and vice versa. And what is more, we find at one and the same time quite contradictory views as to what is bad and
what is good in history: some people regard giving a constitution to Poland and forming the Holy Alliance as praiseworthy in Alexander, while others regard it as
blameworthy.

The activity of Alexander or of Napoleon cannot be called useful or harmful, for it is impossible to say for what it was useful or harmful. If that activity displeases
somebody, this is only because it does not agree with his limited understanding of what is good. Whether the preservation of my father's house in Moscow, or the glory
of the Russian arms, or the prosperity of the Petersburg and other universities, or the freedom of Poland or the greatness of Russia, or the balance of power in Europe,
or a certain kind of European culture called "progress" appear to me to be good or bad, I must admit that besides these things the action of every historic character has
other more general purposes inaccessible to me.

But let us assume that what is called science can harmonize all contradictions and possesses an unchanging standard of good and bad by which to try historic characters
and events; let us say that Alexander could have done everything differently; let us say that with guidance from those who blame him and who profess to know the
ultimate aim of the movement of humanity, he might have arranged matters according to the program his present accusers would have given him-of nationality, freedom,
equality, and progress (these, I think, cover the ground). Let us assume that this program was possible and had then been formulated, and that Alexander had acted on
it. What would then have become of the activity of all those who opposed the tendency that then prevailed in the government-an activity that in the opinion of the
historians was good and beneficent? Their activity would not have existed: there would have been no life, there would have been nothing.

If we admit that human life can be ruled by reason, the possibility of life is destroyed.

Chapter II

If we assume as the historians do that great men lead humanity to the attainment of certain ends-the greatness of Russia or of France, the balance of power in Europe,
the diffusion of the ideas of the Revolution general progress or anything else-then it is impossible to explain the facts of history without introducing the conceptions of
chance and genius.

If the aim of the European wars at the beginning of the nineteenth century had been the aggrandizement of Russia, that aim might have been accomplished without all the
preceding wars and without the invasion. If the aim wag the aggrandizement of France, that might have been attained without the Revolution and without the Empire. If
the aim was the dissemination of ideas, the printing press could have accomplished that much better than warfare. If the aim was the progress of civilization, it is easy to
see that there are other ways of diffusing civilization more expedient than by the destruction of wealth and of human lives.

Why did it happen in this and not in some other way?

Because it happened so! "Chance created the situation; genius utilized it," says history.

Copyright
But what is (c) 2005-2009,
            chance? What isInfobase
                            genius? Media Corp.                                                                                                        Page 533 / 567
The words chance and genius do not denote any really existing thing and therefore cannot be defined. Those words only denote a certain stage of understanding of
phenomena. I do not know why a certain event occurs; I think that I cannot know it; so I do not try to know it and I talk about chance. I see a force producing effects
Why did it happen in this and not in some other way?

Because it happened so! "Chance created the situation; genius utilized it," says history.

But what is chance? What is genius?

The words chance and genius do not denote any really existing thing and therefore cannot be defined. Those words only denote a certain stage of understanding of
phenomena. I do not know why a certain event occurs; I think that I cannot know it; so I do not try to know it and I talk about chance. I see a force producing effects
beyond the scope of ordinary human agencies; I do not understand why this occurs and I talk of genius.

To a herd of rams, the ram the herdsman drives each evening into a special enclosure to feed and that becomes twice as fat as the others must seem to be a genius.
And it must appear an astonishing conjunction of genius with a whole series of extraordinary chances that this ram, who instead of getting into the general fold every
evening goes into a special enclosure where there are oats-that this very ram, swelling with fat, is killed for meat.

But the rams need only cease to suppose that all that happens to them happens solely for the attainment of their sheepish aims; they need only admit that what happens
to them may also have purposes beyond their ken, and they will at once perceive a unity and coherence in what happened to the ram that was fattened. Even if they do
not know for what purpose they are fattened, they will at least know that all that happened to the ram did not happen accidentally, and will no longer need the
conceptions of chance or genius.

Only by renouncing our claim to discern a purpose immediately intelligible to us, and admitting the ultimate purpose to be beyond our ken, may we discern the sequence
of experiences in the lives of historic characters and perceive the cause of the effect they produce (incommensurable with ordinary human capabilities), and then the
words chance and genius become superfluous.

We need only confess that we do not know the purpose of the European convulsions and that we know only the facts-that is, the murders, first in France, then in Italy,
in Africa, in Prussia, in Austria, in Spain, and in Russia-and that the movements from the west to the east and from the east to the west form the essence and purpose of
these events, and not only shall we have no need to see exceptional ability and genius in Napoleon and Alexander, but we shall be unable to consider them to be
anything but like other men, and we shall not be obliged to have recourse to chance for an explanation of those small events which made these people what they were,
but it will be clear that all those small events were inevitable.

By discarding a claim to knowledge of the ultimate purpose, we shall clearly perceive that just as one cannot imagine a blossom or seed for any single plant better suited
to it than those it produces, so it is impossible to imagine any two people more completely adapted down to the smallest detail for the purpose they had to fulfill, than
Napoleon and Alexander with all their antecedents.

Chapter III

The fundamental and essential significance of the European events of the beginning of the nineteenth century lies in the movement of the mass of the European peoples
from west to east and afterwards from east to west. The commencement of that movement was the movement from west to east. For the peoples of the west to be able
to make their warlike movement to Moscow it was necessary: (1) that they should form themselves into a military group of a size able to endure a collision with the
warlike military group of the east, (2) that they should abandon all established traditions and customs, and (3) that during their military movement they should have at
their head a man who could justify to himself and to them the deceptions, robberies, and murders which would have to be committed during that movement.

And beginning with the French Revolution the old inadequately large group was destroyed, as well as the old habits and traditions, and step by step a group was
formed of larger dimensions with new customs and traditions, and a man was produced who would stand at the head of the coming movement and bear the
responsibility for all that had to be done.

A man without convictions, without habits, without traditions, without a name, and not even a Frenchman, emerges-by what seem the strangest chances-from among all
the seething French parties, and without joining any one of them is borne forward to a prominent position.

The ignorance of his colleagues, the weakness and insignificance of his opponents, the frankness of his falsehoods, and the dazzling and self-confident limitations of this
man raise him to the head of the army. The brilliant qualities of the soldiers of the army sent to Italy, his opponents' reluctance to fight, and his own childish audacity and
self-confidence secure him military fame. Innumerable so called chances accompany him everywhere. The disfavor into which he falls with the rulers of France turns to
his advantage. His attempts to avoid his predestined path are unsuccessful: he is not received into the Russian service, and the appointment he seeks in Turkey comes to
nothing. During the war in Italy he is several times on the verge of destruction and each time is saved in an unexpected manner. Owing to various diplomatic
considerations the Russian armies-just those which might have destroyed his prestige-do not appear upon the scene till he is no longer there.

On his return from Italy he finds the government in Paris in a process of dissolution in which all those who are in it are inevitably wiped out and destroyed. And by
chance an escape from this dangerous position presents itself in the form of an aimless and senseless expedition to Africa. Again so-called chance accompanies him.
Impregnable Malta surrenders without a shot; his most reckless schemes are crowned with success. The enemy's fleet, which subsequently did not let a single boat
pass, allows his entire army to elude it. In Africa a whole series of outrages are committed against the almost unarmed inhabitants. And the men who commit these
crimes, especially their leader, assure themselves that this is admirable, this is glory-it resembles Caesar and Alexander the Great and is therefore good.

This ideal of glory and grandeur-which consists not merely in considering nothing wrong that one does but in priding oneself on every crime one commits, ascribing to it
an incomprehensible supernatural significance-that ideal, destined to guide this man and his associates, had scope for its development in Africa. Whatever he does
succeeds. The plague does not touch him. The cruelty of murdering prisoners is not imputed to him as a fault. His childishly rash, uncalled-for, and ignoble departure
from Africa, leaving his comrades in distress, is set down to his credit, and again the enemy's fleet twice lets him slip past. When, intoxicated by the crimes he has
committed so successfully, he reaches Paris, the dissolution of the republican government, which a year earlier might have ruined him, has reached its extreme limit, and
his presence there now as a newcomer free from party entanglements can only serve to exalt him-and though he himself has no plan, he is quite ready for his new role.

He had no plan, he was afraid of everything, but the parties snatched at him and demanded his participation.

He alone-with his ideal of glory and grandeur developed in Italy and Egypt, his insane self-adulation, his boldness in crime and frankness in lying-he alone could justify
what had to be done.

He is needed for the place that awaits him, and so almost apart from his will and despite his indecision, his lack of a plan, and all his mistakes, he is drawn into a
conspiracy that aims at seizing power and the conspiracy is crowned with success.

He is pushed into a meeting of the legislature. In alarm he wishes to flee, considering himself lost. He pretends to fall into a swoon and says senseless things that should
 Copyright
have ruined(c) 2005-2009,
            him.            Infobase
                 But the once          Media
                               proud and       Corp.
                                           shrewd                                                                                                      Page
                                                    rulers of France, feeling that their part is played out, are even more bewildered than he, and do not      534
                                                                                                                                                          say the     / 567
                                                                                                                                                                  words  they
should have said to destroy him and retain their power.
conspiracy that aims at seizing power and the conspiracy is crowned with success.

He is pushed into a meeting of the legislature. In alarm he wishes to flee, considering himself lost. He pretends to fall into a swoon and says senseless things that should
have ruined him. But the once proud and shrewd rulers of France, feeling that their part is played out, are even more bewildered than he, and do not say the words they
should have said to destroy him and retain their power.

Chance, millions of chances, give him power, and all men as if by agreement co-operate to confirm that power. Chance forms the characters of the rulers of France,
who submit to him; chance forms the character of Paul I of Russia who recognizes his government; chance contrives a plot against him which not only fails to harm him
but confirms his power. Chance puts the Duc d'Enghien in his hands and unexpectedly causes him to kill him-thereby convincing the mob more forcibly than in any other
way that he had the right, since he had the might. Chance contrives that though he directs all his efforts to prepare an expedition against England (which would inevitably
have ruined him) he never carries out that intention, but unexpectedly falls upon Mack and the Austrians, who surrender without a battle. Chance and genius give him
the victory at Austerlitz; and by chance all men, not only the French but all Europe-except England which does not take part in the events about to happen-despite their
former horror and detestation of his crimes, now recognize his authority, the title he has given himself, and his ideal of grandeur and glory, which seems excellent and
reasonable to them all.

As if measuring themselves and preparing for the coming movement, the western forces push toward the east several times in 1805, 1806, 1807, and 1809, gaining
strength and growing. In 1811 the group of people that had formed in France unites into one group with the peoples of Central Europe. The strength of the justification
of the man who stands at the head of the movement grows with the increased size of the group. During the ten-year preparatory period this man had formed relations
with all the crowned heads of Europe. The discredited rulers of the world can oppose no reasonable ideal to the insensate Napoleonic ideal of glory and grandeur. One
after another they hasten to display their insignificance before him. The King of Prussia sends his wife to seek the great man's mercy; the Emperor of Austria considers it
a favor that this man receives a daughter the Caesars into his bed; the Pope, the guardian of all that the nations hold sacred, utilizes religion for the aggrandizement of
the great man. It is not Napoleon who prepares himself for the accomplishment of his role, so much as all those round him who prepare him to take on himself the
whole responsibility for what is happening and has to happen. There is no step, no crime or petty fraud he commits, which in the mouths of those around him is not at
once represented as a great deed. The most suitable fete the Germans can devise for him is a celebration of Jena and Auerstadt. Not only is he great, but so are his
ancestors, his brothers, his stepsons, and his brothers-in-law. Everything is done to deprive him of the remains of his reason and to prepare him for his terrible part.
And when he is ready so too are the forces.

The invasion pushes eastward and reaches its final goal-Moscow. That city is taken; the Russian army suffers heavier losses than the opposing armies had suffered in
the former war from Austerlitz to Wagram. But suddenly instead of those chances and that genius which hitherto had so consistently led him by an uninterrupted series
of successes to the predestined goal, an innumerable sequence of inverse chances occur-from the cold in his head at Borodino to the sparks which set Moscow on fire,
and the frosts-and instead of genius, stupidity and immeasurable baseness become evident.

The invaders flee, turn back, flee again, and all the chances are now not for Napoleon but always against him.

A countermovement is then accomplished from east to west with a remarkable resemblance to the preceding movement from west to east. Attempted drives from east
to west-similar to the contrary movements of 1805, 1807, and 1809-precede the great westward movement; there is the same coalescence into a group of enormous
dimensions; the same adhesion of the people of Central Europe to the movement; the same hesitation midway, and the same increasing rapidity as the goal is
approached.

Paris, the ultimate goal, is reached. The Napoleonic government and army are destroyed. Napoleon himself is no longer of any account; all his actions are evidently
pitiful and mean, but again an inexplicable chance occurs. The allies detest Napoleon whom they regard as the cause of their sufferings. Deprived of power and
authority, his crimes and his craft exposed, he should have appeared to them what he appeared ten years previously and one year later-an outlawed brigand. But by
some strange chance no one perceives this. His part is not yet ended. The man who ten years before and a year later was considered an outlawed brigand is sent to an
island two days' sail from France, which for some reason is presented to him as his dominion, and guards are given to him and millions of money are paid him.

Chapter IV

The flood of nations begins to subside into its normal channels. The waves of the great movement abate, and on the calm surface eddies are formed in which float the
diplomatists, who imagine that they have caused the floods to abate.

But the smooth sea again suddenly becomes disturbed. The diplomatists think that their disagreements are the cause of this fresh pressure of natural forces; they
anticipate war between their sovereigns; the position seems to them insoluble. But the wave they feel to be rising does not come from the quarter they expect. It rises
again from the same point as before-Paris. The last backwash of the movement from the west occurs: a backwash which serves to solve the apparently insuperable
diplomatic difficulties and ends the military movement of that period of history.

The man who had devastated France returns to France alone, without any conspiracy and without soldiers. Any guard might arrest him, but by strange chance no one
does so and all rapturously greet the man they cursed the day before and will curse again a month later.

This man is still needed to justify the final collective act.

That act is performed.

The last role is played. The actor is bidden to disrobe and wash off his powder and paint: he will not be wanted any more.

And some years pass during which he plays a pitiful comedy to himself in solitude on his island, justifying his actions by intrigues and lies when the justification is no
longer needed, and displaying to the whole world what it was that people had mistaken for strength as long as an unseen hand directed his actions.

The manager having brought the drama to a close and stripped the actor shows him to us.

"See what you believed in! This is he! Do you now see that it was not he but I who moved you?"

But dazed by the force of the movement, it was long before people understood this.

Still greater coherence and inevitability is seen in the life of Alexander I, the man who stood at the head of the countermovement from east to west.

What was needed for him who, overshadowing others, stood at the head of that movement from east to west?
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What was needed was a sense of justice and a sympathy with European affairs, but a remote sympathy not dulled by petty interests; a moral superiority over those
sovereigns of the day who co-operated with him; a mild and attractive personality; and a personal grievance against Napoleon. And all this was found in Alexander I;
all this had been prepared by innumerable so-called chances in his life: his education, his early liberalism, the advisers who surrounded him, and by Austerlitz, and Tilsit,
Still greater coherence and inevitability is seen in the life of Alexander I, the man who stood at the head of the countermovement from east to west.

What was needed for him who, overshadowing others, stood at the head of that movement from east to west?

What was needed was a sense of justice and a sympathy with European affairs, but a remote sympathy not dulled by petty interests; a moral superiority over those
sovereigns of the day who co-operated with him; a mild and attractive personality; and a personal grievance against Napoleon. And all this was found in Alexander I;
all this had been prepared by innumerable so-called chances in his life: his education, his early liberalism, the advisers who surrounded him, and by Austerlitz, and Tilsit,
and Erfurt.

During the national war he was inactive because he was not needed. But as soon as the necessity for a general European war presented itself he appeared in his place
at the given moment and, uniting the nations of Europe, led them to the goal.

The goal is reached. After the final war of 1815 Alexander possesses all possible power. How does he use it?

Alexander I-the pacifier of Europe, the man who from his early years had striven only for his people's welfare, the originator of the liberal innovations in his fatherland-
now that he seemed to possess the utmost power and therefore to have the possibility of bringing about the welfare of his peoples-at the time when Napoleon in exile
was drawing up childish and mendacious plans of how he would have made mankind happy had he retained power-Alexander I, having fulfilled his mission and feeling
the hand of God upon him, suddenly recognizes the insignificance of that supposed power, turns away from it, and gives it into the hands of contemptible men whom he
despises, saying only:

"Not unto us, not unto us, but unto Thy Name!... I too am a man like the rest of you. Let me live like a man and think of my soul and of God."

As the sun and each atom of ether is a sphere complete in itself, and yet at the same time only a part of a whole too immense for man to comprehend, so each individual
has within himself his own aims and yet has them to serve a general purpose incomprehensible to man.

A bee settling on a flower has stung a child. And the child is afraid of bees and declares that bees exist to sting people. A poet admires the bee sucking from the chalice
of a flower and says it exists to suck the fragrance of flowers. A beekeeper, seeing the bee collect pollen from flowers and carry it to the hive, says that it exists to
gather honey. Another beekeeper who has studied the life of the hive more closely says that the bee gathers pollen dust to feed the young bees and rear a queen, and
that it exists to perpetuate its race. A botanist notices that the bee flying with the pollen of a male flower to a pistil fertilizes the latter, and sees in this the purpose of the
bee's existence. Another, observing the migration of plants, notices that the bee helps in this work, and may say that in this lies the purpose of the bee. But the ultimate
purpose of the bee is not exhausted by the first, the second, or any of the processes the human mind can discern. The higher the human intellect rises in the discovery of
these purposes, the more obvious it becomes, that the ultimate purpose is beyond our comprehension.

All that is accessible to man is the relation of the life of the bee to other manifestations of life. And so it is with the purpose of historic characters and nations.

Chapter V

Natasha's wedding to Bezukhov, which took place in 1813, was the last happy event in the family of the old Rostovs. Count Ilya Rostov died that same year and, as
always happens, after the father's death the family group broke up.

The events of the previous year: the burning of Moscow and the flight from it, the death of Prince Andrew, Natasha's despair, Petya's death, and the old countess' grief
fell blow after blow on the old count's head. He seemed to be unable to understand the meaning of all these events, and bowed his old head in a spiritual sense as if
expecting and inviting further blows which would finish him. He seemed now frightened and distraught and now unnaturally animated and enterprising.

The arrangements for Natasha's marriage occupied him for a while. He ordered dinners and suppers and obviously tried to appear cheerful, but his cheerfulness was
not infectious as it used to be: on the contrary it evoked the compassion of those who knew and liked him.

When Pierre and his wife had left, he grew very quiet and began to complain of depression. A few days later he fell ill and took to his bed. He realized from the first
that he would not get up again, despite the doctor's encouragement. The countess passed a fortnight in an armchair by his pillow without undressing. Every time she
gave him his medicine he sobbed and silently kissed her hand. On his last day, sobbing, he asked her and his absent son to forgive him for having dissipated their
property-that being the chief fault of which he was conscious. After receiving communion and unction he quietly died; and next day a throng of acquaintances who came
to pay their last respects to the deceased filled the house rented by the Rostovs. All these acquaintances, who had so often dined and danced at his house and had so
often laughed at him, now said, with a common feeling of self-reproach and emotion, as if justifying themselves: "Well, whatever he may have been he was a most
worthy man. You don't meet such men nowadays.... And which of us has not weaknesses of his own?"

It was just when the count's affairs had become so involved that it was impossible to say what would happen if he lived another year that he unexpectedly died.

Nicholas was with the Russian army in Paris when the news of his father's death reached him. He at once resigned his commission, and without waiting for it to be
accepted took leave of absence and went to Moscow. The state of the count's affairs became quite obvious a month after his death, surprising everyone by the
immense total of small debts the existence of which no one had suspected. The debts amounted to double the value of the property.

Friends and relations advised Nicholas to decline the inheritance. But he regarded such a refusal as a slur on his father's memory, which he held sacred, and therefore
would not hear of refusing and accepted the inheritance together with the obligation to pay the debts.

The creditors who had so long been silent, restrained by a vague but powerful influence exerted on them while he lived by the count's careless good nature, all
proceeded to enforce their claims at once. As always happens in such cases rivalry sprang up as to which should get paid first, and those who like Mitenka held
promissory notes given them as presents now became the most exacting of the creditors. Nicholas was allowed no respite and no peace, and those who had seemed to
pity the old man-the cause of their losses (if they were losses)-now remorselessly pursued the young heir who had voluntarily undertaken the debts and was obviously
not guilty of contracting them.

Not one of the plans Nicholas tried succeeded; the estate was sold by auction for half its value, and half the debts still remained unpaid. Nicholas accepted thirty
thousand rubles offered him by his brother-in-law Bezukhov to pay off debts he regarded as genuinely due for value received. And to avoid being imprisoned for the
remainder, as the creditors threatened, he re-entered the government service.

He could not rejoin the army where he would have been made colonel at the next vacancy, for his mother now clung to him as her one hold on life; and so despite his
reluctant to remain in Moscow among people who had known him before, and despite his abhorrence of the civil service, he accepted a post in Moscow in that
service, doffed the uniform of which he was so fond, and moved with his mother and Sonya to a small house on the Sivtsev Vrazhek.
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Natasha and Pierre were living in Petersburg at the time and had no clear idea of Nicholas' circumstances. Having borrowed money from his brother-in-law, Nicholas
tried to hide his wretched condition from him. His position was the more difficult because with his salary of twelve hundred rubles he had not only to keep himself, his
He could not rejoin the army where he would have been made colonel at the next vacancy, for his mother now clung to him as her one hold on life; and so despite his
reluctant to remain in Moscow among people who had known him before, and despite his abhorrence of the civil service, he accepted a post in Moscow in that
service, doffed the uniform of which he was so fond, and moved with his mother and Sonya to a small house on the Sivtsev Vrazhek.

Natasha and Pierre were living in Petersburg at the time and had no clear idea of Nicholas' circumstances. Having borrowed money from his brother-in-law, Nicholas
tried to hide his wretched condition from him. His position was the more difficult because with his salary of twelve hundred rubles he had not only to keep himself, his
mother, and Sonya, but had to shield his mother from knowledge of their poverty. The countess could not conceive of life without the luxurious conditions she had been
used to from childhood and, unable to realize how hard it was for her son, kept demanding now a carriage (which they did not keep) to send for a friend, now some
expensive article of food for herself, or wine for her son, or money to buy a present as a surprise for Natasha or Sonya, or for Nicholas himself.

Sonya kept house, attended on her aunt, read to her, put up with her whims and secret ill-will, and helped Nicholas to conceal their poverty from the old countess.
Nicholas felt himself irredeemably indebted to Sonya for all she was doing for his mother and greatly admired her patience and devotion, but tried to keep aloof from
her.

He seemed in his heart to reproach her for being too perfect, and because there was nothing to reproach her with. She had all that people are valued for, but little that
could have made him love her. He felt that the more he valued her the less he loved her. He had taken her at her word when she wrote giving him his freedom and now
behaved as if all that had passed between them had been long forgotten and could never in any case be renewed.

Nicholas' position became worse and worse. The idea of putting something aside out of his salary proved a dream. Not only did he not save anything, but to comply
with his mother's demands he even incurred some small debts. He could see no way out of this situation. The idea of marrying some rich woman, which was suggested
to him by his female relations, was repugnant to him. The other way out-his mother's death-never entered his head. He wished for nothing and hoped for nothing, and
deep in his heart experienced a gloomy and stern satisfaction in an uncomplaining endurance of his position. He tried to avoid his old acquaintances with their
commiseration and offensive offers of assistance; he avoided all distraction and recreation, and even at home did nothing but play cards with his mother, pace silently up
and down the room, and smoke one pipe after another. He seemed carefully to cherish within himself the gloomy mood which alone enabled him to endure his position.

Chapter VI

At the beginning of winter Princess Mary came to Moscow. From reports current in town she learned how the Rostovs were situated, and how "the son has sacrificed
himself for his mother," as people were saying.

"I never expected anything else of him," said Princess Mary to herself, feeling a joyous sense of her love for him. Remembering her friendly relations with all the Rostovs
which had made her almost a member of the family, she thought it her duty to go to see them. But remembering her relations with Nicholas in Voronezh she was shy
about doing so. Making a great effort she did however go to call on them a few weeks after her arrival in Moscow.

Nicholas was the first to meet her, as the countess' room could only be reached through his. But instead of being greeted with pleasure as she had expected, at his first
glance at her his face assumed a cold, stiff, proud expression she had not seen on it before. He inquired about her health, led the way to his mother, and having sat there
for five minutes left the room.

When the princess came out of the countess' room Nicholas met her again, and with marked solemnity and stiffness accompanied her to the anteroom. To her remarks
about his mother's health he made no reply. "What's that to you? Leave me in peace," his looks seemed to say.

"Why does she come prowling here? What does she want? I can't bear these ladies and all these civilities!" said he aloud in Sonya's presence, evidently unable to
repress his vexation, after the princess' carriage had disappeared.

"Oh, Nicholas, how can you talk like that?" cried Sonya, hardly able to conceal her delight. "She is so kind and Mamma is so fond of her!"

Nicholas did not reply and tried to avoid speaking of the princess any more. But after her visit the old countess spoke of her several times a day.

She sang her praises, insisted that her son must call on her, expressed a wish to see her often, but yet always became ill-humored when she began to talk about her.

Nicholas tried to keep silence when his mother spoke of the princess, but his silence irritated her.

"She is a very admirable and excellent young woman," said she, "and you must go and call on her. You would at least be seeing somebody, and I think it must be dull
for you only seeing us."

"But I don't in the least want to, Mamma."

"You used to want to, and now you don't. Really I don't understand you, my dear. One day you are dull, and the next you refuse to see anyone."

"But I never said I was dull."

"Why, you said yourself you don't want even to see her. She is a very admirable young woman and you always liked her, but now suddenly you have got some notion
or other in your head. You hide everything from me."

"Not at all, Mamma."

"If I were asking you to do something disagreeable now-but I only ask you to return a call. One would think mere politeness required it.... Well, I have asked you, and
now I won't interfere any more since you have secrets from your mother."

"Well, then, I'll go if you wish it."

"It doesn't matter to me. I only wish it for your sake."

Nicholas sighed, bit his mustache, and laid out the cards for a patience, trying to divert his mother's attention to another topic.

The same conversation was repeated next day and the day after, and the day after that.
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After her visit to the Rostovs and her unexpectedly chilly reception by Nicholas, Princess Mary confessed to herself that she had been right in not wishing to be the first
to call.
Nicholas sighed, bit his mustache, and laid out the cards for a patience, trying to divert his mother's attention to another topic.

The same conversation was repeated next day and the day after, and the day after that.

After her visit to the Rostovs and her unexpectedly chilly reception by Nicholas, Princess Mary confessed to herself that she had been right in not wishing to be the first
to call.

"I expected nothing else," she told herself, calling her pride to her aid. "I have nothing to do with him and I only wanted to see the old lady, who was always kind to me
and to whom I am under many obligations."

But she could not pacify herself with these reflections; a feeling akin to remorse troubled her when she thought of her visit. Though she had firmly resolved not to call on
the Rostovs again and to forget the whole matter, she felt herself all the time in an awkward position. And when she asked herself what distressed her, she had to admit
that it was her relation to Rostov. His cold, polite manner did not express his feeling for her (she knew that) but it concealed something, and until she could discover
what that something was, she felt that she could not be at ease.

One day in midwinter when sitting in the schoolroom attending to her nephew's lessons, she was informed that Rostov had called. With a firm resolution not to betray
herself and not show her agitation, she sent for Mademoiselle Bourienne and went with her to the drawing room.

Her first glance at Nicholas' face told her that he had only come to fulfill the demands of politeness, and she firmly resolved to maintain the tone in which he addressed
her.

They spoke of the countess' health, of their mutual friends, of the latest war news, and when the ten minutes required by propriety had elapsed after which a visitor may
rise, Nicholas got up to say good-by.

With Mademoiselle Bourienne's help the princess had maintained the conversation very well, but at the very last moment, just when he rose, she was so tired of talking
of what did not interest her, and her mind was so full of the question why she alone was granted so little happiness in life, that in a fit of absent-mindedness she sat still,
her luminous eyes gazing fixedly before her, not noticing that he had risen.

Nicholas glanced at her and, wishing to appear not to notice her abstraction, made some remark to Mademoiselle Bourienne and then again looked at the princess. She
still sat motionless with a look of suffering on her gentle face. He suddenly felt sorry for her and was vaguely conscious that he might be the cause of the sadness her
face expressed. He wished to help her and say something pleasant, but could think of nothing to say.

"Good-by, Princess!" said he.

She started, flushed, and sighed deeply.

"Oh, I beg your pardon," she said as if waking up. "Are you going already, Count? Well then, good-by! Oh, but the cushion for the countess!"

"Wait a moment, I'll fetch it," said Mademoiselle Bourienne, and she left the room.

They both sat silent, with an occasional glance at one another.

"Yes, Princess," said Nicholas at last with a sad smile, "it doesn't seem long ago since we first met at Bogucharovo, but how much water has flowed since then! In what
distress we all seemed to be then, yet I would give much to bring back that time... but there's no bringing it back."

Princess Mary gazed intently into his eyes with her own luminous ones as he said this. She seemed to be trying to fathom the hidden meaning of his words which would
explain his feeling for her.

"Yes, yes," said she, "but you have no reason to regret the past, Count. As I understand your present life, I think you will always recall it with satisfaction, because the
self-sacrifice that fills it now..."

"I cannot accept your praise," he interrupted her hurriedly. "On the contrary I continually reproach myself.... But this is not at all an interesting or cheerful subject."

His face again resumed its former stiff and cold expression. But the princess had caught a glimpse of the man she had known and loved, and it was to him that she now
spoke.

"I thought you would allow me to tell you this," she said. "I had come so near to you... and to all your family that I thought you would not consider my sympathy
misplaced, but I was mistaken," and suddenly her voice trembled. "I don't know why," she continued, recovering herself, "but you used to be different, and..."

"There are a thousand reasons why," laying special emphasis on the why. "Thank you, Princess," he added softly. "Sometimes it is hard."

"So that's why! That's why!" a voice whispered in Princess Mary's soul. "No, it was not only that gay, kind, and frank look, not only that handsome exterior, that I
loved in him. I divined his noble, resolute, self-sacrificing spirit too," she said to herself. "Yes, he is poor now and I am rich.... Yes, that's the only reason.... Yes, were it
not for that..." And remembering his former tenderness, and looking now at his kind, sorrowful face, she suddenly understood the cause of his coldness.

"But why, Count, why?" she almost cried, unconsciously moving closer to him. "Why? Tell me. You must tell me!"

He was silent.

"I don't understand your why, Count," she continued, "but it's hard for me... I confess it. For some reason you wish to deprive me of our former friendship. And that
hurts me." There were tears in her eyes and in her voice. "I have had so little happiness in life that every loss is hard for me to bear.... Excuse me, good-by!" and
suddenly she began to cry and was hurrying from the room.

"Princess, for God's sake!" he exclaimed, trying to stop her. "Princess!"

She turned round. For a few seconds they gazed silently into one another's eyes-and what had seemed impossible and remote suddenly became possible, inevitable,
and very near.
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Chapter VII
"Princess, for God's sake!" he exclaimed, trying to stop her. "Princess!"

She turned round. For a few seconds they gazed silently into one another's eyes-and what had seemed impossible and remote suddenly became possible, inevitable,
and very near.

Chapter VII

In the winter of 1813 Nicholas married Princess Mary and moved to Bald Hills with his wife, his mother, and Sonya.

Within four years he had paid off all his remaining debts without selling any of his wife's property, and having received a small inheritance on the death of a cousin he
paid his debt to Pierre as well.

In another three years, by 1820, he had so managed his affairs that he was able to buy a small estate adjoining Bald Hills and was negotiating to buy back Otradnoe-
that being his pet dream.

Having started farming from necessity, he soon grew so devoted to it that it became his favorite and almost his sole occupation. Nicholas was a plain farmer: he did not
like innovations, especially the English ones then coming into vogue. He laughed at theoretical treatises on estate management, disliked factories, the raising of expensive
products, and the buying of expensive seed corn, and did not make a hobby of any particular part of the work on his estate. He always had before his mind's eye the
estate as a whole and not any particular part of it. The chief thing in his eyes was not the nitrogen in the soil, nor the oxygen in the air, nor manures, nor special plows,
but that most important agent by which nitrogen, oxygen, manure, and plow were made effective-the peasant laborer. When Nicholas first began farming and began to
understand its different branches, it was the serf who especially attracted his attention. The peasant seemed to him not merely a tool, but also a judge of farming and an
end in himself. At first he watched the serfs, trying to understand their aims and what they considered good and bad, and only pretended to direct them and give orders
while in reality learning from them their methods, their manner of speech, and their judgment of what was good and bad. Only when he had understood the peasants'
tastes and aspirations, had learned to talk their language, to grasp the hidden meaning of their words, and felt akin to them did he begin boldly to manage his serfs, that
is, to perform toward them the duties demanded of him. And Nicholas' management produced very brilliant results.

Guided by some gift of insight, on taking up the management of the estates he at once unerringly appointed as bailiff, village elder, and delegate, the very men the serfs
would themselves have chosen had they had the right to choose, and these posts never changed hands. Before analyzing the properties of manure, before entering into
the debit and credit (as he ironically called it), he found out how many cattle the peasants had and increased the number by all possible means. He kept the peasant
families together in the largest groups possible, not allowing the family groups to divide into separate households. He was hard alike on the lazy, the depraved, and the
weak, and tried to get them expelled from the commune.

He was as careful of the sowing and reaping of the peasants' hay and corn as of his own, and few landowners had their crops sown and harvested so early and so well,
or got so good a return, as did Nicholas.

He disliked having anything to do with the domestic serfs-the "drones" as he called them-and everyone said he spoiled them by his laxity. When a decision had to be
taken regarding a domestic serf, especially if one had to be punished, he always felt undecided and consulted everybody in the house; but when it was possible to have
a domestic serf conscripted instead of a land worker he did so without the least hesitation. He never felt any hesitation in dealing with the peasants. He knew that his
every decision would be approved by them all with very few exceptions.

He did not allow himself either to be hard on or punish a man, or to make things easy for or reward anyone, merely because he felt inclined to do so. He could not have
said by what standard he judged what he should or should not do, but the standard was quite firm and definite in his own mind.

Often, speaking with vexation of some failure or irregularity, he would say: "What can one do with our Russian peasants?" and imagined that he could not bear them.

Yet he loved "our Russian peasants" and their way of life with his whole soul, and for that very reason had understood and assimilated the one way and manner of
farming which produced good results.

Countess Mary was jealous of this passion of her husband's and regretted that she could not share it; but she could not understand the joys and vexations he derived
from that world, to her so remote and alien. She could not understand why he was so particularly animated and happy when, after getting up at daybreak and spending
the whole morning in the fields or on the threshing floor, he returned from the sowing or mowing or reaping to have tea with her. She did not understand why he spoke
with such admiration and delight of the farming of the thrifty and well-to-do peasant Matthew Ermishin, who with his family had carted corn all night; or of the fact that
his (Nicholas') sheaves were already stacked before anyone else had his harvest in. She did not understand why he stepped out from the window to the veranda and
smiled under his mustache and winked so joyfully, when warm steady rain began to fall on the dry and thirsty shoots of the young oats, or why when the wind carried
away a threatening cloud during the hay harvest he would return from the barn, flushed, sunburned, and perspiring, with a smell of wormwood and gentian in his hair
and, gleefully rubbing his hands, would say: "Well, one more day and my grain and the peasants' will all be under cover."

Still less did she understand why he, kindhearted and always ready to anticipate her wishes, should become almost desperate when she brought him a petition from
some peasant men or women who had appealed to her to be excused some work; why he, that kind Nicholas, should obstinately refuse her, angrily asking her not to
interfere in what was not her business. She felt he had a world apart, which he loved passionately and which had laws she had not fathomed.

Sometimes when, trying to understand him, she spoke of the good work he was doing for his serfs, he would be vexed and reply: "Not in the least; it never entered my
head and I wouldn't do that for their good! That's all poetry and old wives' talk-all that doing good to one's neighbor! What I want is that our children should not have
to go begging. I must put our affairs in order while I am alive, that's all. And to do that, order and strictness are essential.... That's all about it!" said he, clenching his
vigorous fist. "And fairness, of course," he added, "for if the peasant is naked and hungry and has only one miserable horse, he can do no good either for himself or for
me."

And all Nicholas did was fruitful-probably just because he refused to allow himself to think that he was doing good to others for virtue's sake. His means increased
rapidly; serfs from neighboring estates came to beg him to buy them, and long after his death the memory of his administration was devoutly preserved among the serfs.
"He was a master... the peasants' affairs first and then his own. Of course he was not to be trifled with either-in a word, he was a real master!"

Chapter VIII

One matter connected with his management sometimes worried Nicholas, and that was his quick temper together with his old hussar habit of making free use of his
fists. At first he saw nothing reprehensible in this, but in the second year of his marriage his view of that form of punishment suddenly changed.

Once in summer he had sent for the village elder from Bogucharovo, a man who had succeeded to the post when Dron died and who was accused of dishonesty and
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various     (c) 2005-2009,
        irregularities.       Infobase
                        Nicholas       Media
                                 went out       Corp.
                                          into the                                                                                                    Page
                                                   porch to question him, and immediately after the elder had given a few replies the sound of cries and     539
                                                                                                                                                         blows were/ heard.
                                                                                                                                                                     567
On returning to lunch Nicholas went up to his wife, who sat with her head bent low over her embroidery frame, and as usual began to tell her what he had been doing
that morning. Among other things he spoke of the Bogucharovo elder. Countess Mary turned red and then pale, but continued to sit with head bowed and lips
fists. At first he saw nothing reprehensible in this, but in the second year of his marriage his view of that form of punishment suddenly changed.

Once in summer he had sent for the village elder from Bogucharovo, a man who had succeeded to the post when Dron died and who was accused of dishonesty and
various irregularities. Nicholas went out into the porch to question him, and immediately after the elder had given a few replies the sound of cries and blows were heard.
On returning to lunch Nicholas went up to his wife, who sat with her head bent low over her embroidery frame, and as usual began to tell her what he had been doing
that morning. Among other things he spoke of the Bogucharovo elder. Countess Mary turned red and then pale, but continued to sit with head bowed and lips
compressed and gave her husband no reply.

"Such an insolent scoundrel!" he cried, growing hot again at the mere recollection of him. "If he had told me he was drunk and did not see... But what is the matter with
you, Mary?" he suddenly asked.

Countess Mary raised her head and tried to speak, but hastily looked down again and her lips puckered.

"Why, whatever is the matter, my dearest?"

The looks of the plain Countess Mary always improved when she was in tears. She never cried from pain or vexation, but always from sorrow or pity, and when she
wept her radiant eyes acquired an irresistible charm.

The moment Nicholas took her hand she could no longer restrain herself and began to cry.

"Nicholas, I saw it... he was to blame, but why do you... Nicholas!" and she covered her face with her hands.

Nicholas said nothing. He flushed crimson, left her side, and paced up and down the room. He understood what she was weeping about, but could not in his heart at
once agree with her that what he had regarded from childhood as quite an everyday event was wrong. "Is it just sentimentality, old wives' tales, or is she right?" he
asked himself. Before he had solved that point he glanced again at her face filled with love and pain, and he suddenly realized that she was right and that he had long
been sinning against himself.

"Mary," he said softly, going up to her, "it will never happen again; I give you my word. Never," he repeated in a trembling voice like a boy asking for forgiveness.

The tears flowed faster still from the countess' eyes. She took his hand and kissed it.

"Nicholas, when when did you break your cameo?" she asked to change the subject, looking at his finger on which he wore a ring with a cameo of Laocoon's head.

"Today-it was the same affair. Oh, Mary, don't remind me of it!" and again he flushed. "I give you my word of honor it shan't occur again, and let this always be a
reminder to me," and he pointed to the broken ring.

After that, when in discussions with his village elders or stewards the blood rushed to his face and his fists began to clench, Nicholas would turn the broken ring on his
finger and would drop his eyes before the man who was making him angry. But he did forget himself once or twice within a twelvemonth, and then he would go and
confess to his wife, and would again promise that this should really be the very last time.

"Mary, you must despise me!" he would say. "I deserve it."

"You should go, go away at once, if you don't feel strong enough to control yourself," she would reply sadly, trying to comfort her husband.

Among the gentry of the province Nicholas was respected but not liked. He did not concern himself with the interests of his own class, and consequently some thought
him proud and others thought him stupid. The whole summer, from spring sowing to harvest, he was busy with the work on his farm. In autumn he gave himself up to
hunting with the same business like seriousness-leaving home for a month, or even two, with his hunt. In winter he visited his other villages or spent his time reading. The
books he read were chiefly historical, and on these he spent a certain sum every year. He was collecting, as he said, a serious library, and he made it a rule to read
through all the books he bought. He would sit in his study with a grave air, reading-a task he first imposed upon himself as a duty, but which afterwards became a habit
affording him a special kind of pleasure and a consciousness of being occupied with serious matters. In winter, except for business excursions, he spent most of his time
at home making himself one with his family and entering into all the details of his children's relations with their mother. The harmony between him and his wife grew
closer and closer and he daily discovered fresh spiritual treasures in her.

From the time of his marriage Sonya had lived in his house. Before that, Nicholas had told his wife all that had passed between himself and Sonya, blaming himself and
commending her. He had asked Princess Mary to be gentle and kind to his cousin. She thoroughly realized the wrong he had done Sonya, felt herself to blame toward
her, and imagined that her wealth had influenced Nicholas' choice. She could not find fault with Sonya in any way and tried to be fond of her, but often felt ill-will
toward her which she could not overcome.

Once she had a talk with her friend Natasha about Sonya and about her own injustice toward her.

"You know," said Natasha, "you have read the Gospels a great deal-there is a passage in them that just fits Sonya."

"What?" asked Countess Mary, surprised.

"'To him that hath shall be given, and from him that hath not shall be taken away.' You remember? She is one that hath not; why, I don't know. Perhaps she lacks
egotism, I don't know, but from her is taken away, and everything has been taken away. Sometimes I am dreadfully sorry for her. Formerly I very much wanted
Nicholas to marry her, but I always had a sort of presentiment that it would not come off. She is a sterile flower, you know-like some strawberry blossoms. Sometimes
I am sorry for her, and sometimes I think she doesn't feel it as you or I would."

Though Countess Mary told Natasha that those words in the Gospel must be understood differently, yet looking at Sonya she agreed with Natasha's explanation. It
really seemed that Sonya did not feel her position trying, and had grown quite reconciled to her lot as a sterile flower. She seemed to be fond not so much of individuals
as of the family as a whole. Like a cat, she had attached herself not to the people but to the home. She waited on the old countess, petted and spoiled the children, was
always ready to render the small services for which she had a gift, and all this was unconsciously accepted from her with insufficient gratitude.

The country seat at Bald Hills had been rebuilt, though not on the same scale as under the old prince.

The  buildings,
 Copyright  (c) begun under straitened
                2005-2009,             circumstances,
                            Infobase Media   Corp. were more than simple. The immense house on the old stone foundations was of wood, plastered         only inside. It
                                                                                                                                                  Page 540 / 567
had bare deal floors and was furnished with very simple hard sofas, armchairs, tables, and chairs made by their own serf carpenters out of their own birchwood. The
house was spacious and had rooms for the house serfs and apartments for visitors. Whole families of the Rostovs' and Bolkonskis' relations sometimes came to Bald
Hills with sixteen horses and dozens of servants and stayed for months. Besides that, four times a year, on the name days and birthdays of the hosts, as many as a
The country seat at Bald Hills had been rebuilt, though not on the same scale as under the old prince.

The buildings, begun under straitened circumstances, were more than simple. The immense house on the old stone foundations was of wood, plastered only inside. It
had bare deal floors and was furnished with very simple hard sofas, armchairs, tables, and chairs made by their own serf carpenters out of their own birchwood. The
house was spacious and had rooms for the house serfs and apartments for visitors. Whole families of the Rostovs' and Bolkonskis' relations sometimes came to Bald
Hills with sixteen horses and dozens of servants and stayed for months. Besides that, four times a year, on the name days and birthdays of the hosts, as many as a
hundred visitors would gather there for a day or two. The rest of the year life pursued its unbroken routine with its ordinary occupations, and its breakfasts, lunches,
dinners, and suppers, provided out of the produce of the estate.

Chapter IX

It was the eve of St. Nicholas, the fifth of December, 1820. Natasha had been staying at her brother's with her husband and children since early autumn. Pierre had
gone to Petersburg on business of his own for three weeks as he said, but had remained there nearly seven weeks and was expected back every minute.

Besides the Bezukhov family, Nicholas' old friend the retired General Vasili Dmitrich Denisov was staying with the Rostovs this fifth of December.

On the sixth, which was his name day when the house would be full of visitors, Nicholas knew he would have to exchange his Tartar tunic for a tail coat, and put on
narrow boots with pointed toes, and drive to the new church he had built, and then receive visitors who would come to congratulate him, offer them refreshments, and
talk about the elections of the nobility; but he considered himself entitled to spend the eve of that day in his usual way. He examined the bailiff's accounts of the village in
Ryazan which belonged to his wife's nephew, wrote two business letters, and walked over to the granaries, cattle yards and stables before dinner. Having taken
precautions against the general drunkenness to be expected on the morrow because it was a great saint's day, he returned to dinner, and without having time for a
private talk with his wife sat down at the long table laid for twenty persons, at which the whole household had assembled. At that table were his mother, his mother's
old lady companion Belova, his wife, their three children with their governess and tutor, his wife's nephew with his tutor, Sonya, Denisov, Natasha, her three children,
their governess, and old Michael Ivanovich, the late prince's architect, who was living on in retirement at Bald Hills.

Countess Mary sat at the other end of the table. When her husband took his place she concluded, from the rapid manner in which after taking up his table napkin he
pushed back the tumbler and wineglass standing before him, that he was out of humor, as was sometimes the case when he came in to dinner straight from the farm-
especially before the soup. Countess Mary well knew that mood of his, and when she herself was in a good frame of mind quietly waited till he had had his soup and
then began to talk to him and make him admit that there was no cause for his ill-humor. But today she quite forgot that and was hurt that he should be angry with her
without any reason, and she felt unhappy. She asked him where he had been. He replied. She again inquired whether everything was going well on the farm. Her
unnatural tone made him wince unpleasantly and he replied hastily.

"Then I'm not mistaken," thought Countess Mary. "Why is he cross with me?" She concluded from his tone that he was vexed with her and wished to end the
conversation. She knew her remarks sounded unnatural, but could not refrain from asking some more questions.

Thanks to Denisov the conversation at table soon became general and lively, and she did not talk to her husband. When they left the table and went as usual to thank
the old countess, Countess Mary held out her hand and kissed her husband, and asked him why he was angry with her.

"You always have such strange fancies! I didn't even think of being angry," he replied.

But the word always seemed to her to imply: "Yes, I am angry but I won't tell you why."

Nicholas and his wife lived together so happily that even Sonya and the old countess, who felt jealous and would have liked them to disagree, could find nothing to
reproach them with; but even they had their moments of antagonism. Occasionally, and it was always just after they had been happiest together, they suddenly had a
feeling of estrangement and hostility, which occurred most frequently during Countess Mary's pregnancies, and this was such a time.

"Well, messieurs et mesdames," said Nicholas loudly and with apparent cheerfulness (it seemed to Countess Mary that he did it on purpose to vex her), "I have been on
my feet since six this morning. Tomorrow I shall have to suffer, so today I'll go and rest."

And without a word to his wife he went to the little sitting room and lay down on the sofa.

"That's always the way," thought Countess Mary. "He talks to everyone except me. I see... I see that I am repulsive to him, especially when I am in this condition." She
looked down at her expanded figure and in the glass at her pale, sallow, emaciated face in which her eyes now looked larger than ever.

And everything annoyed her-Denisov's shouting and laughter, Natasha's talk, and especially a quick glance Sonya gave her.

Sonya was always the first excuse Countess Mary found for feeling irritated.

Having sat awhile with her visitors without understanding anything of what they were saying, she softly left the room and went to the nursery.

The children were playing at "going to Moscow" in a carriage made of chairs and invited her to go with them. She sat down and played with them a little, but the
thought of her husband and his unreasonable crossness worried her. She got up and, walking on tiptoe with difficulty, went to the small sitting room.

"Perhaps he is not asleep; I'll have an explanation with him," she said to herself. Little Andrew, her eldest boy, imitating his mother, followed her on tiptoe. She not
notice him.

"Mary, dear, I think he is asleep-he was so tired," said Sonya, meeting her in the large sitting room (it seemed to Countess Mary that she crossed her path everywhere).
"Andrew may wake him."

Countess Mary looked round, saw little Andrew following her, felt that Sonya was right, and for that very reason flushed and with evident difficulty refrained from
saying something harsh. She made no reply, but to avoid obeying Sonya beckoned to Andrew to follow her quietly and went to the door. Sonya went away by another
door. From the room in which Nicholas was sleeping came the sound of his even breathing, every slightest tone of which was familiar to his wife. As she listened to it
she saw before her his smooth handsome forehead, his mustache, and his whole face, as she had so often seen it in the stillness of the night when he slept. Nicholas
suddenly moved and cleared his throat. And at that moment little Andrew shouted from outside the door: "Papa! Mamma's standing here!" Countess Mary turned pale
with fright and made signs to the boy. He grew silent, and quiet ensued for a moment, terrible to Countess Mary. She knew how Nicholas disliked being waked. Then
through the door she heard Nicholas clearing his throat again and stirring, and his voice said crossly:
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                            Page 541 / 567
"I can't get a moment's peace.... Mary, is that you? Why did you bring him here?"
she saw before her his smooth handsome forehead, his mustache, and his whole face, as she had so often seen it in the stillness of the night when he slept. Nicholas
suddenly moved and cleared his throat. And at that moment little Andrew shouted from outside the door: "Papa! Mamma's standing here!" Countess Mary turned pale
with fright and made signs to the boy. He grew silent, and quiet ensued for a moment, terrible to Countess Mary. She knew how Nicholas disliked being waked. Then
through the door she heard Nicholas clearing his throat again and stirring, and his voice said crossly:

"I can't get a moment's peace.... Mary, is that you? Why did you bring him here?"

"I only came in to look and did not notice... forgive me..."

Nicholas coughed and said no more. Countess Mary moved away from the door and took the boy back to the nursery. Five minutes later little black-eyed three-year-
old Natasha, her father's pet, having learned from her brother that Papa was asleep and Mamma was in the sitting room, ran to her father unobserved by her mother.
The dark-eyed little girl boldly opened the creaking door, went up to the sofa with energetic steps of her sturdy little legs, and having examined the position of her
father, who was asleep with his back to her, rose on tiptoe and kissed the hand which lay under his head. Nicholas turned with a tender smile on his face.

"Natasha, Natasha!" came Countess Mary's frightened whisper from the door. "Papa wants to sleep."

"No, Mamma, he doesn't want to sleep," said little Natasha with conviction. "He's laughing."

Nicholas lowered his legs, rose, and took his daughter in his arms.

"Come in, Mary," he said to his wife.

She went in and sat down by her husband.

"I did not notice him following me," she said timidly. "I just looked in."

Holding his little girl with one arm, Nicholas glanced at his wife and, seeing her guilty expression, put his other arm around her and kissed her hair.

"May I kiss Mamma?" he asked Natasha.

Natasha smiled bashfully.

"Again!" she commanded, pointing with a peremptory gesture to the spot where Nicholas had placed the kiss.

"I don't know why you think I am cross," said Nicholas, replying to the question he knew was in his wife's mind.

"You have no idea how unhappy, how lonely, I feel when you are like that. It always seems to me... "

"Mary, don't talk nonsense. You ought to be ashamed of yourself!" he said gaily.

"It seems to be that you can't love me, that I am so plain... always... and now... in this cond..."

"Oh, how absurd you are! It is not beauty that endears, it's love that makes us see beauty. It is only Malvinas and women of that kind who are loved for their beauty.
But do I love my wife? I don't love her, but... I don't know how to put it. Without you, or when something comes between us like this, I seem lost and can't do
anything. Now do I love my finger? I don't love it, but just try to cut it off!

"I'm not like that myself, but I understand. So you're not angry with me?"

"Awfully angry!" he said, smiling and getting up. And smoothing his hair he began to pace the room.

"Do you know, Mary, what I've been thinking?" he began, immediately thinking aloud in his wife's presence now that they had made it up.

He did not ask if she was ready to listen to him. He did not care. A thought had occurred to him and so it belonged to her also. And he told her of his intention to
persuade Pierre to stay with them till spring.

Countess Mary listened till he had finished, made some remark, and in her turn began thinking aloud. Her thoughts were about the children.

"You can see the woman in her already," she said in French, pointing to little Natasha. "You reproach us women with being illogical. Here is our logic. I say: 'Papa
wants to sleep!' but she says, 'No, he's laughing.' And she was right," said Countess Mary with a happy smile.

"Yes, yes." And Nicholas, taking his little daughter in his strong hand, lifted her high, placed her on his shoulder, held her by the legs, and paced the room with her.
There was an expression of carefree happiness on the faces of both father and daughter.

"But you know you may be unfair. You are too fond of this one," his wife whispered in French.

"Yes, but what am I to do?... I try not to show..."

At that moment they heard the sound of the door pulley and footsteps in the hall and anteroom, as if someone had arrived.

"Somebody has come."

"I am sure it is Pierre. I will go and see," said Countess Mary and left the room.

In her absence Nicholas allowed himself to give his little daughter a gallop round the room. Out of breath, he took the laughing child quickly from his shoulder and
pressed her to his heart. His capers reminded him of dancing, and looking at the child's round happy little face he thought of what she would be like when he was an old
man, taking her into society and dancing the mazurka with her as his old father had danced Daniel Cooper with his daughter.

"It is he, it is(c)
 Copyright       he,2005-2009,
                     Nicholas!" said Countess
                                Infobase MediaMary, re-entering the room a few minutes later. "Now our Natasha has come to life. You should have seen
                                                Corp.                                                                                             Pageher 542
                                                                                                                                                           ecstasy,  and
                                                                                                                                                                  / 567
how he caught it for having stayed away so long. Well, come along now, quick, quick! It's time you two were parted," she added, looking smilingly at the little girl who
clung to her father.
In her absence Nicholas allowed himself to give his little daughter a gallop round the room. Out of breath, he took the laughing child quickly from his shoulder and
pressed her to his heart. His capers reminded him of dancing, and looking at the child's round happy little face he thought of what she would be like when he was an old
man, taking her into society and dancing the mazurka with her as his old father had danced Daniel Cooper with his daughter.

"It is he, it is he, Nicholas!" said Countess Mary, re-entering the room a few minutes later. "Now our Natasha has come to life. You should have seen her ecstasy, and
how he caught it for having stayed away so long. Well, come along now, quick, quick! It's time you two were parted," she added, looking smilingly at the little girl who
clung to her father.

Nicholas went out holding the child by the hand.

Countess Mary remained in the sitting room.

"I should never, never have believed that one could be so happy," she whispered to herself. A smile lit up her face but at the same time she sighed, and her deep eyes
expressed a quiet sadness as though she felt, through her happiness, that there is another sort of happiness unattainable in this life and of which she involuntarily thought
at that instant.

Chapter X

Natasha had married in the early spring of 1813, and in 1820 already had three daughters besides a son for whom she had longed and whom she was now nursing. She
had grown stouter and broader, so that it was difficult to recognize in this robust, motherly woman the slim, lively Natasha of former days. Her features were more
defined and had a calm, soft, and serene expression. In her face there was none of the ever-glowing animation that had formerly burned there and constituted its charm.
Now her face and body were of all that one saw, and her soul was not visible at all. All that struck the eye was a strong, handsome, and fertile woman. The old fire
very rarely kindled in her face now. That happened only when, as was the case that day, her husband returned home, or a sick child was convalescent, or when she
and Countess Mary spoke of Prince Andrew (she never mentioned him to her husband, who she imagined was jealous of Prince Andrew's memory), or on the rare
occasions when something happened to induce her to sing, a practice she had quite abandoned since her marriage. At the rare moments when the old fire did kindle in
her handsome, fully developed body she was even more attractive than in former days.

Since their marriage Natasha and her husband had lived in Moscow, in Petersburg, on their estate near Moscow, or with her mother, that is to say, in Nicholas' house.
The young Countess Bezukhova was not often seen in society, and those who met her there were not pleased with her and found her neither attractive nor amiable. Not
that Natasha liked solitude-she did not know whether she liked it or not, she even thought that she did not-but with her pregnancies, her confinements, the nursing of
her children, and sharing every moment of her husband's life, she had demands on her time which could be satisfied only by renouncing society. All who had known
Natasha before her marriage wondered at the change in her as at something extraordinary. Only the old countess with her maternal instinct had realized that all
Natasha's outbursts had been due to her need of children and a husband-as she herself had once exclaimed at Otradnoe not so much in fun as in earnest-and her
mother was now surprised at the surprise expressed by those who had never understood Natasha, and she kept saying that she had always known that Natasha would
make an exemplary wife and mother.

"Only she lets her love of her husband and children overflow all bounds," said the countess, "so that it even becomes absurd."

Natasha did not follow the golden rule advocated by clever folk, especially by the French, which says that a girl should not let herself go when she marries, should not
neglect her accomplishments, should be even more careful of her appearance than when she was unmarried, and should fascinate her husband as much as she did
before he became her husband. Natasha on the contrary had at once abandoned all her witchery, of which her singing had been an unusually powerful part. She gave it
up just because it was so powerfully seductive. She took no pains with her manners or with of speech, or with her toilet, or to show herself to her husband in her most
becoming attitudes, or to avoid inconveniencing him by being too exacting. She acted in contradiction to all those rules. She felt that the allurements instinct had formerly
taught her to use would now be merely ridiculous in the eyes of her husband, to whom she had from the first moment given herself up entirely-that is, with her whole
soul, leaving no corner of it hidden from him. She felt that her unity with her husband was not maintained by the poetic feelings that had attracted him to her, but by
something else-indefinite but firm as the bond between her own body and soul.

To fluff out her curls, put on fashionable dresses, and sing romantic songs to fascinate her husband would have seemed as strange as to adorn herself to attract herself.
To adorn herself for others might perhaps have been agreeable-she did not know-but she had no time at all for it. The chief reason for devoting no time either to
singing, to dress, or to choosing her words was that she really had no time to spare for these things.

We know that man has the faculty of becoming completely absorbed in a subject however trivial it may be, and that there is no subject so trivial that it will not grow to
infinite proportions if one's entire attention is devoted to it.

The subject which wholly engrossed Natasha's attention was her family: that is, her husband whom she had to keep so that he should belong entirely to her and to the
home, and the children whom she had to bear, bring into the world, nurse, and bring up.

And the deeper she penetrated, not with her mind only but with her whole soul, her whole being, into the subject that absorbed her, the larger did that subject grow and
the weaker and more inadequate did her powers appear, so that she concentrated them wholly on that one thing and yet was unable to accomplish all that she
considered necessary.

There were then as now conversations and discussions about women's rights, the relations of husband and wife and their freedom and rights, though these themes were
not yet termed questions as they are now; but these topics were not merely uninteresting to Natasha, she positively did not understand them.

These questions, then as now, existed only for those who see nothing in marriage but the pleasure married people get from one another, that is, only the beginnings of
marriage and not its whole significance, which lies in the family.

Discussions and questions of that kind, which are like the question of how to get the greatest gratification from one's dinner, did not then and do not now exist for those
for whom the purpose of a dinner is the nourishment it affords; and the purpose of marriage is the family.

If the purpose of dinner is to nourish the body, a man who eats two dinners at once may perhaps get more enjoyment but will not attain his purpose, for his stomach will
not digest the two dinners.

If the purpose of marriage is the family, the person who wishes to have many wives or husbands may perhaps obtain much pleasure, but in that case will not have a
family.

If the purpose of food is nourishment and the purpose of marriage is the family, the whole question resolves itself into not eating more than one can digest, and not
 Copyright
having  more(c) 2005-2009,
             wives           Infobase
                    or husbands        Media
                                 than are     Corp.
                                          needed for the family-that is, one wife or one husband. Natasha needed a husband. A husband was givenPage  her and543     / 567
                                                                                                                                                               he gave her
a family. And she not only saw no need of any other or better husband, but as all the powers of her soul were intent on serving that husband and family, she could not
imagine and saw no interest in imagining how it would be if things were different.
family.

If the purpose of food is nourishment and the purpose of marriage is the family, the whole question resolves itself into not eating more than one can digest, and not
having more wives or husbands than are needed for the family-that is, one wife or one husband. Natasha needed a husband. A husband was given her and he gave her
a family. And she not only saw no need of any other or better husband, but as all the powers of her soul were intent on serving that husband and family, she could not
imagine and saw no interest in imagining how it would be if things were different.

Natasha did not care for society in general, but prized the more the society of her relatives-Countess Mary, and her brother, her mother, and Sonya. She valued the
company of those to whom she could come striding disheveled from the nursery in her dressing gown, and with joyful face show a yellow instead of a green stain on
baby's napkin, and from whom she could hear reassuring words to the effect that baby was much better.

To such an extent had Natasha let herself go that the way she dressed and did her hair, her ill-chosen words, and her jealousy-she was jealous of Sonya, of the
governess, and of every woman, pretty or plain-were habitual subjects of jest to those about her. The general opinion was that Pierre was under his wife's thumb, which
was really true. From the very first days of their married life Natasha had announced her demands. Pierre was greatly surprised by his wife's view, to him a perfectly
novel one, that every moment of his life belonged to her and to the family. His wife's demands astonished him, but they also flattered him, and he submitted to them.

Pierre's subjection consisted in the fact that he not only dared not flirt with, but dared not even speak smilingly to, any other woman; did not dare dine at the Club as a
pastime, did not dare spend money a whim, and did not dare absent himself for any length of time, except on business-in which his wife included his intellectual pursuits,
which she did not in the least understand but to which she attributed great importance. To make up for this, at home Pierre had the right to regulate his life and that of
the whole family exactly as he chose. At home Natasha placed herself in the position of a slave to her husband, and the whole household went on tiptoe when he was
occupied-that is, was reading or writing in his study. Pierre had but to show a partiality for anything to get just what he liked done always. He had only to express a
wish and Natasha would jump up and run to fulfill it.

The entire household was governed according to Pierre's supposed orders, that is, by his wishes which Natasha tried to guess. Their way of life and place of residence,
their acquaintances and ties, Natasha's occupations, the children's upbringing, were all selected not merely with regard to Pierre's expressed wishes, but to what
Natasha from the thoughts he expressed in conversation supposed his wishes to be. And she deduced the essentials of his wishes quite correctly, and having once
arrived at them clung to them tenaciously. When Pierre himself wanted to change his mind she would fight him with his own weapons.

Thus in a time of trouble ever memorable to him after the birth of their first child who was delicate, when they had to change the wet nurse three times and Natasha fell
ill from despair, Pierre one day told her of Rousseau's view, with which he quite agreed, that to have a wet nurse is unnatural and harmful. When her next baby was
born, despite the opposition of her mother, the doctors, and even of her husband himself-who were all vigorously opposed to her nursing her baby herself, a thing then
unheard of and considered injurious-she insisted on having her own way, and after that nursed all her babies herself.

It very often happened that in a moment of irritation husband and wife would have a dispute, but long afterwards Pierre to his surprise and delight would find in his
wife's ideas and actions the very thought against which she had argued, but divested of everything superfluous that in the excitement of the dispute he had added when
expressing his opinion.

After seven years of marriage Pierre had the joyous and firm consciousness that he was not a bad man, and he felt this because he saw himself reflected in his wife. He
felt the good and bad within himself inextricably mingled and overlapping. But only what was really good in him was reflected in his wife, all that was not quite good was
rejected. And this was not the result of logical reasoning but was a direct and mysterious reflection.

Chapter XI

Two months previously when Pierre was already staying with the Rostovs he had received a letter from Prince Theodore, asking him to come to Petersburg to confer
on some important questions that were being discussed there by a society of which Pierre was one of the principal founders.

On reading that letter (she always read her husband's letters) Natasha herself suggested that he should go to Petersburg, though she would feel his absence very
acutely. She attributed immense importance to all her husband's intellectual and abstract interests though she did not understand them, and she always dreaded being a
hindrance to him in such matters. To Pierre's timid look of inquiry after reading the letter she replied by asking him to go, but to fix a definite date for his return. He was
given four weeks' leave of absence.

Ever since that leave of absence had expired, more than a fortnight before, Natasha had been in a constant state of alarm, depression, and irritability.

Denisov, now a general on the retired list and much dissatisfied with the present state of affairs, had arrived during that fortnight. He looked at Natasha with sorrow and
surprise as at a bad likeness of a person once dear. A dull, dejected look, random replies, and talk about the nursery was all he saw and heard from his former
enchantress.

Natasha was sad and irritable all that time, especially when her mother, her brother, Sonya, or Countess Mary in their efforts to console her tried to excuse Pierre and
suggested reasons for his delay in returning.

"It's all nonsense, all rubbish-those discussions which lead to nothing and all those idiotic societies!" Natasha declared of the very affairs in the immense importance of
which she firmly believed.

And she would go to the nursery to nurse Petya, her only boy. No one else could tell her anything so comforting or so reasonable as this little three-month-old creature
when he lay at her breast and she was conscious of the movement of his lips and the snuffling of his little nose. That creature said: "You are angry, you are jealous, you
would like to pay him out, you are afraid-but here am I! And I am he..." and that was unanswerable. It was more than true.

During that fortnight of anxiety Natasha resorted to the baby for comfort so often, and fussed over him so much, that she overfed him and he fell ill. She was terrified by
his illness, and yet that was just what she needed. While attending to him she bore the anxiety about her husband more easily.

She was nursing her boy when the sound of Pierre's sleigh was heard at the front door, and the old nurse-knowing how to please her mistress-entered the room
inaudibly but hurriedly and with a beaming face.

"Has he come?" Natasha asked quickly in a whisper, afraid to move lest she should rouse the dozing baby.

"He's come, ma'am," whispered the nurse.
Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                           Page 544 / 567
The blood rushed to Natasha's face and her feet involuntarily moved, but she could not jump up and run out. The baby again opened his eyes and looked at her.
"You're here?" he seemed to be saying, and again lazily smacked his lips.
"Has he come?" Natasha asked quickly in a whisper, afraid to move lest she should rouse the dozing baby.

"He's come, ma'am," whispered the nurse.

The blood rushed to Natasha's face and her feet involuntarily moved, but she could not jump up and run out. The baby again opened his eyes and looked at her.
"You're here?" he seemed to be saying, and again lazily smacked his lips.

Cautiously withdrawing her breast, Natasha rocked him a little, handed him to the nurse, and went with rapid steps toward the door. But at the door she stopped as if
her conscience reproached her for having in her joy left the child too soon, and she glanced round. The nurse with raised elbows was lifting the infant over the rail of his
cot.

"Go, ma'am! Don't worry, go!" she whispered, smiling, with the kind of familiarity that grows up between a nurse and her mistress.

Natasha ran with light footsteps to the anteroom.

Denisov, who had come out of the study into the dancing room with his pipe, now for the first time recognized the old Natasha. A flood of brilliant, joyful light poured
from her transfigured face.

"He's come!" she exclaimed as she ran past, and Denisov felt that he too was delighted that Pierre, whom he did not much care for, had returned.

On reaching the vestibule Natasha saw a tall figure in a fur coat unwinding his scarf. "It's he! It's really he! He has come!" she said to herself, and rushing at him
embraced him, pressed his head to her breast, and then pushed him back and gazed at his ruddy, happy face, covered with hoarfrost. "Yes, it is he, happy and
contented..."

Then all at once she remembered the tortures of suspense she had experienced for the last fortnight, and the joy that had lit up her face vanished; she frowned and
overwhelmed Pierre with a torrent of reproaches and angry words.

"Yes, it's all very well for you. You are pleased, you've had a good time.... But what about me? You might at least have shown consideration for the children. I am
nursing and my milk was spoiled.... Petya was at death's door. But you were enjoying yourself. Yes, enjoying..."

Pierre knew he was not to blame, for he could not have come sooner; he knew this outburst was unseemly and would blow over in a minute or two; above all he knew
that he himself was bright and happy. He wanted to smile but dared not even think of doing so. He made a piteous, frightened face and bent down.

"I could not, on my honor. But how is Petya?"

"All right now. Come along! I wonder you're not ashamed! If only you could see what I was like without you, how I suffered!"

"You are well?"

"Come, come!" she said, not letting go of his arm. And they went to their rooms.

When Nicholas and his wife came to look for Pierre he was in the nursery holding his baby son, who was again awake, on his huge right palm and dandling him. A
blissful bright smile was fixed on the baby's broad face with its toothless open mouth. The storm was long since over and there was bright, joyous sunshine on
Natasha's face as she gazed tenderly at her husband and child.

"And have you talked everything well over with Prince Theodore?" she asked.

"Yes, capitally."

"You see, he holds it up." (She meant the baby's head.) "But how he did frighten me... You've seen the princess? Is it true she's in love with that..."

"Yes, just fancy..."

At that moment Nicholas and Countess Mary came in. Pierre with the baby on his hand stooped, kissed them, and replied to their inquiries. But in spite of much that
was interesting and had to be discussed, the baby with the little cap on its unsteady head evidently absorbed all his attention.

"How sweet!" said Countess Mary, looking at and playing with the baby. "Now, Nicholas," she added, turning to her husband, "I can't understand how it is you don't
see the charm of these delicious marvels."

"I don't and can't," replied Nicholas, looking coldly at the baby. "A lump of flesh. Come along, Pierre!"

"And yet he's such an affectionate father," said Countess Mary, vindicating her husband, "but only after they are a year old or so..."

"Now, Pierre nurses them splendidly," said Natasha. "He says his hand is just made for a baby's seat. Just look!"

"Only not for this..." Pierre suddenly exclaimed with a laugh, and shifting the baby he gave him to the nurse.

Chapter XII

As in every large household, there were at Bald Hills several perfectly distinct worlds which merged into one harmonious whole, though each retained its own
peculiarities and made concessions to the others. Every event, joyful or sad, that took place in that house was important to all these worlds, but each had its own
special reasons to rejoice or grieve over that occurrence independently of the others.

For instance, Pierre's return was a joyful and important event and they all felt it to be so.

The servants-the most reliable judges of their masters because they judge not by their conversation or expressions of feeling but by their acts and way of life-were glad
of Pierre's return because they knew that when he was there Count Nicholas would cease going every day attend to the estate, and would would be in better spirits and
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temper,  and(c)
              also2005-2009,  Infobase
                   because they         Media
                                 would all      Corp.
                                           receive handsome presents for the holidays.                                                               Page 545 / 567

The children and their governesses were glad of Pierre's return because no one else drew them into the social life of the household as he did. He alone could play on the
For instance, Pierre's return was a joyful and important event and they all felt it to be so.

The servants-the most reliable judges of their masters because they judge not by their conversation or expressions of feeling but by their acts and way of life-were glad
of Pierre's return because they knew that when he was there Count Nicholas would cease going every day attend to the estate, and would would be in better spirits and
temper, and also because they would all receive handsome presents for the holidays.

The children and their governesses were glad of Pierre's return because no one else drew them into the social life of the household as he did. He alone could play on the
clavichord that ecossaise (his only piece) to which, as he said, all possible dances could be danced, and they felt sure he had brought presents for them all.

Young Nicholas, now a slim lad of fifteen, delicate and intelligent, with curly light-brown hair and beautiful eyes, was delighted because Uncle Pierre as he called him
was the object of his rapturous and passionate affection. No one had instilled into him this love for Pierre whom he saw only occasionally. Countess Mary who had
brought him up had done her utmost to make him love her husband as she loved him, and little Nicholas did love his uncle, but loved him with just a shade of contempt.
Pierre, however, he adored. He did not want to be an hussar or a Knight of St. George like his uncle Nicholas; he wanted to be learned, wise, and kind like Pierre. In
Pierre's presence his face always shone with pleasure and he flushed and was breathless when Pierre spoke to him. He did not miss a single word he uttered, and
would afterwards, with Dessalles or by himself, recall and reconsider the meaning of everything Pierre had said. Pierre's past life and his unhappiness prior to 1812 (of
which young Nicholas had formed a vague poetic picture from some words he had overheard), his adventures in Moscow, his captivity, Platon Karataev (of whom he
had heard from Pierre), his love for Natasha (of whom the lad was also particularly fond), and especially Pierre's friendship with the father whom Nicholas could not
remember-all this made Pierre in his eyes a hero and a saint.

From broken remarks about Natasha and his father, from the emotion with which Pierre spoke of that dead father, and from the careful, reverent tenderness with which
Natasha spoke of him, the boy, who was only just beginning to guess what love is, derived the notion that his father had loved Natasha and when dying had left her to
his friend. But the father whom the boy did not remember appeared to him a divinity who could not be pictured, and of whom he never thought without a swelling heart
and tears of sadness and rapture. So the boy also was happy that Pierre had arrived.

The guests welcomed Pierre because he always helped to enliven and unite any company he was in.

The grown-up members of the family, not to mention his wife, were pleased to have back a friend whose presence made life run more smoothly and peacefully.

The old ladies were pleased with the presents he brought them, and especially that Natasha would now be herself again.

Pierre felt the different outlooks of these various worlds and made haste to satisfy all their expectations.

Though the most absent-minded and forgetful of men, Pierre, with the aid of a list his wife drew up, had now bought everything, not forgetting his mother-and brother-
in-law's commissions, nor the dress material for a present to Belova, nor toys for his wife's nephews. In the early days of his marriage it had seemed strange to him that
his wife should expect him not to forget to procure all the things he undertook to buy, and he had been taken aback by her serious annoyance when on his first trip he
forgot everything. But in time he grew used to this demand. Knowing that Natasha asked nothing for herself, and gave him commissions for others only when he himself
had offered to undertake them, he now found an unexpected and childlike pleasure in this purchase of presents for everyone in the house, and never forgot anything. If
he now incurred Natasha's censure it was only for buying too many and too expensive things. To her other defects (as most people thought them, but which to Pierre
were qualities) of untidiness and neglect of herself, she now added stinginess.

From the time that Pierre began life as a family man on a footing entailing heavy expenditure, he had noticed to his surprise that he spent only half as much as before,
and that his affairs-which had been in disorder of late, chiefly because of his first wife's debts-had begun to improve.

Life was cheaper because it was circumscribed: that most expensive luxury, the kind of life that can be changed at any moment, was no longer his nor did he wish for it.
He felt that his way of life had now been settled once for all till death and that to change it was not in his power, and so that way of life proved economical.

With a merry, smiling face Pierre was sorting his purchases.

"What do you think of this?" said he, unrolling a piece of stuff like a shopman.

Natasha, who was sitting opposite to him with her eldest daughter on her lap, turned her sparkling eyes swiftly from her husband to the things he showed her.

"That's for Belova? Excellent!" She felt the quality of the material. "It was a ruble an arshin, I suppose?"

Pierre told her the price.

"Too dear!" Natasha remarked. "How pleased the children will be and Mamma too! Only you need not have bought me this," she added, unable to suppress a smile as
she gazed admiringly at a gold comb set with pearls, of a kind then just coming into fashion.

"Adele tempted me: she kept on telling me to buy it," returned Pierre.

"When am I to wear it?" and Natasha stuck it in her coil of hair. "When I take little Masha into society? Perhaps they will be fashionable again by then. Well, let's go
now."

And collecting the presents they went first to the nursery and then to the old countess' rooms.

The countess was sitting with her companion Belova, playing grand-patience as usual, when Pierre and Natasha came into the drawing room with parcels under their
arms.

The countess was now over sixty, was quite gray, and wore a cap with a frill that surrounded her face. Her face had shriveled, her upper lip had sunk in, and her eyes
were dim.

After the deaths of her son and husband in such rapid succession, she felt herself a being accidentally forgotten in this world and left without aim or object for her
existence. She ate, drank, slept, or kept awake, but did not live. Life gave her no new impressions. She wanted nothing from life but tranquillity, and that tranquillity
only death could give her. But until death came she had to go on living, that is, to use her vital forces. A peculiarity one sees in very young children and very old people
was particularly evident in her. Her life had no external aims-only a need to exercise her various functions and inclinations was apparent. She had to eat, sleep, think,
speak, weep, work, give vent to her anger, and so on, merely because she had a stomach, a brain, muscles, nerves, and a liver. She did these things not under any
external impulse
 Copyright        as people inInfobase
             (c) 2005-2009,    the full vigor
                                         Mediaof life
                                                 Corp.do, when behind the purpose for which they strive that of exercising their functions remains unnoticed.
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because she physically needed to exercise her tongue and lungs. She cried as a child does, because her nose had to be cleared, and so on. What for people in their full
vigor is an aim was for her evidently merely a pretext.
existence. She ate, drank, slept, or kept awake, but did not live. Life gave her no new impressions. She wanted nothing from life but tranquillity, and that tranquillity
only death could give her. But until death came she had to go on living, that is, to use her vital forces. A peculiarity one sees in very young children and very old people
was particularly evident in her. Her life had no external aims-only a need to exercise her various functions and inclinations was apparent. She had to eat, sleep, think,
speak, weep, work, give vent to her anger, and so on, merely because she had a stomach, a brain, muscles, nerves, and a liver. She did these things not under any
external impulse as people in the full vigor of life do, when behind the purpose for which they strive that of exercising their functions remains unnoticed. She talked only
because she physically needed to exercise her tongue and lungs. She cried as a child does, because her nose had to be cleared, and so on. What for people in their full
vigor is an aim was for her evidently merely a pretext.

Thus in the morning-especially if she had eaten anything rich the day before-she felt a need of being angry and would choose as the handiest pretext Belova's deafness.

She would begin to say something to her in a low tone from the other end of the room.

"It seems a little warmer today, my dear," she would murmur.

And when Belova replied: "Oh yes, they've come," she would mutter angrily: "O Lord! How stupid and deaf she is!"

Another pretext would be her snuff, which would seem too dry or too damp or not rubbed fine enough. After these fits of irritability her face would grow yellow, and
her maids knew by infallible symptoms when Belova would again be deaf, the snuff damp, and the countess' face yellow. Just as she needed to work off her spleen so
she had sometimes to exercise her still-existing faculty of thinking-and the pretext for that was a game of patience. When she needed to cry, the deceased count would
be the pretext. When she wanted to be agitated, Nicholas and his health would be the pretext, and when she felt a need to speak spitefully, the pretext would be
Countess Mary. When her vocal organs needed exercise, which was usually toward seven o'clock when she had had an after-dinner rest in a darkened room, the
pretext would be the retelling of the same stories over and over again to the same audience.

The old lady's condition was understood by the whole household though no one ever spoke of it, and they all made every possible effort to satisfy her needs. Only by a
rare glance exchanged with a sad smile between Nicholas, Pierre, Natasha, and Countess Mary was the common understanding of her condition expressed.

But those glances expressed something more: they said that she had played her part in life, that what they now saw was not her whole self, that we must all become like
her, and that they were glad to yield to her, to restrain themselves for this once precious being formerly as full of life as themselves, but now so much to be pitied.
"Memento mori," said these glances.

Only the really heartless, the stupid ones of that household, and the little children failed to understand this and avoided her.

Chapter XIII

When Pierre and his wife entered the drawing room the countess was in one of her customary states in which she needed the mental exertion of playing patience, and
so-though by force of habit she greeted him with the words she always used when Pierre or her son returned after an absence: "High time, my dear, high time! We were
all weary of waiting for you. Well, thank God!" and received her presents with another customary remark: "It's not the gift that's precious, my dear, but that you give it
to me, an old woman..."-yet it was evident that she was not pleased by Pierre's arrival at that moment when it diverted her attention from the unfinished game.

She finished her game of patience and only then examined the presents. They consisted of a box for cards, of splendid workmanship, a bright-blue Sevres tea cup with
shepherdesses depicted on it and with a lid, and a gold snuffbox with the count's portrait on the lid which Pierre had had done by a miniaturist in Petersburg. The
countess had long wished for such a box, but as she did not want to cry just then she glanced indifferently at the portrait and gave her attention chiefly to the box for
cards.

"Thank you, my dear, you have cheered me up," said she as she always did. "But best of all you have brought yourself back-for I never saw anything like it, you ought
to give your wife a scolding! What are we to do with her? She is like a mad woman when you are away. Doesn't see anything, doesn't remember anything," she went
on, repeating her usual phrases. "Look, Anna Timofeevna," she added to her companion, "see what a box for cards my son has brought us!"

Belova admired the presents and was delighted with her dress material.

Though Pierre, Natasha, Nicholas, Countess Mary, and Denisov had much to talk about that they could not discuss before the old countess-not that anything was
hidden from her, but because she had dropped so far behindhand in many things that had they begun to converse in her presence they would have had to answer
inopportune questions and to repeat what they had already told her many times: that so-and-so was dead and so-and-so was married, which she would again be
unable to remember-yet they sat at tea round the samovar in the drawing room from habit, and Pierre answered the countess' questions as to whether Prince Vasili had
aged and whether Countess Mary Alexeevna had sent greetings and still thought of them, and other matters that interested no one and to which she herself was
indifferent.

Conversation of this kind, interesting to no one yet unavoidable, continued all through teatime. All the grown-up members of the family were assembled near the round
tea table at which Sonya presided beside the samovar. The children with their tutors and governesses had had tea and their voices were audible from the next room. At
tea all sat in their accustomed places: Nicholas beside the stove at a small table where his tea was handed to him; Milka, the old gray borzoi bitch (daughter of the first
Milka), with a quite gray face and large black eyes that seemed more prominent than ever, lay on the armchair beside him; Denisov, whose curly hair, mustache, and
whiskers had turned half gray, sat beside countess Mary with his general's tunic unbuttoned; Pierre sat between his wife and the old countess. He spoke of what he
knew might interest the old lady and that she could understand. He told her of external social events and of the people who had formed the circle of her contemporaries
and had once been a real, living, and distinct group, but who were now for the most part scattered about the world and like herself were garnering the last ears of the
harvests they had sown in earlier years. But to the old countess those contemporaries of hers seemed to be the only serious and real society. Natasha saw by Pierre's
animation that his visit had been interesting and that he had much to tell them but dare not say it before the old countess. Denisov, not being a member of the family, did
not understand Pierre's caution and being, as a malcontent, much interested in what was occurring in Petersburg, kept urging Pierre to tell them about what had
happened in the Semenovsk regiment, then about Arakcheev, and then about the Bible Society. Once or twice Pierre was carried away and began to speak of these
things, but Nicholas and Natasha always brought him back to the health of Prince Ivan and Countess Mary Alexeevna.

"Well, and all this idiocy-Gossner and Tatawinova?" Denisov asked. "Is that weally still going on?"

"Going on?" Pierre exclaimed. "Why more than ever! The Bible Society is the whole government now!"

"What is that, mon cher ami?" asked the countess, who had finished her tea and evidently needed a pretext for being angry after her meal. "What are you saying about
the government? I don't understand."

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"Well,     (c) 2005-2009,
       you know,            Infobaseinterposed,
                 Maman," Nicholas     Media Corp.                                                                                               Page
                                                knowing how to translate things into his mother's language, "Prince Alexander Golitsyn has founded      547and
                                                                                                                                                   a society / 567
                                                                                                                                                                in
consequence has great influence, they say."
"What is that, mon cher ami?" asked the countess, who had finished her tea and evidently needed a pretext for being angry after her meal. "What are you saying about
the government? I don't understand."

"Well, you know, Maman," Nicholas interposed, knowing how to translate things into his mother's language, "Prince Alexander Golitsyn has founded a society and in
consequence has great influence, they say."

"Arakcheev and Golitsyn," incautiously remarked Pierre, "are now the whole government! And what a government! They see treason everywhere and are afraid of
everything."

"Well, and how is Prince Alexander to blame? He is a most estimable man. I used to meet him at Mary Antonovna's," said the countess in an offended tone; and still
more offended that they all remained silent, she went on: "Nowadays everyone finds fault. A Gospel Society! Well, and what harm is there in that?" and she rose
(everybody else got up too) and with a severe expression sailed back to her table in the sitting room.

The melancholy silence that followed was broken by the sounds of the children's voices and laughter from the next room. Evidently some jolly excitement was going on
there.

"Finished, finished!" little Natasha's gleeful yell rose above them all.

Pierre exchanged glances with Countess Mary and Nicholas (Natasha he never lost sight of) and smiled happily.

"That's delightful music!" said he.

"It means that Anna Makarovna has finished her stocking," said Countess Mary.

"Oh, I'll go and see," said Pierre, jumping up. "You know," he added, stopping at the door, "why I'm especially fond of that music? It is always the first thing that tells
me all is well. When I was driving here today, the nearer I got to the house the more anxious I grew. As I entered the anteroom I heard Andrusha's peals of laughter
and that meant that all was well."

"I know! I know that feeling," said Nicholas. "But I mustn't go there-those stockings are to be a surprise for me."

Pierre went to the children, and the shouting and laughter grew still louder.

"Come, Anna Makarovna," Pierre's voice was heard saying, "come here into the middle of the room and at the word of command, 'One, two,' and when I say 'three'...
You stand here, and you in my arms-well now! One, two!..." said Pierre, and a silence followed: "three!" and a rapturously breathless cry of children's voices filled the
room. "Two, two!" they shouted.

This meant two stockings, which by a secret process known only to herself Anna Makarovna used to knit at the same time on the same needles, and which, when they
were ready, she always triumphantly drew, one out of the other, in the children's presence.

Chapter XIV

Soon after this the children came in to say good night. They kissed everyone, the tutors and governesses made their bows, and they went out. Only young Nicholas and
his tutor remained. Dessalles whispered to the boy to come downstairs.

"No, Monsieur Dessalles, I will ask my aunt to let me stay," replied Nicholas Bolkonski also in a whisper.

"Ma tante, please let me stay," said he, going up to his aunt.

His face expressed entreaty, agitation, and ecstasy. Countess Mary glanced at him and turned to Pierre.

"When you are here he can't tear himself away," she said.

"I will bring him to you directly, Monsieur Dessalles. Good night!" said Pierre, giving his hand to the Swiss tutor, and he turned to young Nicholas with a smile. "You
and I haven't seen anything of one another yet... How like he is growing, Mary!" he added, addressing Countess Mary.

"Like my father?" asked the boy, flushing crimson and looking up at Pierre with bright, ecstatic eyes.

Pierre nodded, and went on with what he had been saying when the children had interrupted. Countess Mary sat down doing woolwork; Natasha did not take her eyes
off her husband. Nicholas and Denisov rose, asked for their pipes, smoked, went to fetch more tea from Sonya-who sat weary but resolute at the samovar-and
questioned Pierre. The curly-headed, delicate boy sat with shining eyes unnoticed in a corner, starting every now and then and muttering something to himself, and
evidently experiencing a new and powerful emotion as he turned his curly head, with his thin neck exposed by his turn-down collar, toward the place where Pierre sat.

The conversation turned on the contemporary gossip about those in power, in which most people see the chief interest of home politics. Denisov, dissatisfied with the
government on account of his own disappointments in the service, heard with pleasure of the things done in Petersburg which seemed to him stupid, and made forcible
and sharp comments on what Pierre told them.

"One used to have to be a German-now one must dance with Tatawinova and Madame Kwudener, and wead Ecka'tshausen and the bwethwen. Oh, they should let
that fine fellow Bonaparte lose-he'd knock all this nonsense out of them! Fancy giving the command of the Semenov wegiment to a fellow like that Schwa'tz!" he cried.

Nicholas, though free from Denisov's readiness to find fault with everything, also thought that discussion of the government was a very serious and weighty matter, and
the fact that A had been appointed Minister of This and B Governor General of That, and that the Emperor had said so-and-so and this minister so-and-so, seemed to
him very important. And so he thought it necessary to take an interest in these things and to question Pierre. The questions put by these two kept the conversation from
changing its ordinary character of gossip about the higher government circles.

But Natasha, knowing all her husband's ways and ideas, saw that he had long been wishing but had been unable to divert the conversation to another channel and
express his own deeply felt idea for the sake of which he had gone to Petersburg to consult with his new friend Prince Theodore, and she helped him by asking how his
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affairs with (c) 2005-2009,
             Prince TheodoreInfobase
                              had gone.Media Corp.                                                                                               Page 548 / 567

"What was it about?" asked Nicholas.
changing its ordinary character of gossip about the higher government circles.

But Natasha, knowing all her husband's ways and ideas, saw that he had long been wishing but had been unable to divert the conversation to another channel and
express his own deeply felt idea for the sake of which he had gone to Petersburg to consult with his new friend Prince Theodore, and she helped him by asking how his
affairs with Prince Theodore had gone.

"What was it about?" asked Nicholas.

"Always the same thing," said Pierre, looking round at his listeners. "Everybody sees that things are going so badly that they cannot be allowed to go on so and that it is
the duty of all decent men to counteract it as far as they can."

"What can decent men do?" Nicholas inquired, frowning slightly. "What can be done?"

"Why, this..."

"Come into my study," said Nicholas.

Natasha, who had long expected to be fetched to nurse her baby, now heard the nurse calling her and went to the nursery. Countess Mary followed her. The men went
into the study and little Nicholas Bolkonski followed them unnoticed by his uncle and sat down at the writing table in a shady corner by the window.

"Well, what would you do?" asked Denisov.

"Always some fantastic schemes," said Nicholas.

"Why this," began Pierre, not sitting down but pacing the room, sometimes stopping short, gesticulating, and lisping: "the position in Petersburg is this: the Emperor does
not look into anything. He has abandoned himself altogether to this mysticism" (Pierre could not tolerate mysticism in anyone now). "He seeks only for peace, and only
these people sans foi ni loi can give it him-people who recklessly hack at and strangle everything-Magnitski, Arakcheev, and tutti quanti.... You will agree that if you did
not look after your estates yourself but only wanted a quiet life, the harsher your steward was the more readily your object might be attained," he said to Nicholas.

"Well, what does that lead up to?" said Nicholas.

"Well, everything is going to ruin! Robbery in the law courts, in the army nothing but flogging, drilling, and Military Settlements; the people are tortured, enlightenment is
suppressed. All that is young and honest is crushed! Everyone sees that this cannot go on. Everything is strained to such a degree that it will certainly break," said Pierre
(as those who examine the actions of any government have always said since governments began). "I told them just one thing in Petersburg."

"Told whom?"

"Well, you know whom," said Pierre, with a meaning glance from under his brows. "Prince Theodore and all those. To encourage culture and philanthropy is all very
well of course. The aim is excellent but in the present circumstances something else is needed."

At that moment Nicholas noticed the presence of his nephew. His face darkened and he went up to the boy.

"Why are you here?"

"Why? Let him be," said Pierre, taking Nicholas by the arm and continuing. "That is not enough, I told them. Something else is needed. When you stand expecting the
overstrained string to snap at any moment, when everyone is expecting the inevitable catastrophe, as many as possible must join hands as closely as they can to
withstand the general calamity. Everything that is young and strong is being enticed away and depraved. One is lured by women, another by honors, a third by ambition
or money, and they go over to that camp. No independent men, such as you or I, are left. What I say is widen the scope of our society, let the mot d'ordre be not
virtue alone but independence and action as well!"

Nicholas, who had left his nephew, irritably pushed up an armchair, sat down in it, and listened to Pierre, coughing discontentedly and frowning more and more.

"But action with what aim?" he cried. "And what position will you adopt toward the government?"

"Why, the position of assistants. The society need not be secret if the government allows it. Not merely is it not hostile to government, but it is a society of true
conservatives-a society of gentlemen in the full meaning of that word. It is only to prevent some Pugachev or other from killing my children and yours, and Arakcheev
from sending me off to some Military Settlement. We join hands only for the public welfare and the general safety."

"Yes, but it's a secret society and therefore a hostile and harmful one which can only cause harm."

"Why? Did the Tugendbund which saved Europe" (they did not then venture to suggest that Russia had saved Europe) "do any harm? The Tugendbund is an alliance of
virtue: it is love, mutual help... it is what Christ preached on the Cross."

Natasha, who had come in during the conversation, looked joyfully at her husband. It was not what he was saying that pleased her-that did not even interest her, for it
seemed to her that was all extremely simple and that she had known it a long time (it seemed so to her because she knew that it sprang from Pierre's whole soul), but it
was his animated and enthusiastic appearance that made her glad.

The boy with the thin neck stretching out from the turn-down collar-whom everyone had forgotten-gazed at Pierre with even greater and more rapturous joy. Every
word of Pierre's burned into his heart, and with a nervous movement of his fingers he unconsciously broke the sealing wax and quill pens his hands came upon on his
uncle's table.

"It is not at all what you suppose; but that is what the German Tugendbund was, and what I am proposing."

"No, my fwiend! The Tugendbund is all vewy well for the sausage eaters, but I don't understand it and can't even pwonounce it," interposed Denisov in a loud and
resolute voice. "I agwee that evewything here is wotten and howwible, but the Tugendbund I don't understand. If we're not satisfied, let us have a bunt of our own.
That's all wight. Je suis vot'e homme!"

"ICopyright
   will tell you
              (c) this," he said, Infobase
                   2005-2009,     rising andMedia
                                            trying with
                                                   Corp.nervously twitching fingers to prop up his pipe in a corner, but finally abandoning the attempt. "I Page
                                                                                                                                                            can't prove
                                                                                                                                                                     549it to you.
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You say that everything here is rotten and that an overthrow is coming: I don't see it. But you also say that our oath of allegiance is a conditional matter, and to that I
reply: 'You are my best friend, as you know, but if you formed a secret society and began working against the government-be it what it may-I know it is my duty to
obey the government. And if Arakcheev ordered me to lead a squadron against you and cut you down, I should not hesitate an instant, but should do it.' And you may
"No, my fwiend! The Tugendbund is all vewy well for the sausage eaters, but I don't understand it and can't even pwonounce it," interposed Denisov in a loud and
resolute voice. "I agwee that evewything here is wotten and howwible, but the Tugendbund I don't understand. If we're not satisfied, let us have a bunt of our own.
That's all wight. Je suis vot'e homme!"

"I will tell you this," he said, rising and trying with nervously twitching fingers to prop up his pipe in a corner, but finally abandoning the attempt. "I can't prove it to you.
You say that everything here is rotten and that an overthrow is coming: I don't see it. But you also say that our oath of allegiance is a conditional matter, and to that I
reply: 'You are my best friend, as you know, but if you formed a secret society and began working against the government-be it what it may-I know it is my duty to
obey the government. And if Arakcheev ordered me to lead a squadron against you and cut you down, I should not hesitate an instant, but should do it.' And you may
argue about that as you like!"

An awkward silence followed these words. Natasha was the first to speak, defending her husband and attacking her brother. Her defense was weak and inapt but she
attained her object. The conversation was resumed, and no longer in the unpleasantly hostile tone of Nicholas' last remark.

When they all got up to go in to supper, little Nicholas Bolkonski went up to Pierre, pale and with shining, radiant eyes.

"Uncle Pierre, you... no... If Papa were alive... would he agree with you?" he asked.

And Pierre suddenly realized what a special, independent, complex, and powerful process of thought and feeling must have been going on in this boy during that
conversation, and remembering all he had said he regretted that the lad should have heard him. He had, however, to give him an answer.

"Yes, I think so," he said reluctantly, and left the study.

The lad looked down and seemed now for the first time to notice what he had done to the things on the table. He flushed and went up to Nicholas.

"Uncle, forgive me, I did that... unintentionally," he said, pointing to the broken sealing wax and pens.

Nicholas started angrily.

"All right, all right," he said, throwing the bits under the table.

And evidently suppressing his vexation with difficulty, he turned away from the boy.

"You ought not to have been here at all," he said.

Chapter XV

The conversation at supper was not about politics or societies, but turned on the subject Nicholas liked best-recollections of 1812. Denisov started these and Pierre
was particularly agreeable and amusing about them. The family separated on the most friendly terms.

After supper Nicholas, having undressed in his study and given instructions to the steward who had been waiting for him, went to the bedroom in his dressing gown,
where he found his wife still at her table, writing.

"What are you writing, Mary?" Nicholas asked.

Countess Mary blushed. She was afraid that what she was writing would not be understood or approved by her husband.

She had wanted to conceal what she was writing from him, but at the same time was glad he had surprised her at it and that she would now have to tell him.

"A diary, Nicholas," she replied, handing him a blue exercise book filled with her firm, bold writing.

"A diary?" Nicholas repeated with a shade of irony, and he took up the book.

It was in French.

December 4. Today when Andrusha (her eldest boy) woke up he did not wish to dress and Mademoiselle Louise sent for me. He was naughty and obstinate. I tried
threats, but he only grew angrier. Then I took the matter in hand: I left him alone and began with nurse's help to get the other children up, telling him that I did not love
him. For a long time he was silent, as if astonished, then he jumped out of bed, ran to me in his shirt, and sobbed so that I could not calm him for a long time. It was
plain that what troubled him most was that he had grieved me. Afterwards in the evening when I gave him his ticket, he again began crying piteously and kissing me.
One can do anything with him by tenderness.

"What is a 'ticket'?" Nicholas inquired.

"I have begun giving the elder ones marks every evening, showing how they have behaved."

Nicholas looked into the radiant eyes that were gazing at him, and continued to turn over the pages and read. In the diary was set down everything in the children's lives
that seemed noteworthy to their mother as showing their characters or suggesting general reflections on educational methods. They were for the most part quite
insignificant trifles, but did not seem so to the mother or to the father either, now that he read this diary about his children for the first time.

Under the date "5" was entered:

Mitya was naughty at table. Papa said he was to have no pudding. He had none, but looked so unhappily and greedily at the others while they were eating! I think that
punishment by depriving children of sweets only develops their greediness. Must tell Nicholas this.

Nicholas put down the book and looked at his wife. The radiant eyes gazed at him questioningly: would he approve or disapprove of her diary? There could be no
doubt not only of his approval but also of his admiration for his wife.

Perhaps it need not be done so pedantically, thought Nicholas, or even done at all, but this untiring, continual spiritual effort of which the sole aim was the children's
 Copyright
moral       (c)delighted
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                         him.Infobase    Mediabeen
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                                                   able to analyze his feelings he would have found that his steady, tender, and proud love of his wifePage     550
                                                                                                                                                         rested on his/feeling
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of wonder at her spirituality and at the lofty moral world, almost beyond his reach, in which she had her being.
doubt not only of his approval but also of his admiration for his wife.

Perhaps it need not be done so pedantically, thought Nicholas, or even done at all, but this untiring, continual spiritual effort of which the sole aim was the children's
moral welfare delighted him. Had Nicholas been able to analyze his feelings he would have found that his steady, tender, and proud love of his wife rested on his feeling
of wonder at her spirituality and at the lofty moral world, almost beyond his reach, in which she had her being.

He was proud of her intelligence and goodness, recognized his own insignificance beside her in the spiritual world, and rejoiced all the more that she with such a soul
not only belonged to him but was part of himself.

"I quite, quite approve, my dearest!" said he with a significant look, and after a short pause he added: "And I behaved badly today. You weren't in the study. We began
disputing-Pierre and I-and I lost my temper. But he is impossible: such a child! I don't know what would become of him if Natasha didn't keep him in hand.... Have you
any idea why he went to Petersburg? They have formed..."

"Yes, I know," said Countess Mary. "Natasha told me."

"Well, then, you know," Nicholas went on, growing hot at the mere recollection of their discussion, "he wanted to convince me that it is every honest man's duty to go
against the government, and that the oath of allegiance and duty... I am sorry you weren't there. They all fell on me-Denisov and Natasha... Natasha is absurd. How she
rules over him! And yet there need only be a discussion and she has no words of her own but only repeats his sayings..." added Nicholas, yielding to that irresistible
inclination which tempts us to judge those nearest and dearest to us. He forgot that what he was saying about Natasha could have been applied word for word to
himself in relation to his wife.

"Yes, I have noticed that," said Countess Mary.

"When I told him that duty and the oath were above everything, he started proving goodness knows what! A pity you were not there-what would you have said?"

"As I see it you were quite right, and I told Natasha so. Pierre says everybody is suffering, tortured, and being corrupted, and that it is our duty to help our neighbor. Of
course he is right there," said Countess Mary, "but he forgets that we have other duties nearer to us, duties indicated to us by God Himself, and that though we might
expose ourselves to risks we must not risk our children."

"Yes, that's it! That's just what I said to him," put in Nicholas, who fancied he really had said it. "But they insisted on their own view: love of one's neighbor and
Christianity-and all this in the presence of young Nicholas, who had gone into my study and broke all my things."

"Ah, Nicholas, do you know I am often troubled about little Nicholas," said Countess Mary. "He is such an exceptional boy. I am afraid I neglect him in favor of my
own: we all have children and relations while he has no one. He is constantly alone with his thoughts."

"Well, I don't think you need reproach yourself on his account. All that the fondest mother could do for her son you have done and are doing for him, and of course I
am glad of it. He is a fine lad, a fine lad! This evening he listened to Pierre in a sort of trance, and fancy-as we were going in to supper I looked and he had broken
everything on my table to bits, and he told me of it himself at once! I never knew him to tell an untruth. A fine lad, a fine lad!" repeated Nicholas, who at heart was not
fond of Nicholas Bolkonski but was always anxious to recognize that he was a fine lad.

"Still, I am not the same as his own mother," said Countess Mary. "I feel I am not the same and it troubles me. A wonderful boy, but I am dreadfully afraid for him. It
would be good for him to have companions."

"Well it won't be for long. Next summer I'll take him to Petersburg," said Nicholas. "Yes, Pierre always was a dreamer and always will be," he continued, returning to
the talk in the study which had evidently disturbed him. "Well, what business is it of mine what goes on there-whether Arakcheev is bad, and all that? What business
was it of mine when I married and was so deep in debt that I was threatened with prison, and had a mother who could not see or understand it? And then there are you
and the children and our affairs. Is it for my own pleasure that I am at the farm or in the office from morning to night? No, but I know I must work to comfort my
mother, to repay you, and not to leave the children such beggars as I was."

Countess Mary wanted to tell him that man does not live by bread alone and that he attached too much importance to these matters. But she knew she must not say this
and that it would be useless to do so. She only took his hand and kissed it. He took this as a sign of approval and a confirmation of his thoughts, and after a few
minutes' reflection continued to think aloud.

"You know, Mary, today Elias Mitrofanych" (this was his overseer) "came back from the Tambov estate and told me they are already offering eighty thousand rubles
for the forest."

And with an eager face Nicholas began to speak of the possibility of repurchasing Otradnoe before long, and added: "Another ten years of life and I shall leave the
children... in an excellent position."

Countess Mary listened to her husband and understood all that he told her. She knew that when he thought aloud in this way he would sometimes ask her what he had
been saying, and be vexed if he noticed that she had been thinking about something else. But she had to force herself to attend, for what he was saying did not interest
her at all. She looked at him and did not think, but felt, about something different. She felt a submissive tender love for this man who would never understand all that she
understood, and this seemed to make her love for him still stronger and added a touch of passionate tenderness. Besides this feeling which absorbed her altogether and
hindered her from following the details of her husband's plans, thoughts that had no connection with what he was saying flitted through her mind. She thought of her
nephew. Her husband's account of the boy's agitation while Pierre was speaking struck her forcibly, and various traits of his gentle, sensitive character recurred to her
mind; and while thinking of her nephew she thought also of her own children. She did not compare them with him, but compared her feeling for them with her feeling for
him, and felt with regret that there was something lacking in her feeling for young Nicholas.

Sometimes it seemed to her that this difference arose from the difference in their ages, but she felt herself to blame toward him and promised in her heart to do better
and to accomplish the impossible-in this life to love her husband, her children, little Nicholas, and all her neighbors, as Christ loved mankind. Countess Mary's soul
always strove toward the infinite, the eternal, and the absolute, and could therefore never be at peace. A stern expression of the lofty, secret suffering of a soul
burdened by the body appeared on her face. Nicholas gazed at her. "O God! What will become of us if she dies, as I always fear when her face is like that?" thought
he, and placing himself before the icon he began to say his evening prayers.

Chapter XVI

Natasha  and(c)
 Copyright    Pierre, left alone,
                2005-2009,        also began
                               Infobase      to talk
                                         Media       as only a husband and wife can talk, that is, with extraordinary clearness and rapidity, understanding and expressing
                                                 Corp.                                                                                                  Page 551 / 567
each other's thoughts in ways contrary to all rules of logic, without premises, deductions, or conclusions, and in a quite peculiar way. Natasha was so used to this kind
of talk with her husband that for her it was the surest sign of something being wrong between them if Pierre followed a line of logical reasoning. When he began proving
anything, or talking argumentatively and calmly and she, led on by his example, began to do the same, she knew that they were on the verge of a quarrel.
Chapter XVI

Natasha and Pierre, left alone, also began to talk as only a husband and wife can talk, that is, with extraordinary clearness and rapidity, understanding and expressing
each other's thoughts in ways contrary to all rules of logic, without premises, deductions, or conclusions, and in a quite peculiar way. Natasha was so used to this kind
of talk with her husband that for her it was the surest sign of something being wrong between them if Pierre followed a line of logical reasoning. When he began proving
anything, or talking argumentatively and calmly and she, led on by his example, began to do the same, she knew that they were on the verge of a quarrel.

From the moment they were alone and Natasha came up to him with wide-open happy eyes, and quickly seizing his head pressed it to her bosom, saying: "Now you
are all mine, mine! You won't escape!"-from that moment this conversation began, contrary to all the laws of logic and contrary to them because quite different subjects
were talked about at one and the same time. This simultaneous discussion of many topics did not prevent a clear understanding but on the contrary was the surest sign
that they fully understood one another.

Just as in a dream when all is uncertain, unreasoning, and contradictory, except the feeling that guides the dream, so in this intercourse contrary to all laws of reason, the
words themselves were not consecutive and clear but only the feeling that prompted them.

Natasha spoke to Pierre about her brother's life and doings, of how she had suffered and lacked life during his own absence, and of how she was fonder than ever of
Mary, and how Mary was in every way better than herself. In saying this Natasha was sincere in acknowledging Mary's superiority, but at the same time by saying it
she made a demand on Pierre that he should, all the same, prefer her to Mary and to all other women, and that now, especially after having seen many women in
Petersburg, he should tell her so afresh.

Pierre, answering Natasha's words, told her how intolerable it had been for him to meet ladies at dinners and balls in Petersburg.

"I have quite lost the knack of talking to ladies," he said. "It was simply dull. Besides, I was very busy."

Natasha looked intently at him and went on:

"Mary is so splendid," she said. "How she understands children! It is as if she saw straight into their souls. Yesterday, for instance, Mitya was naughty..."

"How like his father he is," Pierre interjected.

Natasha knew why he mentioned Mitya's likeness to Nicholas: the recollection of his dispute with his brother-in-law was unpleasant and he wanted to know what
Natasha thought of it.

"Nicholas has the weakness of never agreeing with anything not generally accepted. But I understand that you value what opens up a fresh line," said she, repeating
words Pierre had once uttered.

"No, the chief point is that to Nicholas ideas and discussions are an amusement-almost a pastime," said Pierre. "For instance, he is collecting a library and has made it a
rule not to buy a new book till he has read what he had already bought-Sismondi and Rousseau and Montesquieu," he added with a smile. "You know how much I..."
he began to soften down what he had said; but Natasha interrupted him to show that this was unnecessary.

"So you say ideas are an amusement to him...."

"Yes, and for me nothing else is serious. All the time in Petersburg I saw everyone as in a dream. When I am taken up by a thought, all else is mere amusement."

"Ah, I'm so sorry I wasn't there when you met the children," said Natasha. "Which was most delighted? Lisa, I'm sure."

"Yes," Pierre replied, and went on with what was in his mind. "Nicholas says we ought not to think. But I can't help it. Besides, when I was in Petersburg I felt (I can
this to you) that the whole affair would go to pieces without me-everyone was pulling his own way. But I succeeded in uniting them all; and then my idea is so clear and
simple. You see, I don't say that we ought to oppose this and that. We may be mistaken. What I say is: 'Join hands, you who love the right, and let there be but one
banner-that of active virtue.' Prince Sergey is a fine fellow and clever."

Natasha would have had no doubt as to the greatness of Pierre's idea, but one thing disconcerted her. "Can a man so important and necessary to society be also my
husband? How did this happen?" She wished to express this doubt to him. "Now who could decide whether he is really cleverer than all the others?" she asked herself,
and passed in review all those whom Pierre most respected. Judging by what he had said there was no one he had respected so highly as Platon Karataev.

"Do you know what I am thinking about?" she asked. "About Platon Karataev. Would he have approved of you now, do you think?"

Pierre was not at all surprised at this question. He understood his wife's line of thought.

"Platon Karataev?" he repeated, and pondered, evidently sincerely trying to imagine Karataev's opinion on the subject. "He would not have understood... yet perhaps
he would."

"I love you awfully!" Natasha suddenly said. "Awfully, awfully!"

"No, he would not have approved," said Pierre, after reflection. "What he would have approved of is our family life. He was always so anxious to find seemliness,
happiness, and peace in everything, and I should have been proud to let him see us. There now-you talk of my absence, but you wouldn't believe what a special feeling
I have for you after a separation...."

"Yes, I should think..." Natasha began.

"No, it's not that. I never leave off loving you. And one couldn't love more, but this is something special.... Yes, of course-" he did not finish because their eyes meeting
said the rest.

"What nonsense it is," Natasha suddenly exclaimed, "about honeymoons, and that the greatest happiness is at first! On the contrary, now is the best of all. If only you
did not go away! Do you remember how we quarreled? And it was always my fault. Always mine. And what we quarreled about-I don't even remember!"

"Always about
 Copyright     the same thing,"
           (c) 2005-2009,       said Pierre
                            Infobase   Mediawith a smile. "Jealo..."
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"Don't say it! I can't bear it!" Natasha cried, and her eyes glittered coldly and vindictively. "Did you see her?" she added, after a pause.
"What nonsense it is," Natasha suddenly exclaimed, "about honeymoons, and that the greatest happiness is at first! On the contrary, now is the best of all. If only you
did not go away! Do you remember how we quarreled? And it was always my fault. Always mine. And what we quarreled about-I don't even remember!"

"Always about the same thing," said Pierre with a smile. "Jealo..."

"Don't say it! I can't bear it!" Natasha cried, and her eyes glittered coldly and vindictively. "Did you see her?" she added, after a pause.

"No, and if I had I shouldn't have recognized her."

They were silent for a while.

"Oh, do you know? While you were talking in the study I was looking at you," Natasha began, evidently anxious to disperse the cloud that had come over them. "You
are as like him as two peas-like the boy." (She meant her little son.) "Oh, it's time to go to him.... The milk's come.... But I'm sorry to leave you."

They were silent for a few seconds. Then suddenly turning to one another at the same time they both began to speak. Pierre began with self-satisfaction and enthusiasm,
Natasha with a quiet, happy smile. Having interrupted one another they both stopped to let the other continue.

"No. What did you say? Go on, go on."

"No, you go on, I was talking nonsense," said Natasha.

Pierre finished what he had begun. It was the sequel to his complacent reflections on his success in Petersburg. At that moment it seemed to him that he was chosen to
give a new direction to the whole of Russian society and to the whole world.

"I only wished to say that ideas that have great results are always simple ones. My whole idea is that if vicious people are united and constitute a power, then honest
folk must do the same. Now that's simple enough."

"Yes."

"And what were you going to say?"

"I? Only nonsense."

"But all the same?"

"Oh nothing, only a trifle," said Natasha, smilingly still more brightly. "I only wanted to tell you about Petya: today nurse was coming to take him from me, and he
laughed, shut his eyes, and clung to me. I'm sure he thought he was hiding. Awfully sweet! There, now he's crying. Well, good-by!" and she left the room.

Meanwhile downstairs in young Nicholas Bolkonski's bedroom a little lamp was burning as usual. (The boy was afraid of the dark and they could not cure him of it.)
Dessalles slept propped up on four pillows and his Roman nose emitted sounds of rhythmic snoring. Little Nicholas, who had just waked up in a cold perspiration, sat
up in bed and gazed before him with wide-open eyes. He had awaked from a terrible dream. He had dreamed that he and Uncle Pierre, wearing helmets such as were
depicted in his Plutarch, were leading a huge army. The army was made up of white slanting lines that filled the air like the cobwebs that float about in autumn and which
Dessalles called les fils de la Vierge. In front was Glory, which was similar to those threads but rather thicker. He and Pierre were borne along lightly and joyously,
nearer and nearer to their goal. Suddenly the threads that moved them began to slacken and become entangled and it grew difficult to move. And Uncle Nicholas stood
before them in a stern and threatening attitude.

"Have you done this?" he said, pointing to some broken sealing wax and pens. "I loved you, but I have orders from Arakcheev and will kill the first of you who moves
forward." Little Nicholas turned to look at Pierre but Pierre was no longer there. In his place was his father-Prince Andrew-and his father had neither shape nor form,
but he existed, and when little Nicholas perceived him he grew faint with love: he felt himself powerless, limp, and formless. His father caressed and pitied him. But
Uncle Nicholas came nearer and nearer to them. Terror seized young Nicholas and he awoke.

"My father!" he thought. (Though there were two good portraits of Prince Andrew in the house, Nicholas never imagined him in human form.) "My father has been with
me and caressed me. He approved of me and of Uncle Pierre. Whatever he may tell me, I will do it. Mucius Scaevola burned his hand. Why should not the same sort
of thing happen to me? I know they want me to learn. And I will learn. But someday I shall have finished learning, and then I will do something. I only pray God that
something may happen to me such as happened to Plutarch's men, and I will act as they did. I will do better. Everyone shall know me, love me, and be delighted with
me!" And suddenly his bosom heaved with sobs and he began to cry.

"Are you ill?" he heard Dessalles' voice asking.

"No," answered Nicholas, and lay back on his pillow.

"He is good and kind and I am fond of him!" he thought of Dessalles. "But Uncle Pierre! Oh, what a wonderful man he is! And my father? Oh, Father, Father! Yes, I
will do something with which even he would be satisfied...."

Second Epilogue
Chapter I

History is the life of nations and of humanity. To seize and put into words, to describe directly the life of humanity or even of a single nation, appears impossible.

The ancient historians all employed one and the same method to describe and seize the apparently elusive-the life of a people. They described the activity of individuals
who ruled the people, and regarded the activity of those men as representing the activity of the whole nation.

The question: how did individuals make nations act as they wished and by what was the will of these individuals themselves guided? the ancients met by recognizing a
divinity which subjected the nations to the will of a chosen man, and guided the will of that chosen man so as to accomplish ends that were predestined.
 Copyright (c) 2005-2009, Infobase Media Corp.                                                                                                         Page 553 / 567
For the ancients these questions were solved by a belief in the direct participation of the Deity in human affairs.

Modern history, in theory, rejects both these principles.
The question: how did individuals make nations act as they wished and by what was the will of these individuals themselves guided? the ancients met by recognizing a
divinity which subjected the nations to the will of a chosen man, and guided the will of that chosen man so as to accomplish ends that were predestined.

For the ancients these questions were solved by a belief in the direct participation of the Deity in human affairs.

Modern history, in theory, rejects both these principles.

It would seem that having rejected the belief of the ancients in man's subjection to the Deity and in a predetermined aim toward which nations are led, modern history
should study not the manifestations of power but the causes that produce it. But modern history has not done this. Having in theory rejected the view held by the
ancients, it still follows them in practice.

Instead of men endowed with divine authority and directly guided by the will of God, modern history has given us either heroes endowed with extraordinary,
superhuman capacities, or simply men of very various kinds, from monarchs to journalists, who lead the masses. Instead of the former divinely appointed aims of the
Jewish, Greek, or Roman nations, which ancient historians regarded as representing the progress of humanity, modern history has postulated its own aims-the welfare
of the French, German, or English people, or, in its highest abstraction, the welfare and civilization of humanity in general, by which is usually meant that of the peoples
occupying a small northwesterly portion of a large continent.

Modern history has rejected the beliefs of the ancients without replacing them by a new conception, and the logic of the situation has obliged the historians, after they
had apparently rejected the divine authority of the kings and the "fate" of the ancients, to reach the same conclusion by another road, that is, to recognize (1) nations
guided by individual men, and (2) the existence of a known aim to which these nations and humanity at large are tending.

At the basis of the works of all the modern historians from Gibbon to Buckle, despite their seeming disagreements and the apparent novelty of their outlooks, lie those
two old, unavoidable assumptions.

In the first place the historian describes the activity of individuals who in his opinion have directed humanity (one historian considers only monarchs, generals, and
ministers as being such men, while another includes also orators, learned men, reformers, philosophers, and poets). Secondly, it is assumed that the goal toward which
humanity is being led is known to the historians: to one of them this goal is the greatness of the Roman, Spanish, or French realm; to another it is liberty, equality, and a
certain kind of civilization of a small corner of the world called Europe.

In 1789 a ferment arises in Paris; it grows, spreads, and is expressed by a movement of peoples from west to east. Several times it moves eastward and collides with a
countermovement from the east westward. In 1812 it reaches its extreme limit, Moscow, and then, with remarkable symmetry, a countermovement occurs from east to
west, attracting to it, as the first movement had done, the nations of middle Europe. The counter movement reaches the starting point of the first movement in the west-
Paris-and subsides.

During that twenty-year period an immense number of fields were left untilled, houses were burned, trade changed its direction, millions of men migrated, were
impoverished, or were enriched, and millions of Christian men professing the law of love of their fellows slew one another.

What does all this mean? Why did it happen? What made those people burn houses and slay their fellow men? What were the causes of these events? What force
made men act so? These are the instinctive, plain, and most legitimate questions humanity asks itself when it encounters the monuments and tradition of that period.

For a reply to these questions the common sense of mankind turns to the science of history, whose aim is to enable nations and humanity to know themselves.

If history had retained the conception of the ancients it would have said that God, to reward or punish his people, gave Napoleon power and directed his will to the
fulfillment of the divine ends, and that reply, would have been clear and complete. One might believe or disbelieve in the divine significance of Napoleon, but for anyone
believing in it there would have been nothing unintelligible in the history of that period, nor would there have been any contradictions.

But modern history cannot give that reply. Science does not admit the conception of the ancients as to the direct participation of the Deity in human affairs, and
therefore history ought to give other answers.

Modern history replying to these questions says: you want to know what this movement means, what caused it, and what force produced these events? Then listen:

"Louis XIV was a very proud and self-confident man; he had such and such mistresses and such and such ministers and he ruled France badly. His descendants were
weak men and they too ruled France badly. And they had such and such favorites and such and such mistresses. Moreover, certain men wrote some books at that
time. At the end of the eighteenth century there were a couple of dozen men in Paris who began to talk about all men being free and equal. This caused people all over
France to begin to slash at and drown one another. They killed the king and many other people. At that time there was in France a man of genius-Napoleon. He
conquered everybody everywhere-that is, he killed many people because he was a great genius. And for some reason he went to kill Africans, and killed them so well
and was so cunning and wise that when he returned to France he ordered everybody to obey him, and they all obeyed him. Having become an Emperor he again went
out to kill people in Italy, Austria, and Prussia. And there too he killed a great many. In Russia there was an Emperor, Alexander, who decided to restore order in
Europe and therefore fought against Napoleon. In 1807 he suddenly made friends with him, but in 1811 they again quarreled and again began killing many people.
Napoleon led six hundred thousand men into Russia and captured Moscow; then he suddenly ran away from Moscow, and the Emperor Alexander, helped by the
advice of Stein and others, united Europe to arm against the disturber of its peace. All Napoleon's allies suddenly became his enemies and their forces advanced against
the fresh forces he raised. The Allies defeated Napoleon, entered Paris, forced Napoleon to abdicate, and sent him to the island of Elba, not depriving him of the title of
Emperor and showing him every respect, though five years before and one year later they all regarded him as an outlaw and a brigand. Then Louis XVIII, who till then
had been the laughingstock both of the French and the Allies, began to reign. And Napoleon, shedding tears before his Old Guards, renounced the throne and went
into exile. Then the skillful statesmen and diplomatists (especially Talleyrand, who managed to sit down in a particular chair before anyone else and thereby extended
the frontiers of France) talked in Vienna and by these conversations made the nations happy or unhappy. Suddenly the diplomatists and monarchs nearly quarreled and
were on the point of again ordering their armies to kill one another, but just then Napoleon arrived in France with a battalion, and the French, who had been hating him,
immediately all submitted to him. But the Allied monarchs were angry at this and went to fight the French once more. And they defeated the genius Napoleon and,
suddenly recognizing him as a brigand, sent him to the island of St. Helena. And the exile, separated from the beloved France so dear to his heart, died a lingering death
on that rock and bequeathed his great deeds to posterity. But in Europe a reaction occurred and the sovereigns once again all began to oppress their subjects."

It would be a mistake to think that this is ironic-a caricature of the historical accounts. On the contrary it is a very mild expression of the contradictory replies, not
meeting the questions, which all the historians give, from the compilers of memoirs and the histories of separate states to the writers of general histories and the new
histories of the culture of that period.

The strangeness and absurdity of these replies arise from the fact that modern history, like a deaf man, answers questions no one has asked.
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If the purpose of history be to give a description of the movement of humanity and of the peoples, the first question-in the absence of a reply to which all the rest will be
incomprehensible-is: what is the power that moves peoples? To this, modern history laboriously replies either that Napoleon was a great genius, or that Louis XIV was
very proud, or that certain writers wrote certain books.
histories of the culture of that period.

The strangeness and absurdity of these replies arise from the fact that modern history, like a deaf man, answers questions no one has asked.

If the purpose of history be to give a description of the movement of humanity and of the peoples, the first question-in the absence of a reply to which all the rest will be
incomprehensible-is: what is the power that moves peoples? To this, modern history laboriously replies either that Napoleon was a great genius, or that Louis XIV was
very proud, or that certain writers wrote certain books.

All that may be so and mankind is ready to agree with it, but it is not what was asked. All that would be interesting if we recognized a divine power based on itself and
always consistently directing its nations through Napoleons, Louis-es, and writers; but we do not acknowledge such a power, and therefore before speaking about
Napoleons, Louis-es, and authors, we ought to be shown the connection existing between these men and the movement of the nations.

If instead of a divine power some other force has appeared, it should be explained in what this new force consists, for the whole interest of history lies precisely in that
force.

History seems to assume that this force is self-evident and known to everyone. But in spite of every desire to regard it as known, anyone reading many historical works
cannot help doubting whether this new force, so variously understood by the historians themselves, is really quite well known to everybody.

Chapter II

What force moves the nations?

Biographical historians and historians of separate nations understand this force as a power inherent in heroes and rulers. In their narration events occur solely by the will
of a Napoleon, and Alexander, or in general of the persons they describe. The answers given by this kind of historian to the question of what force causes events to
happen are satisfactory only as long as there is but one historian to each event. As soon as historians of different nationalities and tendencies begin to describe the same
event, the replies they give immediately lose all meaning, for this force is understood by them all not only differently but often in quite contradictory ways. One historian
says that an event was produced by Napoleon's power, another that it was produced by Alexander's, a third that it was due to the power of some other person.
Besides this, historians of that kind contradict each other even in their statement as to the force on which the authority of some particular person was based. Thiers, a
Bonapartist, says that Napoleon's power was based on his virtue and genius. Lanfrey, a Republican, says it was based on his trickery and deception of the people. So
the historians of this class, by mutually destroying one another's positions, destroy the understanding of the force which produces events, and furnish no reply to
history's essential question.

Writers of universal history who deal with all the nations seem to recognize how erroneous is the specialist historians' view of the force which produces events. They do
not recognize it as a power inherent in heroes and rulers, but as the resultant of a multiplicity of variously directed forces. In describing a war or the subjugation of a
people, a general historian looks for the cause of the event not in the power of one man, but in the interaction of many persons connected with the event.

According to this view the power of historical personages, represented as the product of many forces, can no longer, it would seem, be regarded as a force that itself
produces events. Yet in most cases universal historians still employ the conception of power as a force that itself produces events, and treat it as their cause. In their
exposition, an historic character is first the product of his time, and his power only the resultant of various forces, and then his power is itself a force producing events.
Gervinus, Schlosser, and others, for instance, at one time prove Napoleon to be a product of the Revolution, of the ideas of 1789 and so forth, and at another plainly
say that the campaign of 1812 and other things they do not like were simply the product of Napoleon's misdirected will, and that the very ideas of 1789 were arrested
in their development by Napoleon's caprice. The ideas of the Revolution and the general temper of the age produced Napoleon's power. But Napoleon's power
suppressed the ideas of the Revolution and the general temper of the age.

This curious contradiction is not accidental. Not only does it occur at every step, but the universal historians' accounts are all made up of a chain of such contradictions.
This contradiction occurs because after entering the field of analysis the universal historians stop halfway.

To find component forces equal to the composite or resultant force, the sum of the components must equal the resultant. This condition is never observed by the
universal historians, and so to explain the resultant forces they are obliged to admit, in addition to the insufficient components, another unexplained force affecting the
resultant action.

Specialist historians describing the campaign of 1813 or the restoration of the Bourbons plainly assert that these events were produced by the will of Alexander. But the
universal historian Gervinus, refuting this opinion of the specialist historian, tries to prove that the campaign of 1813 and the restoration of the Bourbons were due to
other things beside Alexander's will-such as the activity of Stein, Metternich, Madame de Stael, Talleyrand, Fichte Chateaubriand, and others. The historian evidently
decomposes Alexander's power into the components: Talleyrand, Chateaubriand, and the rest-but the sum of the components, that is, the interactions of
Chateaubriand, Talleyrand, Madame de Stael, and the others, evidently does not equal the resultant, namely the phenomenon of millions of Frenchmen submitting to the
Bourbons. That Chateaubriand, Madame de Stael, and others spoke certain words to one another only affected their mutual relations but does not account for the
submission of millions. And therefore to explain how from these relations of theirs the submission of millions of people resulted-that is, how component forces equal to
one A gave a resultant equal to a thousand times A-the historian is again obliged to fall back on power-the force he had denied-and to recognize it as the resultant of
the forces, that is, he has to admit an unexplained force acting on the resultant. And that is just what the universal historians do, and consequently they not only
contradict the specialist historians but contradict themselves.

Peasants having no clear idea of the cause of rain, say, according to whether they want rain or fine weather: "The wind has blown the clouds away," or, "The wind has
brought up the clouds." And in the same way the universal historians sometimes, when it pleases them and fits in with their theory, say that power is the result of events,
and sometimes, when they want to prove something else, say that power produces events.

A third class of historians-the so-called historians of culture-following the path laid down by the universal historians who sometimes accept writers and ladies as forces
producing events-again take that force to be something quite different. They see it in what is called culture-in mental activity.

The historians of culture are quite consistent in regard to their progenitors, the writers of universal histories, for if historical events may be explained by the fact that
certain persons treated one another in such and such ways, why not explain them by the fact that such and such people wrote such and such books? Of the immense
number of indications accompanying every vital phenomenon, these historians select the indication of intellectual activity and say that this indication is the cause. But
despite their endeavors to prove that the cause of events lies in intellectual activity, only by a great stretch can one admit that there is any connection between intellectual
activity and the movement of peoples, and in no case can one admit that intellectual activity controls people's actions, for that view is not confirmed by such facts as the
very cruel murders of the French Revolution resulting from the doctrine of the equality of man, or the very cruel wars and executions resulting from the preaching of
love.
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But even admitting as correct all the cunningly devised arguments with which these histories are filled-admitting that nations are governed by some Page    555
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                                                                                                                                                               force
called an idea-history's essential question still remains unanswered, and to the former power of monarchs and to the influence of advisers and other people introduced
by the universal historians, another, newer force-the idea-is added, the connection of which with the masses needs explanation. It is possible to understand that
activity and the movement of peoples, and in no case can one admit that intellectual activity controls people's actions, for that view is not confirmed by such facts as the
very cruel murders of the French Revolution resulting from the doctrine of the equality of man, or the very cruel wars and executions resulting from the preaching of
love.

But even admitting as correct all the cunningly devised arguments with which these histories are filled-admitting that nations are governed by some undefined force
called an idea-history's essential question still remains unanswered, and to the former power of monarchs and to the influence of advisers and other people introduced
by the universal historians, another, newer force-the idea-is added, the connection of which with the masses needs explanation. It is possible to understand that
Napoleon had power and so events occurred; with some effort one may even conceive that Napoleon together with other influences was the cause of an event; but
how a book, Le Contrat social, had the effect of making Frenchmen begin to drown one another cannot be understood without an explanation of the causal nexus of
this new force with the event.

Undoubtedly some relation exists between all who live contemporaneously, and so it is possible to find some connection between the intellectual activity of men and
their historical movements, just as such a connection may be found between the movements of humanity and commerce, handicraft, gardening, or anything else you
please. But why intellectual activity is considered by the historians of culture to be the cause or expression of the whole historical movement is hard to understand. Only
the following considerations can have led the historians to such a conclusion: (1) that history is written by learned men, and so it is natural and agreeable for them to
think that the activity of their class supplies the basis of the movement of all humanity, just as a similar belief is natural and agreeable to traders, agriculturists, and
soldiers (if they do not express it, that is merely because traders and soldiers do not write history), and (2) that spiritual activity, enlightenment, civilization, culture,
ideas, are all indistinct, indefinite conceptions under whose banner it is very easy to use words having a still less definite meaning, and which can therefore be readily
introduced into any theory.

But not to speak of the intrinsic quality of histories of this kind (which may possibly even be of use to someone for something) the histories of culture, to which all
general histories tend more and more to approximate, are significant from the fact that after seriously and minutely examining various religious, philosophic, and political
doctrines as causes of events, as soon as they have to describe an actual historic event such as the campaign of 1812 for instance, they involuntarily describe it as
resulting from an exercise of power-and say plainly that that was the result of Napoleon's will. Speaking so, the historians of culture involuntarily contradict themselves,
and show that the new force they have devised does not account for what happens in history, and that history can only be explained by introducing a power which they
apparently do not recognize.

Chapter III

A locomotive is moving. Someone asks: "What moves it?" A peasant says the devil moves it. Another man says the locomotive moves because its wheels go round. A
third asserts that the cause of its movement lies in the smoke which the wind carries away.

The peasant is irrefutable. He has devised a complete explanation. To refute him someone would have to prove to him that there is no devil, or another peasant would
have to explain to him that it is not the devil but a German, who moves the locomotive. Only then, as a result of the contradiction, will they see that they are both wrong.
But the man who says that the movement of the wheels is the cause refutes himself, for having once begun to analyze he ought to go on and explain further why the
wheels go round; and till he has reached the ultimate cause of the movement of the locomotive in the pressure of steam in the boiler, he has no right to stop in his search
for the cause. The man who explains the movement of the locomotive by the smoke that is carried back has noticed that the wheels do not supply an explanation and
has taken the first sign that occurs to him and in his turn has offered that as an explanation.

The only conception that can explain the movement of the locomotive is that of a force commensurate with the movement observed.

The only conception that can explain the movement of the peoples is that of some force commensurate with the whole movement of the peoples.

Yet to supply this conception various historians take forces of different kinds, all of which are incommensurate with the movement observed. Some see it as a force
directly inherent in heroes, as the peasant sees the devil in the locomotive; others as a force resulting from several other forces, like the movement of the wheels; others
again as an intellectual influence, like the smoke that is blown away.

So long as histories are written of separate individuals, whether Caesars, Alexanders, Luthers, or Voltaires, and not the histories of all, absolutely all those who take
part in an event, it is quite impossible to describe the movement of humanity without the conception of a force compelling men to direct their activity toward a certain
end. And the only such conception known to historians is that of power.

This conception is the one handle by means of which the material of history, as at present expounded, can be dealt with, and anyone who breaks that handle off, as
Buckle did, without finding some other method of treating historical material, merely deprives himself of the one possible way of dealing with it. The necessity of the
conception of power as an explanation of historical events is best demonstrated by the universal historians and historians of culture themselves, for they professedly
reject that conception but inevitably have recourse to it at every step.

In dealing with humanity's inquiry, the science of history up to now is like money in circulation-paper money and coin. The biographies and special national histories are
like paper money. They can be used and can circulate and fulfill their purpose without harm to anyone and even advantageously, as long as no one asks what is the
security behind them. You need only forget to ask how the will of heroes produces events, and such histories as Thiers' will be interesting and instructive and may
perhaps even possess a tinge of poetry. But just as doubts of the real value of paper money arise either because, being easy to make, too much of it gets made or
because people try to exchange it for gold, so also doubts concerning the real value of such histories arise either because too many of them are written or because in his
simplicity of heart someone inquires: by what force did Napoleon do this?-that is, wants to exchange the current paper money for the real gold of actual
comprehension.

The writers of universal histories and of the history of culture are like people who, recognizing the defects of paper money, decide to substitute for it money made of
metal that has not the specific gravity of gold. It may indeed make jingling coin, but will do no more than that. Paper money may deceive the ignorant, but nobody is
deceived by tokens of base metal that have no value but merely jingle. As gold is gold only if it is serviceable not merely for exchange but also for use, so universal
historians will be valuable only when they can reply to history's essential question: what is power? The universal historians give contradictory replies to that question,
while the historians of culture evade it and answer something quite different. And as counters of imitation gold can be used only among a group of people who agree to
accept them as gold, or among those who do not know the nature of gold, so universal historians and historians of culture, not answering humanity's essential question,
serve as currency for some purposes of their own, only in universities and among the mass of readers who have a taste for what they call "serious reading."

Chapter IV

Having abandoned the conception of the ancients as to the divine subjection of the will of a nation to some chosen man and the subjection of that man's will to the
Deity, history cannot without contradictions take a single step till it has chosen one of two things: either a return to the former belief in the direct intervention of the Deity
in human affairs or a definite explanation of the meaning of the force producing historical events and termed "power."
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A return to the first is impossible, the belief has been destroyed; and so it is essential to explain what is meant by power.
Having abandoned the conception of the ancients as to the divine subjection of the will of a nation to some chosen man and the subjection of that man's will to the
Deity, history cannot without contradictions take a single step till it has chosen one of two things: either a return to the former belief in the direct intervention of the Deity
in human affairs or a definite explanation of the meaning of the force producing historical events and termed "power."

A return to the first is impossible, the belief has been destroyed; and so it is essential to explain what is meant by power.

Napoleon ordered an army to be raised and go to war. We are so accustomed to that idea and have become so used to it that the question: why did six hundred
thousand men go to fight when Napoleon uttered certain words, seems to us senseless. He had the power and so what he ordered was done.

This reply is quite satisfactory if we believe that the power was given him by God. But as soon as we do not admit that, it becomes essential to determine what is this
power of one man over others.

It cannot be the direct physical power of a strong man over a weak one-a domination based on the application or threat of physical force, like the power of Hercules;
nor can it be based on the effect of moral force, as in their simplicity some historians think who say that the leading figures in history are heroes, that is, men gifted with a
special strength of soul and mind called genius. This power cannot be based on the predominance of moral strength, for, not to mention heroes such as Napoleon about
whose moral qualities opinions differ widely, history shows us that neither a Louis XI nor a Metternich, who ruled over millions of people, had any particular moral
qualities, but on the contrary were generally morally weaker than any of the millions they ruled over.

If the source of power lies neither in the physical nor in the moral qualities of him who possesses it, it must evidently be looked for elsewhere-in the relation to the
people of the man who wields the power.

And that is how power is understood by the science of jurisprudence, that exchange bank of history which offers to exchange history's understanding of power for true
gold.

Power is the collective will of the people transferred, by expressed or tacit consent, to their chosen rulers.

In the domain of jurisprudence, which consists of discussions of how a state and power might be arranged were it possible for all that to be arranged, it is all very clear;
but when applied to history that definition of power needs explanation.

The science of jurisprudence regards the state and power as the ancients regarded fire-namely, as something existing absolutely. But for history, the state and power
are merely phenomena, just as for modern physics fire is not an element but a phenomenon.

From this fundamental difference between the view held by history and that held by jurisprudence, it follows that jurisprudence can tell minutely how in its opinion
power should be constituted and what power-existing immutably outside time-is, but to history's questions about the meaning of the mutations of power in time it can
answer nothing.

If power be the collective will of the people transferred to their ruler, was Pugachev a representative of the will of the people? If not, then why was Napoleon I? Why
was Napoleon III a criminal when he was taken prisoner at Boulogne, and why, later on, were those criminals whom he arrested?

Do palace revolutions-in which sometimes only two or three people take part-transfer the will of the people to a new ruler? In international relations, is the will of the
people also transferred to their conqueror? Was the will of the Confederation of the Rhine transferred to Napoleon in 1806? Was the will of the Russian people
transferred to Napoleon in 1809, when our army in alliance with the French went to fight the Austrians?

To these questions three answers are possible:

Either to assume (1) that the will of the people is always unconditionally transferred to the ruler or rulers they have chosen, and that therefore every emergence of a new
power, every struggle against the power once appointed, should be absolutely regarded as an infringement of the real power; or (2) that the will of the people is
transferred to the rulers conditionally, under definite and known conditions, and to show that all limitations, conflicts, and even destructions of power result from a
nonobservance by the rulers of the conditions under which their power was entrusted to them; or (3) that the will of the people is delegated to the rulers conditionally,
but that the conditions are unknown and indefinite, and that the appearance of several authorities, their struggles and their falls, result solely from the greater or lesser
fulfillment by the rulers of these unknown conditions on which the will of the people is transferred from some people to others.

And these are the three ways in which the historians do explain the relation of the people to their rulers.

Some historians-those biographical and specialist historians already referred to-in their simplicity failing to understand the question of the meaning of power, seem to
consider that the collective will of the people is unconditionally transferred to historical persons, and therefore when describing some single state they assume that
particular power to be the one absolute and real power, and that any other force opposing this is not a power but a violation of power-mere violence.

Their theory, suitable for primitive and peaceful periods of history, has the inconvenience-in application to complex and stormy periods in the life of nations during which
various powers arise simultaneously and struggle with one another-that a Legitimist historian will prove that the National Convention, the Directory, and Bonaparte
were mere infringers of the true power, while a Republican and a Bonapartist will prove: the one that the Convention and the other that the Empire was the real power,
and that all the others were violations of power. Evidently the explanations furnished by these historians being mutually contradictory can only satisfy young children.

Recognizing the falsity of this view of history, another set of historians say that power rests on a conditional delegation of the will of the people to their rulers, and that
historical leaders have power only conditionally on carrying out the program that the will of the people has by tacit agreement prescribed to them. But what this
program consists in these historians do not say, or if they do they continually contradict one another.

Each historian, according to his view of what constitutes a nation's progress, looks for these conditions in the greatness, wealth, freedom, or enlightenment of citizens of
France or some other country. But not to mention the historians' contradictions as to the nature of this program-or even admitting that some one general program of
these conditions exists-the facts of history almost always contradict that theory. If the conditions under which power is entrusted consist in the wealth, freedom, and
enlightenment of the people, how is it that Louis XIV and Ivan the Terrible end their reigns tranquilly, while Louis XVI and Charles I are executed by their people? To
this question historians reply that Louis XIV's activity, contrary to the program, reacted on Louis XVI. But why did it not react on Louis XIV or on Louis XV-why
should it react just on Louis XVI? And what is the time limit for such reactions? To these questions there are and can be no answers. Equally little does this view
explain why for several centuries the collective will is not withdrawn from certain rulers and their heirs, and then suddenly during a period of fifty years is transferred to
the Convention, to the Directory, to Napoleon, to Alexander, to Louis XVIII, to Napoleon again, to Charles X, to Louis Philippe, to a Republican government, and to
Napoleon III. When explaining these rapid transfers of the people's will from from one individual to another, especially in view of international relations, conquests, and
alliances,
 Copyright the(c)historians are obliged
                   2005-2009,           to admit
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mistakes, on craft, or on the weakness of a diplomatist, a ruler, or a party leader. So that the greater part of the events of history-civil wars, revolutions, and conquests-
are presented by these historians not as the results of free transferences of the people's will, but as results of the ill-directed will of one or more individuals, that is, once
again, as usurpations of power. And so these historians also see and admit historical events which are exceptions to the theory.
should it react just on Louis XVI? And what is the time limit for such reactions? To these questions there are and can be no answers. Equally little does this view
explain why for several centuries the collective will is not withdrawn from certain rulers and their heirs, and then suddenly during a period of fifty years is transferred to
the Convention, to the Directory, to Napoleon, to Alexander, to Louis XVIII, to Napoleon again, to Charles X, to Louis Philippe, to a Republican government, and to
Napoleon III. When explaining these rapid transfers of the people's will from from one individual to another, especially in view of international relations, conquests, and
alliances, the historians are obliged to admit that some of these transfers are not normal delegations of the people's will but are accidents dependent on cunning, on
mistakes, on craft, or on the weakness of a diplomatist, a ruler, or a party leader. So that the greater part of the events of history-civil wars, revolutions, and conquests-
are presented by these historians not as the results of free transferences of the people's will, but as results of the ill-directed will of one or more individuals, that is, once
again, as usurpations of power. And so these historians also see and admit historical events which are exceptions to the theory.

These historians resemble a botanist who, having noticed that some plants grow from seeds producing two cotyledons, should insist that all that grows does so by
sprouting into two leaves, and that the palm, the mushroom, and even the oak, which blossom into full growth and no longer resemble two leaves, are deviations from
the theory.

Historians of the third class assume that the will of the people is transferred to historic personages conditionally, but that the conditions are unknown to us. They say that
historical personages have power only because they fulfill the will of the people which has been delegated to them.

But in that case, if the force that moves nations lies not in the historic leaders but in the nations themselves, what significance have those leaders?

The leaders, these historians tell us, express the will of the people: the activity of the leaders represents the activity of the people.

But in that case the question arises whether all the activity of the leaders serves as an expression of the people's will or only some part of it. If the whole activity of the
leaders serves as the expression of the people's will, as some historians suppose, then all the details of the court scandals contained in the biographies of a Napoleon or
a Catherine serve to express the life of the nation, which is evident nonsense; but if it is only some particular side of the activity of an historical leader which serves to
express the people's life, as other so-called "philosophical" historians believe, then to determine which side of the activity of a leader expresses the nation's life, we have
first of all to know in what the nation's life consists.

Met by this difficulty historians of that class devise some most obscure, impalpable, and general abstraction which can cover all conceivable occurrences, and declare
this abstraction to be the aim of humanity's movement. The most usual generalizations adopted by almost all the historians are: freedom, equality, enlightenment,
progress, civilization, and culture. Postulating some generalization as the goal of the movement of humanity, the historians study the men of whom the greatest number of
monuments have remained: kings, ministers, generals, authors, reformers, popes, and journalists, to the extent to which in their opinion these persons have promoted or
hindered that abstraction. But as it is in no way proved that the aim of humanity does consist in freedom, equality, enlightenment, or civilization, and as the connection of
the people with the rulers and enlighteners of humanity is only based on the arbitrary assumption that the collective will of the people is always transferred to the men
whom we have noticed, it happens that the activity of the millions who migrate, burn houses, abandon agriculture, and destroy one another never is expressed in the
account of the activity of some dozen people who did not burn houses, practice agriculture, or slay their fellow creatures.

History proves this at every turn. Is the ferment of the peoples of the west at the end of the eighteenth century and their drive eastward explained by the activity of Louis
XIV, XV, and XVI, their mistresses and ministers, and by the lives of Napoleon, Rousseau, Diderot, Beaumarchais, and others?

Is the movement of the Russian people eastward to Kazan and Siberia expressed by details of the morbid character of Ivan the Terrible and by his correspondence
with Kurbski?

Is the movement of the peoples at the time of the Crusades explained by the life and activity of the Godfreys and the Louis-es and their ladies? For us that movement of
the peoples from west to east, without leaders, with a crowd of vagrants, and with Peter the Hermit, remains incomprehensible. And yet more incomprehensible is the
cessation of that movement when a rational and sacred aim for the Crusade-the deliverance of Jerusalem-had been clearly defined by historic leaders. Popes, kings,
and knights incited the peoples to free the Holy Land; but the people did not go, for the unknown cause which had previously impelled them to go no longer existed.
The history of the Godfreys and the Minnesingers can evidently not cover the life of the peoples. And the history of the Godfreys and the Minnesingers has remained
the history of Godfreys and Minnesingers, but the history of the life of the peoples and their impulses has remained unknown.

Still less does the history of authors and reformers explain to us the life of the peoples.

The history of culture explains to us the impulses and conditions of life and thought of a writer or a reformer. We learn that Luther had a hot temper and said such and
such things; we learn that Rousseau was suspicious and wrote such and such books; but we do not learn why after the Reformation the peoples massacred one
another, nor why during the French Revolution they guillotined one another.

If we unite both these kinds of history, as is done by the newest historians, we shall have the history of monarchs and writers, but not the history of the life of the
peoples.

Chapter V

The life of the nations is not contained in the lives of a few men, for the connection between those men and the nations has not been found. The theory that this
connection is based on the transference of the collective will of a people to certain historical personages is an hypothesis unconfirmed by the experience of history.

The theory of the transference of the collective will of the people to historic persons may perhaps explain much in the domain of jurisprudence and be essential for its
purposes, but in its application to history, as soon as revolutions, conquests, or civil wars occur-that is, as soon as history begins-that theory explains nothing.

The theory seems irrefutable just because the act of transference of the people's will cannot be verified, for it never occurred.

Whatever happens and whoever may stand at the head of affairs, the theory can always say that such and such a person took the lead because the collective will was
transferred to him.

The replies this theory gives to historical questions are like the replies of a man who, watching the movements of a herd of cattle and paying no attention to the varying
quality of the pasturage in different parts of the field, or to the driving of the herdsman, should attribute the direction the herd takes to what animal happens to be at its
head.

"The herd goes in that direction because the animal in front leads it and the collective will of all the other animals is vested in that leader." This is what historians of the
first class say-those who assume the unconditional transference of the people's will.

 Copyright
"If         (c) leading
    the animals  2005-2009,   Infobase
                         the herd change,Media  Corp. because the collective will of all the animals is transferred from one leader to another, according
                                          this happens                                                                                                  Page    558 /the
                                                                                                                                                          to whether    567
animal is or is not leading them in the direction selected by the whole herd." Such is the reply historians who assume that the collective will of the people is delegated to
rulers under conditions which they regard as known. (With this method of observation it often happens that the observer, influenced by the direction he himself prefers,
"The herd goes in that direction because the animal in front leads it and the collective will of all the other animals is vested in that leader." This is what historians of the
first class say-those who assume the unconditional transference of the people's will.

"If the animals leading the herd change, this happens because the collective will of all the animals is transferred from one leader to another, according to whether the
animal is or is not leading them in the direction selected by the whole herd." Such is the reply historians who assume that the collective will of the people is delegated to
rulers under conditions which they regard as known. (With this method of observation it often happens that the observer, influenced by the direction he himself prefers,
regards those as leaders who, owing to the people's change of direction, are no longer in front, but on one side, or even in the rear.)

"If the animals in front are continually changing and the direction of the whole herd is constantly altered, this is because in order to follow a given direction the animals
transfer their will to the animals that have attracted our attention, and to study the movements of the herd we must watch the movements of all the prominent animals
moving on all sides of the herd." So say the third class of historians who regard all historical persons, from monarchs to journalists, as the expression of their age.

The theory of the transference of the will of the people to historic persons is merely a paraphrase-a restatement of the question in other words.

What causes historical events? Power. What is power? Power is the collective will of the people transferred to one person. Under what condition is the will of the
people delegated to one person? On condition that that person expresses the will of the whole people. That is, power is power: in other words, power is a word the
meaning of which we do not understand.

If the realm of human knowledge were confined to abstract reasoning, then having subjected to criticism the explanation of "power" that juridical science gives us,
humanity would conclude that power is merely a word and has no real existence. But to understand phenomena man has, besides abstract reasoning, experience by
which he verifies his reflections. And experience tells us that power is not merely a word but an actually existing phenomenon.

Not to speak of the fact that no description of the collective activity of men can do without the conception of power, the existence of power is proved both by history
and by observing contemporary events.

Whenever an event occurs a man appears or men appear, by whose will the event seems to have taken place. Napoleon III issues a decree and the French go to
Mexico. The King of Prussia and Bismarck issue decrees and an army enters Bohemia. Napoleon I issues a decree and an army enters Russia. Alexander I gives a
command and the French submit to the Bourbons. Experience shows us that whatever event occurs it is always related to the will of one or of several men who have
decreed it.

The historians, in accord with the old habit of acknowledging divine intervention in human affairs, want to see the cause of events in the expression of the will of
someone endowed with power, but that supposition is not confirmed either by reason or by experience.

On the one side reflection shows that the expression of a man's will-his words-are only part of the general activity expressed in an event, as for instance in a war or a
revolution, and so without assuming an incomprehensible, supernatural force-a miracle-one cannot admit that words can be the immediate cause of the movements of
millions of men. On the other hand, even if we admitted that words could be the cause of events, history shows that the expression of the will of historical personages
does not in most cases produce any effect, that is to say, their commands are often not executed, and sometimes the very opposite of what they order occurs.

Without admitting divine intervention in the affairs of humanity we cannot regard "power" as the cause of events.

Power, from the standpoint of experience, is merely the relation that exists between the expression of someone's will and the execution of that will by others.

To explain the conditions of that relationship we must first establish a conception of the expression of will, referring it to man and not to the Deity.

If the Deity issues a command, expresses His will, as ancient history tells us, the expression of that will is independent of time and is not caused by anything, for the
Divinity is not controlled by an event. But speaking of commands that are the expression of the will of men acting in time and in relation to one another, to explain the
connection of commands with events we must restore: (1) the condition of all that takes place: the continuity of movement in time both of the events and of the person
who commands, and (2) the inevitability of the connection between the person commanding and those who execute his command.

Chapter VI

Only the expression of the will of the Deity, not dependent on time, can relate to a whole series of events occurring over a period of years or centuries, and only the
Deity, independent of everything, can by His sole will determine the direction of humanity's movement; but man acts in time and himself takes part in what occurs.

Reinstating the first condition omitted, that of time, we see that no command can be executed without some preceding order having been given rendering the execution
of the last command possible.

No command ever appears spontaneously, or itself covers a whole series of occurrences; but each command follows from another, and never refers to a whole series
of events but always to one moment only of an event.

When, for instance, we say that Napoleon ordered armies to go to war, we combine in one simultaneous expression a whole series of consecutive commands
dependent one on another. Napoleon could not have commanded an invasion of Russia and never did so. Today he ordered such and such papers to be written to
Vienna, to Berlin, and to Petersburg; tomorrow such and such decrees and orders to the army, the fleet, the commissariat, and so on and so on-millions of commands,
which formed a whole series corresponding to a series of events which brought the French armies into Russia.

If throughout his reign Napoleon gave commands concerning an invasion of England and expended on no other undertaking so much time and effort, and yet during his
whole reign never once attempted to execute that design but undertook an expedition into Russia, with which country he considered it desirable to be in alliance (a
conviction he repeatedly expressed)-this came about because his commands did not correspond to the course of events in the first case, but did so correspond in the
latter.

For an order to be certainly executed, it is necessary that a man should order what can be executed. But to know what can and what cannot be executed is impossible,
not only in the case of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in which millions participated, but even in the simplest event, for in either case millions of obstacles may arise to
prevent its execution. Every order executed is always one of an immense number unexecuted. All the impossible orders inconsistent with the course of events remain
unexecuted. Only the possible ones get linked up with a consecutive series of commands corresponding to a series of events, and are executed.

Our false conception that an event is caused by a command which precedes it is due to the fact that when the event has taken place and out of thousands of others
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                              were consistent    Corp.that event have been executed, we forget about the others that were not executed because they could Pagenot559    / 567
                                                                                                                                                                    be. Apart
from that, the chief source of our error in this matter is due to the fact that in the historical accounts a whole series of innumerable, diverse, and petty events, such for
instance as all those which led the French armies to Russia, is generalized into one event in accord with the result produced by that series of events, and corresponding
unexecuted. Only the possible ones get linked up with a consecutive series of commands corresponding to a series of events, and are executed.

Our false conception that an event is caused by a command which precedes it is due to the fact that when the event has taken place and out of thousands of others
those few commands which were consistent with that event have been executed, we forget about the others that were not executed because they could not be. Apart
from that, the chief source of our error in this matter is due to the fact that in the historical accounts a whole series of innumerable, diverse, and petty events, such for
instance as all those which led the French armies to Russia, is generalized into one event in accord with the result produced by that series of events, and corresponding
with this generalization the whole series of commands is also generalized into a single expression of will.

We say that Napoleon wished to invade Russia and invaded it. In reality in all Napoleon's activity we never find anything resembling an expression of that wish, but find
a series of orders, or expressions of his will, very variously and indefinitely directed. Amid a long series of unexecuted orders of Napoleon's one series, for the
campaign of 1812, was carried out-not because those orders differed in any way from the other, unexecuted orders but because they coincided with the course of
events that led the French army into Russia; just as in stencil work this or that figure comes out not because the color was laid on from this side or in that way, but
because it was laid on from all sides over the figure cut in the stencil.

So that examining the relation in time of the commands to the events, we find that a command can never be the cause of the event, but that a certain definite
dependence exists between the two.

To understand in what this dependence consists it is necessary to reinstate another omitted condition of every command proceeding not from the Deity but from a man,
which is, that the man who gives the command himself takes part in

This relation of the commander to those he commands is just what is called power. This relation consists in the following:

For common action people always unite in certain combinations, in which regardless of the difference of the aims set for the common action, the relation between those
taking part in it is always the same.

Men uniting in these combinations always assume such relations toward one another that the larger number take a more direct share, and the smaller number a less
direct share, in the collective action for which they have combined.

Of all the combinations in which men unite for collective action one of the most striking and definite examples is an army.

Every army is composed of lower grades of the service-the rank and file-of whom there are always the greatest number; of the next higher military rank-corporals and
noncommissioned officers of whom there are fewer, and of still-higher officers of whom there are still fewer, and so on to the highest military command which is
concentrated in one person.

A military organization may be quite correctly compared to a cone, of which the base with the largest diameter consists of the rank and file; the next higher and smaller
section of the cone consists of the next higher grades of the army, and so on to the apex, the point of which will represent the commander in chief.

The soldiers, of whom there are the most, form the lower section of the cone and its base. The soldier himself does the stabbing, hacking, burning, and pillaging, and
always receives orders for these actions from men above him; he himself never gives an order. The noncommissioned officers (of whom there are fewer) perform the
action itself less frequently than the soldiers, but they already give commands. An officer still less often acts directly himself, but commands still more frequently. A
general does nothing but command the troops, indicates the objective, and hardly ever uses a weapon himself. The commander in chief never takes direct part in the
action itself, but only gives general orders concerning the movement of the mass of the troops. A similar relation of people to one another is seen in every combination
of men for common activity-in agriculture, trade, and every administration.

And so without particularly analyzing all the contiguous sections of a cone and of the ranks of an army, or the ranks and positions in any administrative or public
business whatever from the lowest to the highest, we see a law by which men, to take associated action, combine in such relations that the more directly they participate
in performing the action the less they can command and the more numerous they are, while the less their direct participation in the action itself, the more they command
and the fewer of them there are; rising in this way from the lowest ranks to the man at the top, who takes the least direct share in the action and directs his activity
chiefly to commanding.

This relation of the men who command to those they command is what constitutes the essence of the conception called power.

Having restored the condition of time under which all events occur, find that a command is executed only when it is related to a corresponding series of events.
Restoring the essential condition of relation between those who command and those who execute, we find that by the very nature of the case those who command take
the smallest part in the action itself and that their activity is exclusively directed to commanding.

Chapter VII

When an event is taking place people express their opinions and wishes about it, and as the event results from the collective activity of many people, some one of the
opinions or wishes expressed is sure to be fulfilled if but approximately. When one of the opinions expressed is fulfilled, that opinion gets connected with the event as a
command preceding it.

Men are hauling a log. Each of them expresses his opinion as to how and where to haul it. They haul the log away, and it happens that this is done as one of them said.
He ordered it. There we have command and power in their primary form. The man who worked most with his hands could not think so much about what he was doing,
or reflect on or command what would result from the common activity; while the man who commanded more would evidently work less with his hands on account of
his greater verbal activity.

When some larger concourse of men direct their activity to a common aim there is a yet sharper division of those who, because their activity is given to directing and
commanding, take less less part in the direct work.

When a man works alone he always has a certain set of reflections which as it seems to him directed his past activity, justify his present activity, and guide him in
planning his future actions. Just the same is done by a concourse of people, allowing those who do not take a direct part in the activity to devise considerations,
justifications, and surmises concerning their collective activity.

For reasons known or unknown to us the French began to drown and kill one another. And corresponding to the event its justification appears in people's belief that
this was necessary for the welfare of France, for liberty, and for equality. People ceased to kill one another, and this event was accompanied by its justification in the
necessity
 Copyright  for(c)
                 a centralization of power,Media
                   2005-2009, Infobase      resistance to Europe, and so on. Men went from the west to the east killing their fellow men, and the event was accompanied by
                                                   Corp.                                                                                                    Page 560 / 567
phrases about the glory of France, the baseness of England, and so on. History shows us that these justifications of the events have no common sense and are all
contradictory, as in the case of killing a man as the result of recognizing his rights, and the killing of millions in Russia for the humiliation of England. But these
justifications have a very necessary significance in their own day.
For reasons known or unknown to us the French began to drown and kill one another. And corresponding to the event its justification appears in people's belief that
this was necessary for the welfare of France, for liberty, and for equality. People ceased to kill one another, and this event was accompanied by its justification in the
necessity for a centralization of power, resistance to Europe, and so on. Men went from the west to the east killing their fellow men, and the event was accompanied by
phrases about the glory of France, the baseness of England, and so on. History shows us that these justifications of the events have no common sense and are all
contradictory, as in the case of killing a man as the result of recognizing his rights, and the killing of millions in Russia for the humiliation of England. But these
justifications have a very necessary significance in their own day.

These justifications release those who produce the events from moral responsibility. These temporary aims are like the broom fixed in front of a locomotive to clear the
snow from the rails in front: they clear men's moral responsibilities from their path.

Without such justification there would be no reply to the simplest question that presents itself when examining each historical event. How is it that millions of men
commit collective crimes-make war, commit murder, and so on?

With the present complex forms of political and social life in Europe can any event that is not prescribed, decreed, or ordered by monarchs, ministers, parliaments, or
newspapers be imagined? Is there any collective action which cannot find its justification in political unity, in patriotism, in the balance of power, or in civilization? So
that every event that occurs inevitably coincides with some expressed wish and, receiving a justification, presents itself as the result of the will of one man or of several
men.

In whatever direction a ship moves, the flow of the waves it cuts will always be noticeable ahead of it. To those on board the ship the movement of those waves will be
the only perceptible motion.

Only by watching closely moment by moment the movement of that flow and comparing it with the movement of the ship do we convince ourselves that every bit of it is
occasioned by the forward movement of the ship, and that we were led into error by the fact that we ourselves were imperceptibly moving.

We see the same if we watch moment by moment the movement of historical characters (that is, re-establish the inevitable condition of all that occurs-the continuity of
movement in time) and do not lose sight of the essential connection of historical persons with the masses.

When the ship moves in one direction there is one and the same wave ahead of it, when it turns frequently the wave ahead of it also turns frequently. But wherever it
may turn there always will be the wave anticipating its movement.

Whatever happens it always appears that just that event was foreseen and decreed. Wherever the ship may go, the rush of water which neither directs nor increases its
movement foams ahead of it, and at a distance seems to us not merely to move of itself but to govern the ship's movement also.

Examining only those expressions of the will of historical persons which, as commands, were related to events, historians have assumed that the events depended on
those commands. But examining the events themselves and the connection in which the historical persons stood to the people, we have found that they and their orders
were dependent on events. The incontestable proof of this deduction is that, however many commands were issued, the event does not take place unless there are
other causes for it, but as soon as an event occurs-be it what it may-then out of all the continually expressed wishes of different people some will always be found which
by their meaning and their time of utterance are related as commands to the events.

Arriving at this conclusion we can reply directly and positively to these two essential questions of history:

(1) What is power?

(2) What force produces the movement of the nations?

(1) Power is the relation of a given person to other individuals, in which the more this person expresses opinions, predictions, and justifications of the collective action
that is performed, the less is his participation in that action.

(2) The movement of nations is caused not by power, nor by intellectual activity, nor even by a combination of the two as historians have supposed, but by the activity
of all the people who participate in the events, and who always combine in such a way that those taking the largest direct share in the event take on themselves the least
responsibility and vice versa.

Morally the wielder of power appears to cause the event; physically it is those who submit to the power. But as the moral activity is inconceivable without the physical,
the cause of the event is neither in the one nor in the other but in the union of the two.

Or in other words, the conception of a cause is inapplicable to the phenomena we are examining.

In the last analysis we reach the circle of infinity-that final limit to which in every domain of thought man's reason arrives if it is not playing with the subject. Electricity
produces heat, heat produces electricity. Atoms attract each other and atoms repel one another.

Speaking of the interaction of heat and electricity and of atoms, we cannot say why this occurs, and we say that it is so because it is inconceivable otherwise, because it
must be so and that it is a law. The same applies to historical events. Why war and revolution occur we do not know. We only know that to produce the one or the
other action, people combine in a certain formation in which they all take part, and we say that this is so because it is unthinkable otherwise, or in other words that it is a
law.

Chapter VIII

If history dealt only with external phenomena, the establishment of this simple and obvious law would suffice and we should have finished our argument. But the law of
history relates to man. A particle of matter cannot tell us that it does not feel the law of attraction or repulsion and that that law is untrue, but man, who is the subject of
history, says plainly: I am free and am therefore not subject to the law.

The presence of the problem of man's free will, though unexpressed, is felt at every step of history.

All seriously thinking historians have involuntarily encountered this question. All the contradictions and obscurities of history and the false path historical science has
followed are due solely to the lack of a solution of that question.

IfCopyright
   the will of(c) 2005-2009,
               every man wereInfobase
                               free, thatMedia   Corp.
                                         is, if each man could act as he pleased, all history would be a series of disconnected incidents.                   Page 561 / 567

If in a thousand years even one man in a million could act freely, that is, as he chose, it is evident that one single free act of that man's in violation of the laws governing
All seriously thinking historians have involuntarily encountered this question. All the contradictions and obscurities of history and the false path historical science has
followed are due solely to the lack of a solution of that question.

If the will of every man were free, that is, if each man could act as he pleased, all history would be a series of disconnected incidents.

If in a thousand years even one man in a million could act freely, that is, as he chose, it is evident that one single free act of that man's in violation of the laws governing
human action would destroy the possibility of the existence of any laws for the whole of humanity.

If there be a single law governing the actions of men, free will cannot exist, for then man's will is subject to that law.

In this contradiction lies the problem of free will, which from most ancient times has occupied the best human minds and from most ancient times has been presented in
its whole tremendous significance.

The problem is that regarding man as a subject of observation from whatever point of view-theological, historical, ethical, or philosophic-we find a general law of
necessity to which he (like all that exists) is subject. But regarding him from within ourselves as what we are conscious of, we feel ourselves to be free.

This consciousness is a source of self-cognition quite apart from and independent of reason. Through his reason man observes himself, but only through consciousness
does he know himself.

Apart from consciousness of self no observation or application of reason is conceivable.

To understand, observe, and draw conclusions, man must first of all be conscious of himself as living. A man is only conscious of himself as a living being by the fact that
he wills, that is, is conscious of his volition. But his will-which forms the essence of his life-man recognizes (and can but recognize) as free.

If, observing himself, man sees that his will is always directed by one and the same law (whether he observes the necessity of taking food, using his brain, or anything
else) he cannot recognize this never-varying direction of his will otherwise than as a limitation of it. Were it not free it could not be limited. A man's will seems to him to
be limited just because he is not conscious of it except as free.

You say: I am not and am not free. But I have lifted my hand and let it fall. Everyone understands that this illogical reply is an irrefutable demonstration of freedom.

That reply is the expression of a consciousness that is not subject to reason.

If the consciousness of freedom were not a separate and independent source of self-consciousness it would be subject to reasoning and to experience, but in fact such
subjection does not exist and is inconceivable.

A series of experiments and arguments proves to every man that he, as an object of observation, is subject to certain laws, and man submits to them and never resists
the laws of gravity or impermeability once he has become acquainted with them. But the same series of experiments and arguments proves to him that the complete
freedom of which he is conscious in himself is impossible, and that his every action depends on his organization, his character, and the motives acting upon him; yet man
never submits to the deductions of these experiments and arguments. Having learned from experiment and argument that a stone falls downwards, a man indubitably
believes this and always expects the law that he has learned to be fulfilled.

But learning just as certainly that his will is subject to laws, he does not and cannot believe this.

However often experiment and reasoning may show a man that under the same conditions and with the same character he will do the same thing as before, yet when
under the same conditions and with the same character he approaches for the thousandth time the action that always ends in the same way, he feels as certainly
convinced as before the experiment that he can act as he pleases. Every man, savage or sage, however incontestably reason and experiment may prove to him that it is
impossible to imagine two different courses of action in precisely the same conditions, feels that without this irrational conception (which constitutes the essence of
freedom) he cannot imagine life. He feels that however impossible it may be, it is so, for without this conception of freedom not only would he be unable to understand
life, but he would be unable to live for a single moment.

He could not live, because all man's efforts, all his impulses to life, are only efforts to increase freedom. Wealth and poverty, fame and obscurity, power and
subordination, strength and weakness, health and disease, culture and ignorance, work and leisure, repletion and hunger, virtue and vice, are only greater or lesser
degrees of freedom.

A man having no freedom cannot be conceived of except as deprived of life.

If the conception of freedom appears to reason to be a senseless contradiction like the possibility of performing two actions at one and the same instant of time, or of an
effect without a cause, that only proves that consciousness is not subject to reason.

This unshakable, irrefutable consciousness of freedom, uncontrolled by experiment or argument, recognized by all thinkers and felt by everyone without exception, this
consciousness without which no conception of man is possible constitutes the other side of the question.

Man is the creation of an all-powerful, all-good, and all-seeing God. What is sin, the conception of which arises from the consciousness of man's freedom? That is a
question for theology.

The actions of men are subject to general immutable laws expressed in statistics. What is man's responsibility to society, the conception of which results from the
conception of freedom? That is a question for jurisprudence.

Man's actions proceed from his innate character and the motives acting upon him. What is conscience and the perception of right and wrong in actions that follows from
the consciousness of freedom? That is a question for ethics.

Man in connection with the general life of humanity appears subject to laws which determine that life. But the same man apart from that connection appears to free.
How should the past life of nations and of humanity be regarded-as the result of the free, or as the result of the constrained, activity of man? That is a question for
history.

Only in our self-confident day of the popularization of knowledge-thanks to that most powerful engine of ignorance, the diffusion of printed matter-has the question of
the freedom(c)
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                2005-2009,     on a levelMedia
                                         on which the question itself cannot exist. In our time the majority of so-called advanced people-that is, the crowd
                                               Corp.                                                                                                   Pageof562 / 567
ignoramuses-have taken the work of the naturalists who deal with one side of the question for a solution of the whole problem.

They say and write and print that the soul and freedom do not exist, for the life of man is expressed by muscular movements and muscular movements are conditioned
history.

Only in our self-confident day of the popularization of knowledge-thanks to that most powerful engine of ignorance, the diffusion of printed matter-has the question of
the freedom of will been put on a level on which the question itself cannot exist. In our time the majority of so-called advanced people-that is, the crowd of
ignoramuses-have taken the work of the naturalists who deal with one side of the question for a solution of the whole problem.

They say and write and print that the soul and freedom do not exist, for the life of man is expressed by muscular movements and muscular movements are conditioned
by the activity of the nerves; the soul and free will do not exist because at an unknown period of time we sprang from the apes. They say this, not at all suspecting that
thousands of years ago that same law of necessity which with such ardor they are now trying to prove by physiology and comparative zoology was not merely
acknowledged by all the religions and all the thinkers, but has never been denied. They do not see that the role of the natural sciences in this matter is merely to serve as
an instrument for the illumination of one side of it. For the fact that, from the point of view of observation, reason and the will are merely secretions of the brain, and that
man following the general law may have developed from lower animals at some unknown period of time, only explains from a fresh side the truth admitted thousands of
years ago by all the religious and philosophic theories-that from the point of view of reason man is subject to the law of necessity; but it does not advance by a hair's
breadth the solution of the question, which has another, opposite, side, based on the consciousness of freedom.

If men descended from the apes at an unknown period of time, that is as comprehensible as that they were made from a handful of earth at a certain period of time (in
the first case the unknown quantity is the time, in the second case it is the origin); and the question of how man's consciousness of freedom is to be reconciled with the
law of necessity to which he is subject cannot be solved by comparative physiology and zoology, for in a frog, a rabbit, or an ape, we can observe only the muscular
nervous activity, but in man we observe consciousness as well as the muscular and nervous activity.

The naturalists and their followers, thinking they can solve this question, are like plasterers set to plaster one side of the walls of a church who, availing themselves of the
absence of the chief superintendent of the work, should in an access of zeal plaster over the windows, icons, woodwork, and still unbuttressed walls, and should be
delighted that from their point of view as plasterers, everything is now so smooth and regular.

Chapter IX

For the solution of the question of free will or inevitability, history has this advantage over other branches of knowledge in which the question is dealt with, that for
history this question does not refer to the essence of man's free will but its manifestation in the past and under certain conditions.

In regard to this question, history stands to the other sciences as experimental science stands to abstract science.

The subject for history is not man's will itself but our presentation of it.

And so for history, the insoluble mystery presented by the incompatibility of free will and inevitability does not exist as it does for theology, ethics, and philosophy.
History surveys a presentation of man's life in which the union of these two contradictions has already taken place.

In actual life each historic event, each human action, is very clearly and definitely understood without any sense of contradiction, although each event presents itself as
partly free and partly compulsory.

To solve the question of how freedom and necessity are combined and what constitutes the essence of these two conceptions, the philosophy of history can and should
follow a path contrary to that taken by other sciences. Instead of first defining the conceptions of freedom and inevitability in themselves, and then ranging the
phenomena of life under those definitions, history should deduce a definition of the conception of freedom and inevitability themselves from the immense quantity of
phenomena of which it is cognizant and that always appear dependent on these two elements.

Whatever presentation of the activity of many men or of an individual we may consider, we always regard it as the result partly of man's free will and partly of the law of
inevitability.

Whether we speak of the migration of the peoples and the incursions of the barbarians, or of the decrees of Napoleon III, or of someone's action an hour ago in
choosing one direction out of several for his walk, we are unconscious of any contradiction. The degree of freedom and inevitability governing the actions of these
people is clearly defined for us.

Our conception of the degree of freedom often varies according to differences in the point of view from which we regard the event, but every human action appears to
us as a certain combination of freedom and inevitability. In every action we examine we see a certain measure of freedom and a certain measure of inevitability. And
always the more freedom we see in any action the less inevitability do we perceive, and the more inevitability the less freedom.

The proportion of freedom to inevitability decreases and increases according to the point of view from which the action is regarded, but their relation is always one of
inverse proportion.

A sinking man who clutches at another and drowns him; or a hungry mother exhausted by feeding her baby, who steals some food; or a man trained to discipline who
on duty at the word of command kills a defenseless man-seem less guilty, that is, less free and more subject to the law of necessity, to one who knows the
circumstances in which these people were placed, and more free to one who does not know that the man was himself drowning, that the mother was hungry, that the
soldier was in the ranks, and so on. Similarly a man who committed a murder twenty years ago and has since lived peaceably and harmlessly in society seems less guilty
and his action more due to the law of inevitability, to someone who considers his action after twenty years have elapsed than to one who examined it the day after it
was committed. And in the same way every action of an insane, intoxicated, or highly excited man appears less free and more inevitable to one who knows the mental
condition of him who committed the action, and seems more free and less inevitable to one who does not know it. In all these cases the conception of freedom is
increased or diminished and the conception of compulsion is correspondingly decreased or increased, according to the point of view from which the action is regarded.
So that the greater the conception of necessity the smaller the conception of freedom and vice versa.

Religion, the common sense of mankind, the science of jurisprudence, and history itself understand alike this relation between necessity and freedom.

All cases without exception in which our conception of freedom and necessity is increased and diminished depend on three considerations:

(1) The relation to the external world of the man who commits the deeds.

(2) His relation to time.

(3) His relation to the causes leading to the action.
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The first consideration is the clearness of our perception of the man's relation to the external world and the greater or lesser clearness of our understanding of the
definite position occupied by the man in relation to everything coexisting with him. This is what makes it evident that a drowning man is less free and more subject to
(2) His relation to time.

(3) His relation to the causes leading to the action.

The first consideration is the clearness of our perception of the man's relation to the external world and the greater or lesser clearness of our understanding of the
definite position occupied by the man in relation to everything coexisting with him. This is what makes it evident that a drowning man is less free and more subject to
necessity than one standing on dry ground, and that makes the actions of a man closely connected with others in a thickly populated district, or of one bound by family,
official, or business duties, seem certainly less free and more subject to necessity than those of a man living in solitude and seclusion.

If we consider a man alone, apart from his relation to everything around him, each action of his seems to us free. But if we see his relation to anything around him, if we
see his connection with anything whatever-with a man who speaks to him, a book he reads, the work on which he is engaged, even with the air he breathes or the light
that falls on the things about him-we see that each of these circumstances has an influence on him and controls at least some side of his activity. And the more we
perceive of these influences the more our conception of his freedom diminishes and the more our conception of the necessity that weighs on him increases.

The second consideration is the more or less evident time relation of the man to the world and the clearness of our perception of the place the man's action occupies in
time. That is the ground which makes the fall of the first man, resulting in the production of the human race, appear evidently less free than a man's entry into marriage
today. It is the reason why the life and activity of people who lived centuries ago and are connected with me in time cannot seem to me as free as the life of a
contemporary, the consequences of which are still unknown to me.

The degree of our conception of freedom or inevitability depends in this respect on the greater or lesser lapse of time between the performance of the action and our
judgment of it.

If I examine an act I performed a moment ago in approximately the same circumstances as those I am in now, my action appears to me undoubtedly free. But if I
examine an act performed a month ago, then being in different circumstances, I cannot help recognizing that if that act had not been committed much that resulted from
it-good, agreeable, and even essential-would not have taken place. If I reflect on an action still more remote, ten years ago or more, then the consequences of my
action are still plainer to me and I find it hard to imagine what would have happened had that action not been performed. The farther I go back in memory, or what is
the same thing the farther I go forward in my judgment, the more doubtful becomes my belief in the freedom of my action.

In history we find a very similar progress of conviction concerning the part played by free will in the general affairs of humanity. A contemporary event seems to us to
be indubitably the doing of all the known participants, but with a more remote event we already see its inevitable results which prevent our considering anything else
possible. And the farther we go back in examining events the less arbitrary do they appear.

The Austro-Prussian war appears to us undoubtedly the result of the crafty conduct of Bismarck, and so on. The Napoleonic wars still seem to us, though already
questionably, to be the outcome of their heroes' will. But in the Crusades we already see an event occupying its definite place in history and without which we cannot
imagine the modern history of Europe, though to the chroniclers of the Crusades that event appeared as merely due to the will of certain people. In regard to the
migration of the peoples it does not enter anyone's head today to suppose that the renovation of the European world depended on Attila's caprice. The farther back in
history the object of our observation lies, the more doubtful does the free will of those concerned in the event become and the more manifest the law of inevitability.

The third consideration is the degree to which we apprehend that endless chain of causation inevitably demanded by reason, in which each phenomenon
comprehended, and therefore man's every action, must have its definite place as a result of what has gone before and as a cause of what will follow.

The better we are acquainted with the physiological, psychological, and historical laws deduced by observation and by which man is controlled, and the more correctly
we perceive the physiological, psychological, and historical causes of the action, and the simpler the action we are observing and the less complex the character and
mind of the man in question, the more subject to inevitability and the less free do our actions and those of others appear.

When we do not at all understand the cause of an action, whether a crime, a good action, or even one that is simply nonmoral, we ascribe a greater amount of freedom
to it. In the case of a crime we most urgently demand the punishment for such an act; in the case of a virtuous act we rate its merit most highly. In an indifferent case we
recognize in it more individuality, originality, and independence. But if even one of the innumerable causes of the act is known to us we recognize a certain element of
necessity and are less insistent on punishment for the crime, or the acknowledgment of the merit of the virtuous act, or the freedom of the apparently original action.
That a criminal was reared among male factors mitigates his fault in our eyes. The self-sacrifice of a father or mother, or self-sacrifice with the possibility of a reward, is
more comprehensible than gratuitous self-sacrifice, and therefore seems less deserving of sympathy and less the result of free will. The founder of a sect or party, or an
inventor, impresses us less when we know how or by what the way was prepared for his activity. If we have a large range of examples, if our observation is constantly
directed to seeking the correlation of cause and effect in people's actions, their actions appear to us more under compulsion and less free the more correctly we
connect the effects with the causes. If we examined simple actions and had a vast number of such actions under observation, our conception of their inevitability would
be still greater. The dishonest conduct of the son of a dishonest father, the misconduct of a woman who had fallen into bad company, a drunkard's relapse into
drunkenness, and so on are actions that seem to us less free the better we understand their cause. If the man whose actions we are considering is on a very low stage of
mental development, like a child, a madman, or a simpleton-then, knowing the causes of the act and the simplicity of the character and intelligence in question, we see
so large an element of necessity and so little free will that as soon as we know the cause prompting the action we can foretell the result.

On these three considerations alone is based the conception of irresponsibility for crimes and the extenuating circumstances admitted by all legislative codes. The
responsibility appears greater or less according to our greater or lesser knowledge of the circumstances in which the man was placed whose action is being judged, and
according to the greater or lesser interval of time between the commission of the action and its investigation, and according to the greater or lesser understanding of the
causes that led to the action.

Chapter X

Thus our conception of free will and inevitability gradually diminishes or increases according to the greater or lesser connection with the external world, the greater or
lesser remoteness of time, and the greater or lesser dependence on the causes in relation to which we contemplate a man's life.

So that if we examine the case of a man whose connection with the external world is well known, where the time between the action and its examination is great, and
where the causes of the action are most accessible, we get the conception of a maximum of inevitability and a minimum of free will. If we examine a man little dependent
on external conditions, whose action was performed very recently, and the causes of whose action are beyond our ken, we get the conception of a minimum of
inevitability and a maximum of freedom.

In neither case-however we may change our point of view, however plain we may make to ourselves the connection between the man and the external world, however
inaccessible it may be to us, however long or short the period of time, however intelligible or incomprehensible the causes of the action may be-can we ever conceive
either complete
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(1) To whatever degree we may imagine a man to be exempt from the influence of the external world, we never get a conception of freedom in space. Every human
action is inevitably conditioned by what surrounds him and by his own body. I lift my arm and let it fall. My action seems to me free; but asking myself whether I could
inevitability and a maximum of freedom.

In neither case-however we may change our point of view, however plain we may make to ourselves the connection between the man and the external world, however
inaccessible it may be to us, however long or short the period of time, however intelligible or incomprehensible the causes of the action may be-can we ever conceive
either complete freedom or complete necessity.

(1) To whatever degree we may imagine a man to be exempt from the influence of the external world, we never get a conception of freedom in space. Every human
action is inevitably conditioned by what surrounds him and by his own body. I lift my arm and let it fall. My action seems to me free; but asking myself whether I could
raise my arm in every direction, I see that I raised it in the direction in which there was least obstruction to that action either from things around me or from the
construction of my own body. I chose one out of all the possible directions because in it there were fewest obstacles. For my action to be free it was necessary that it
should encounter no obstacles. To conceive of a man being free we must imagine him outside space, which is evidently impossible.

(2) However much we approximate the time of judgment to the time of the deed, we never get a conception of freedom in time. For if I examine an action committed a
second ago I must still recognize it as not being free, for it is irrevocably linked to the moment at which it was committed. Can I lift my arm? I lift it, but ask myself:
could I have abstained from lifting my arm at the moment that has already passed? To convince myself of this I do not lift it the next moment. But I am not now
abstaining from doing so at the first moment when I asked the question. Time has gone by which I could not detain, the arm I then lifted is no longer the same as the arm
I now refrain from lifting, nor is the air in which I lifted it the same that now surrounds me. The moment in which the first movement was made is irrevocable, and at that
moment I could make only one movement, and whatever movement I made would be the only one. That I did not lift my arm a moment later does not prove that I
could have abstained from lifting it then. And since I could make only one movement at that single moment of time, it could not have been any other. To imagine it as
free, it is necessary to imagine it in the present, on the boundary between the past and the future-that is, outside time, which is impossible.

(3) However much the difficulty of understanding the causes may be increased, we never reach a conception of complete freedom, that is, an absence of cause.
However inaccessible to us may be the cause of the expression of will in any action, our own or another's, the first demand of reason is the assumption of and search
for a cause, for without a cause no phenomenon is conceivable. I raise my arm to perform an action independently of any cause, but my wish to perform an action
without a cause is the cause of my action.

But even if-imagining a man quite exempt from all influences, examining only his momentary action in the present, unevoked by any cause-we were to admit so infinitely
small a remainder of inevitability as equaled zero, we should even then not have arrived at the conception of complete freedom in man, for a being uninfluenced by the
external world, standing outside of time and independent of cause, is no longer a man.

In the same way we can never imagine the action of a man quite devoid of freedom and entirely subject to the law of inevitability.

(1) However we may increase our knowledge of the conditions of space in which man is situated, that knowledge can never be complete, for the number of those
conditions is as infinite as the infinity of space. And therefore so long as not all the conditions influencing men are defined, there is no complete inevitability but a certain
measure of freedom remains.

(2) However we may prolong the period of time between the action we are examining and the judgment upon it, that period will be finite, while time is infinite, and so in
this respect too there can never be absolute inevitability.

(3) However accessible may be the chain of causation of any action, we shall never know the whole chain since it is endless, and so again we never reach absolute
inevitability.

But besides this, even if, admitting the remaining minimum of freedom to equal zero, we assumed in some given case-as for instance in that of a dying man, an unborn
babe, or an idiot-complete absence of freedom, by so doing we should destroy the very conception of man in the case we are examining, for as soon as there is no
freedom there is also no man. And so the conception of the action of a man subject solely to the law of inevitability without any element of freedom is just as impossible
as the conception of a man's completely free action.

And so to imagine the action of a man entirely subject to the law of inevitability without any freedom, we must assume the knowledge of an infinite number of space
relations, an infinitely long period of time, and an infinite series of causes.

To imagine a man perfectly free and not subject to the law of inevitability, we must imagine him all alone, beyond space, beyond time, and free from dependence on
cause.

In the first case, if inevitability were possible without freedom we should have reached a definition of inevitability by the laws of inevitability itself, that is, a mere form
without content.

In the second case, if freedom were possible without inevitability we should have arrived at unconditioned freedom beyond space, time, and cause, which by the fact of
its being unconditioned and unlimited would be nothing, or mere content without form.

We should in fact have reached those two fundamentals of which man's whole outlook on the universe is constructed-the incomprehensible essence of life, and the laws
defining that essence.

Reason says: (1) space with all the forms of matter that give it visibility is infinite, and cannot be imagined otherwise. (2) Time is infinite motion without a moment of rest
and is unthinkable otherwise. (3) The connection between cause and effect has no beginning and can have no end.

Consciousness says: (1) I alone am, and all that exists is but me, consequently I include space. (2) I measure flowing time by the fixed moment of the present in which
alone I am conscious of myself as living, consequently I am outside time. (3) I am beyond cause, for I feel myself to be the cause of every manifestation of my life.

Reason gives expression to the laws of inevitability. Consciousness gives expression to the essence of freedom.

Freedom not limited by anything is the essence of life, in man's consciousness. Inevitability without content is man's reason in its three forms.

Freedom is the thing examined. Inevitability is what examines. Freedom is the content. Inevitability is the form.

Only by separating the two sources of cognition, related to one another as form to content, do we get the mutually exclusive and separately incomprehensible
conceptions of freedom and inevitability.

Only by uniting
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                                      conception
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Apart from these two concepts which in their union mutually define one another as form and content, no conception of life is possible.
Only by separating the two sources of cognition, related to one another as form to content, do we get the mutually exclusive and separately incomprehensible
conceptions of freedom and inevitability.

Only by uniting them do we get a clear conception of man's life.

Apart from these two concepts which in their union mutually define one another as form and content, no conception of life is possible.

All that we know of the life of man is merely a certain relation of free will to inevitability, that is, of consciousness to the laws of reason.

All that we know of the external world of nature is only a certain relation of the forces of nature to inevitability, or of the essence of life to the laws of reason.

The great natural forces lie outside us and we are not conscious of them; we call those forces gravitation, inertia, electricity, animal force, and so on, but we are
conscious of the force of life in man and we call that freedom.

But just as the force of gravitation, incomprehensible in itself but felt by every man, is understood by us only to the extent to which we know the laws of inevitability to
which it is subject (from the first knowledge that all bodies have weight, up to Newton's law), so too the force of free will, incomprehensible in itself but of which
everyone is conscious, is intelligible to us only in as far as we know the laws of inevitability to which it is subject (from the fact that every man dies, up to the knowledge
of the most complex economic and historic laws).

All knowledge is merely a bringing of this essence of life under the laws of reason.

Man's free will differs from every other force in that man is directly conscious of it, but in the eyes of reason it in no way differs from any other force. The forces of
gravitation, electricity, or chemical affinity are only distinguished from one another in that they are differently defined by reason. Just so the force of man's free will is
distinguished by reason from the other forces of nature only by the definition reason gives it. Freedom, apart from necessity, that is, apart from the laws of reason that
define it, differs in no way from gravitation, or heat, or the force that makes things grow; for reason, it is only a momentary undefinable sensation of life.

And as the undefinable essence of the force moving the heavenly bodies, the undefinable essence of the forces of heat and electricity, or of chemical affinity, or of the
vital force, forms the content of astronomy, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and so on, just in the same way does the force of free will form the content of history.
But just as the subject of every science is the manifestation of this unknown essence of life while that essence itself can only be the subject of metaphysics, even the
manifestation of the force of free will in human beings in space, in time, and in dependence on cause forms the subject of history, while free will itself is the subject of
metaphysics.

In the experimental sciences what we know we call the laws of inevitability, what is unknown to us we call vital force. Vital force is only an expression for the unknown
remainder over and above what we know of the essence of life.

So also in history what is known to us we call laws of inevitability, what is unknown we call free will. Free will is for history only an expression for the unknown
remainder of what we know about the laws of human life.

Chapter XI

History examines the manifestations of man's free will in connection with the external world in time and in dependence on cause, that is, it defines this freedom by the
laws of reason, and so history is a science only in so far as this free will is defined by those laws.

The recognition of man's free will as something capable of influencing historical events, that is, as not subject to laws, is the same for history as the recognition of a free
force moving the heavenly bodies would be for astronomy.

That assumption would destroy the possibility of the existence of laws, that is, of any science whatever. If there is even a single body moving freely, then the laws of
Kepler and Newton are negatived and no conception of the movement of the heavenly bodies any longer exists. If any single action is due to free will, then not a single
historical law can exist, nor any conception of historical events.

For history, lines exist of the movement of human wills, one end of which is hidden in the unknown but at the other end of which a consciousness of man's will in the
present moves in space, time, and dependence on cause.

The more this field of motion spreads out before our eyes, the more evident are the laws of that movement. To discover and define those laws is the problem of history.

From the standpoint from which the science of history now regards its subject on the path it now follows, seeking the causes of events in man's freewill, a scientific
enunciation of those laws is impossible, for however man's free will may be restricted, as soon as we recognize it as a force not subject to law, the existence of law
becomes impossible.

Only by reducing this element of free will to the infinitesimal, that is, by regarding it as an infinitely small quantity, can we convince ourselves of the absolute
inaccessibility of the causes, and then instead of seeking causes, history will take the discovery of laws as its problem.

The search for these laws has long been begun and the new methods of thought which history must adopt are being worked out simultaneously with the self-destruction
toward which-ever dissecting and dissecting the causes of phenomena-the old method of history is moving.

All human sciences have traveled along that path. Arriving at infinitesimals, mathematics, the most exact of sciences, abandons the process of analysis and enters on the
new process of the integration of unknown, infinitely small, quantities. Abandoning the conception of cause, mathematics seeks law, that is, the property common to all
unknown, infinitely small, elements.

In another form but along the same path of reflection the other sciences have proceeded. When Newton enunciated the law of gravity he did not say that the sun or the
earth had a property of attraction; he said that all bodies from the largest to the smallest have the property of attracting one another, that is, leaving aside the question of
the cause of the movement of the bodies, he expressed the property common to all bodies from the infinitely large to the infinitely small. The same is done by the natural
sciences: leaving aside the question of cause, they seek for laws. History stands on the same path. And if history has for its object the study of the movement of the
nations and of humanity and not the narration of episodes in the lives of individuals, it too, setting aside the conception of cause, should seek the laws common to all the
inseparably interconnected infinitesimal elements of free will.

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From the time the law of Copernicus was discovered and proved, the mere recognition of the fact that it was not the sun but the earth that moves sufficed to destroy the
sciences: leaving aside the question of cause, they seek for laws. History stands on the same path. And if history has for its object the study of the movement of the
nations and of humanity and not the narration of episodes in the lives of individuals, it too, setting aside the conception of cause, should seek the laws common to all the
inseparably interconnected infinitesimal elements of free will.

Chapter XII

From the time the law of Copernicus was discovered and proved, the mere recognition of the fact that it was not the sun but the earth that moves sufficed to destroy the
whole cosmography of the ancients. By disproving that law it might have been possible to retain the old conception of the movements of the bodies, but without
disproving it, it would seem impossible to continue studying the Ptolemaic worlds. But even after the discovery of the law of Copernicus the Ptolemaic worlds were still
studied for a long time.

From the time the first person said and proved that the number of births or of crimes is subject to mathematical laws, and that this or that mode of government is
determined by certain geographical and economic conditions, and that certain relations of population to soil produce migrations of peoples, the foundations on which
history had been built were destroyed in their essence.

By refuting these new laws the former view of history might have been retained; but without refuting them it would seem impossible to continue studying historic events
as the results of man's free will. For if a certain mode of government was established or certain migrations of peoples took place in consequence of such and such
geographic, ethnographic, or economic conditions, then the free will of those individuals who appear to us to have established that mode of government or occasioned
the migrations can no longer be regarded as the cause.

And yet the former history continues to be studied side by side with the laws of statistics, geography, political economy, comparative philology, and geology, which
directly contradict its assumptions.

The struggle between the old views and the new was long and stubbornly fought out in physical philosophy. Theology stood on guard for the old views and accused the
new of violating revelation. But when truth conquered, theology established itself just as firmly on the new foundation.

Just as prolonged and stubborn is the struggle now proceeding between the old and the new conception of history, and theology in the same way stands on guard for
the old view, and accuses the new view of subverting revelation.

In the one case as in the other, on both sides the struggle provokes passion and stifles truth. On the one hand there is fear and regret for the loss of the whole edifice
constructed through the ages, on the other is the passion for destruction.

To the men who fought against the rising truths of physical philosophy, it seemed that if they admitted that truth it would destroy faith in God, in the creation of the
firmament, and in the miracle of Joshua the son of Nun. To the defenders of the laws of Copernicus and Newton, to Voltaire for example, it seemed that the laws of
astronomy destroyed religion, and he utilized the law of gravitation as a weapon against religion.

Just so it now seems as if we have only to admit the law of inevitability, to destroy the conception of the soul, of good and evil, and all the institutions of state and
church that have been built up on those conceptions.

So too, like Voltaire in his time, uninvited defenders of the law of inevitability today use that law as a weapon against religion, though the law of inevitability in history,
like the law of Copernicus in astronomy, far from destroying, even strengthens the foundation on which the institutions of state and church are erected.

As in the question of astronomy then, so in the question of history now, the whole difference of opinion is based on the recognition or nonrecognition of something
absolute, serving as the measure of visible phenomena. In astronomy it was the immovability of the earth, in history it is the independence of personality-free will.

As with astronomy the difficulty of recognizing the motion of the earth lay in abandoning the immediate sensation of the earth's fixity and of the motion of the planets, so
in history the difficulty of recognizing the subjection of personality to the laws of space, time, and cause lies in renouncing the direct feeling of the independence of one's
own personality. But as in astronomy the new view said: "It is true that we do not feel the movement of the earth, but by admitting its immobility we arrive at absurdity,
while by admitting its motion (which we do not feel) we arrive at laws," so also in history the new view says: "It is true that we are not conscious of our dependence, but
by admitting our free will we arrive at absurdity, while by admitting our dependence on the external world, on time, and on cause, we arrive at laws."

In the first case it was necessary to renounce the consciousness of an unreal immobility in space and to recognize a motion we did not feel; in the present case it is
similarly necessary to renounce a freedom that does not exist, and to recognize a dependence of which we are not conscious.

THE END




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